135-612: The Palestinian Youth Movement ( PYM ) is a pro-Palestinian , anti-Zionist , socialist , and anti-imperialist organization with chapters across North America and Europe . The group has participated in political actions with the Party for Socialism and Liberation (PSL) , a communist party in the United States , and the ANSWER Coalition . It is mainly composed of Palestinian and Arab young people . According to Giving Compass ,
270-571: A Supreme Muslim Council (SMC), or Supreme Muslim Sharia Council, on 20 December 1921. The SMC was to have authority over all the Muslim Waqfs (religious endowments) and Sharia (religious law) Courts in Palestine. The members of the council were to be elected by an electoral college and appointed Hajj Amīn as president of the council with the powers of employment over all Muslim officials throughout Palestine. The Anglo American committee termed it
405-489: A constitution , while other uses of "democracy" may encompass direct democracy , in which citizens vote on issues directly. According to the United Nations , democracy "provides an environment that respects human rights and fundamental freedoms, and in which the freely expressed will of people is exercised." One theory holds that democracy requires three fundamental principles: upward control (sovereignty residing at
540-865: A lawspeaker . These deliberative bodies were responsible for settling political questions, and variants included the Althing in Iceland and the Løgting in the Faeroe Islands . The veche , found in Eastern Europe , was a similar body to the Scandinavian thing. In the Roman Catholic Church , the pope has been elected by a papal conclave composed of cardinals since 1059. The first documented parliamentary body in Europe
675-428: A parliamentary or presidential democracy . Most democracies apply in most cases majority rule , but in some cases plurality rule , supermajority rule or consensus rule are applied. They serve the crucial purpose of inclusiveness and broader legitimacy on sensitive issues—counterbalancing majoritarianism —and therefore mostly take precedence on a constitutional level. In the common variant of liberal democracy ,
810-645: A republic , although it didn't have much of a democracy. The Roman model of governance inspired many political thinkers over the centuries. Vaishali , capital city of the Vajjika League (Vrijji mahajanapada ) of India , is considered one of the first examples of a republic around the 6th century BC. Other cultures, such as the Iroquois in the Americas also developed a form of democratic society between 1450 and 1660 (and possibly in 1142 ), well before contact with
945-491: A " right of return " exists either to the occupied territories or to both those areas plus places within Israel itself. Nationalists have additionally worked to advance specific causes in terms of current residents' lives such as freedom of assembly , labor rights , the right to health care , and the right to travel . Divisions between nationalists frequently stir up tense standoffs over particular ideological goals, an example being
1080-688: A Palestinian nationality emerged slowly in the Palestinian refugee diaspora. In 1950 Yasser Arafat founded Ittihad Talabat Filastin . After the 1948 Arab–Israeli War , most of the Husseini clan relocated to Jordan and the Gulf States . Many family heads that remained in the Old City and the northern neighborhoods of East Jerusalem fled due to hostility with the Jordanian government, which controlled that part of
1215-473: A constitution modelled on Pennsylvania's citizenship and democratic suffrage for males with or without property. The United States Constitution of 1787 is the oldest surviving, still active, governmental codified constitution . The Constitution provided for an elected government and protected civil rights and liberties, but did not end slavery nor extend voting rights in the United States , instead leaving
1350-675: A foreign government, being bankrupt, employed as a servant, or having "notoriety for ill deeds". Full universal suffrage was achieved in 1934. In 1893, the self-governing colony New Zealand became the first country in the world (except for the short-lived 18th-century Corsican Republic) to establish active universal suffrage by recognizing women as having the right to vote. 20th-century transitions to liberal democracy have come in successive " waves of democracy ", variously resulting from wars, revolutions, decolonisation , and religious and economic circumstances. Global waves of "democratic regression" reversing democratization, have also occurred in
1485-469: A form of political collectivism because it is defined as a form of government in which all eligible citizens have an equal say in lawmaking . Republics , though often popularly associated with democracy because of the shared principle of rule by consent of the governed , are not necessarily democracies, as republicanism does not specify how the people are to rule. Classically the term " republic " encompassed both democracies and aristocracies . In
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#17330856089571620-575: A minority of Romans were citizens with votes in elections for representatives. The votes of the powerful were given more weight through a system of weighted voting , so most high officials, including members of the Senate , came from a few wealthy and noble families. In addition, the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom was the first case in the Western world of a polity being formed with the explicit purpose of being
1755-535: A modern sense the republican form of government is a form of government without a monarch . Because of this, democracies can be republics or constitutional monarchies , such as the United Kingdom. Democratic assemblies are as old as the human species and are found throughout human history, but up until the nineteenth century, major political figures have largely opposed democracy. Republican theorists linked democracy to small size: as political units grew in size,
1890-481: A nationalist consciousness that is in fact "relatively modern." Khalidi stresses that Palestinian identity has never been an exclusive one, with "Arabism, religion, and local loyalties" playing an important role. He argues that the modern national identity of Palestinians has its roots in nationalist discourses that emerged among the peoples of the Ottoman Empire in the late 19th century which sharpened following
2025-518: A powerful political machine. The Hajj Amin rarely delegated authority, consequently most of the council's executive work was carried out by Hajj Amīn. Nepotism and favoritism played a central part to Hajj Amīn's tenure as president of the SMC, Amīn al-Tamīmī was appointed as acting president when the Hajj Amīn was abroad, The secretaries appointed were ‘Abdallah Shafĩq and Muhammad al’Afĩfĩ and from 1928 to 1930
2160-629: A projected nation of Palestine, an alternative of inclusion in a Greater Syria , an Arab national project, as well as to Islam . He writes that, "local patriotism could not yet be described as nation-state nationalism." Israeli historian Haim Gerber, a professor of Islamic History at Hebrew University of Jerusalem , traces Arab nationalism back to a 17th-century religious leader, Mufti Khayr al-Din al-Ramli (1585–1671) who lived in Ramla . He claims that Khayr al-Din al-Ramli's religious edicts ( fatwa , plural fatawa ), collected into final form in 1670 under
2295-689: A reaction to foreign predominance and the growth of foreign immigration, particularly Zionist . The Egyptian occupation of Palestine in the 1830s resulted in the destruction of Acre and thus, the political importance of Nablus increased. The Ottomans wrested back control of Palestine from the Egyptians in 1840–41. As a result, the Abd al-Hadi clan, who originated in Arrabah in the Sahl Arraba region in northern Samaria , rose to prominence. Loyal allies of Jezzar Pasha and
2430-544: A separate state, with an Arab majority. To further that objective, they demanded an elected assembly. In 1919, in response to Palestinian Arab fears of the inclusion of the Balfour declaration to process the secret society al-Kaff al-Sawada’ (the Black-hand, its name soon changed to al-Fida’iyya , The Self-Sacrificers) was founded, it later played an important role in clandestine anti-British and anti-Zionist activities. The society
2565-675: A serious rift, with long-term consequences for al-Husayni and Palestinian nationalism. According to Sir Louis Bols , great pressure was brought to bear on the military administration from Zionist leaders and officials such as David Yellin, to have the Mayor of Jerusalem, Mousa Kazzim al-Husayni, dismissed, given his presence in the Nabi Musa riots of the previous March. Colonel Storrs , the Military Governor of Jerusalem, removed him without further inquiry, replacing him with Raghib. This, according to
2700-495: A state for the purposes of defending their rights. Particularly important for Locke were property rights, whose protection Locke deemed to be a government's primary purpose. Furthermore, Locke asserted that governments were legitimate only if they held the consent of the governed . For Locke, citizens had the right to revolt against a government that acted against their interest or became tyrannical. Although they were not widely read during his lifetime, Locke's works are considered
2835-492: A strong, authoritarian power. In other words, Hobbes advocated for an absolute monarchy which, in his opinion, was the best form of government. Later, philosopher and physician John Locke would posit a different interpretation of social contract theory. Writing in his Two Treatises of Government (1689), Locke posited that all individuals possessed the inalienable rights to life, liberty and estate (property). According to Locke, individuals would voluntarily come together to form
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#17330856089572970-504: A time of debates over constitutional issues in Athens. Aeschylus also strongly alludes to the word in his play The Suppliants , staged in c.463 BC, where he mentions "the demos's ruling hand" [ demou kratousa cheir ]. Before that time, the word used to define the new political system of Cleisthenes was probably isonomia , meaning political equality. Athenian democracy took the form of direct democracy, and it had two distinguishing features:
3105-625: A website that provides information about nonprofit organizations to prospective donors, PYM was founded in 1982. PYM has participated in the ongoing Israel-Hamas war protests in the United States , including the 2024 Columbia University occupation and the July 2024 protest in Washington D.C. alongside various other groups, and has taken an approach compared to that of New York City anti-Zionist group Within Our Lifetime (WOL) , in refusing to work within
3240-454: Is generally held as the first example of a type of democracy in 508–507 BC was established in Athens. Cleisthenes is referred to as "the father of Athenian democracy ". The first attested use of the word democracy is found in prose works of the 430s BC, such as Herodotus ' Histories , but its usage was older by several decades, as two Athenians born in the 470s were named Democrates, a new political name—likely in support of democracy—given at
3375-485: Is the dominant form. Without compensation, like legal protections of individual or group rights, political minorities can be oppressed by the " tyranny of the majority ". Majority rule involves a competitive approach, opposed to consensus democracy , creating the need that elections , and generally deliberation , be substantively and procedurally "fair" ," i.e. just and equitable . In some countries, freedom of political expression , freedom of speech , and freedom of
3510-814: Is the first instance in modern history where the term 'Palestinian' or 'Filastini' appears in Arabic. He added, though, that the term Palestinian had already been used decades earlier in Western languages by the 1846–1863 British Consul in Jerusalem, James Finn ; the German Lutheran missionary Johann Ludwig Schneller (1820–1896), founder of the Syrian Orphanage ; and the American James Wells. In his 1997 book, Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness , historian Rashid Khalidi notes that
3645-517: Is then decided on how loudly the crowd shouts). Aristotle called this "childish", as compared with the stone voting ballots used by the Athenian citizenry. Sparta adopted it because of its simplicity, and to prevent any biased voting, buying, or cheating that was predominant in the early democratic elections. Even though the Roman Republic contributed significantly to many aspects of democracy, only
3780-620: The Baltics , the Balkans , Brazil , Cuba , China , and Japan , among others. World War II brought a definitive reversal of this trend in Western Europe. The democratisation of the American, British, and French sectors of occupied Germany (disputed ), Austria, Italy, and the occupied Japan served as a model for the later theory of government change . However, most of Eastern Europe , including
3915-618: The Black Hand gang in 1935. Izz ad-Din died in a shootout against the British forces. He has been popularised in Palestinian nationalist folklore for his fight against Zionism . The Great revolt of 1936–1939 was an uprising by Palestinian Arabs in the British Mandate of Palestine in protest against mass Jewish immigration. Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni , a leader of the revolt, was a member of
4050-536: The Democratic Front and the Palestine Communist Party . The UNLU was the focus of the social cohesion that sustained the persistent disturbances. Democracy List of forms of government Democracy (from Ancient Greek : δημοκρατία , romanized : dēmokratía , dēmos 'people' and kratos 'rule') is a system of government in which state power is vested in the people or
4185-580: The Democratic Party . Notably, in 2024 PYM participated in the creation of the first English translation of Wisam Rafeedie's novel The Trinity of Fundamentals , which discusses Palestinian resistance . Rafeedie is member of the PFLP , and a former Palestinian prisoner who was held in Israel . Palestinian nationalism Palestinian nationalism is the national movement of the Palestinian people that espouses self-determination and sovereignty over
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4320-660: The European Union or candidate states . In 1986, after the toppling of the most prominent Asian dictatorship, the only democratic state of its kind at the time emerged in the Philippines with the rise of Corazon Aquino , who would later be known as the mother of Asian democracy . The liberal trend spread to some states in Africa in the 1990s, most prominently in South Africa. Some recent examples of attempts of liberalisation include
4455-1173: The Indonesian Revolution of 1998 , the Bulldozer Revolution in Yugoslavia , the Rose Revolution in Georgia , the Orange Revolution in Ukraine, the Cedar Revolution in Lebanon, the Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan , and the Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia . According to Freedom House , in 2007 there were 123 electoral democracies (up from 40 in 1972). According to World Forum on Democracy , electoral democracies now represent 120 of
4590-764: The Kingdom of Scotland under the Acts of Union . Two key documents of the UK's uncodified constitution , the English Declaration of Right, 1689 (restated in the Bill of Rights 1689 ) and the Scottish Claim of Right 1689 , had both cemented Parliament's position as the supreme law-making body and said that the "election of members of Parliament ought to be free". However, Parliament was only elected by male property owners, which amounted to 3% of
4725-567: The Law and Justice Party ) to the Philippines (under Rodrigo Duterte ). In a Freedom House report released in 2018, Democracy Scores for most countries declined for the 12th consecutive year. The Christian Science Monitor reported that nationalist and populist political ideologies were gaining ground, at the expense of rule of law , in countries like Poland, Turkey and Hungary. For example, in Poland,
4860-714: The Ottoman Empire . This solidified a cooperative relationship with the returning Ottoman authority. The family took part in fighting the Qaisi family in an alliance with a rural lord of the Jerusalem area Mustafa Abu Ghosh , who clashed with the tribe frequently. The feuds gradually occurred in the city between the clan and the Khalidis that led the Qaisis however these conflicts dealt with city positions and not Qaisi-Yamani rivalry. The Husaynis later led resistance and propaganda movements against
4995-547: The Ottoman period (1516–1918), it seems that the first Arab to use the term 'Palestinian' was Farid Georges Kassab, a Beirut -based Orthodox Christian ." He explained further that Kassab’s 1909 book Palestine, Hellenism, and Clericalism noted in passing that "the Orthodox Palestinian Ottomans call themselves Arabs, and are in fact Arabs", despite describing the Arabic speakers of Palestine as Palestinians throughout
5130-532: The Palestine Arab Party who had served as its Secretary-General and had become editor-in-chief of the party's paper Al-Liwa’ as well as of other newspapers, including Al-Jami’a Al-Islamiyya . In 1938, Abd al-Qadir was exiled and in 1939 fled to Iraq where he took part in the Rashid Ali al-Gaylani coup . Muhammad Nimr al-Hawari , who had started his career as a devoted follower of Hajj Amin, broke with
5265-615: The Republic of Florence , established in 1115, was led by the Signoria whose members were chosen by sortition . In the 10th–15th century Frisia , a distinctly non-feudal society, the right to vote on local matters and on county officials was based on land size. The Kouroukan Fouga divided the Mali Empire into ruling clans (lineages) that were represented at a great assembly called the Gbara . However,
5400-402: The Soviet sector of Germany fell into the non-democratic Soviet-dominated bloc . The war was followed by decolonisation , and again most of the new independent states had nominally democratic constitutions. India emerged as the world's largest democracy and continues to be so. Countries that were once part of the British Empire often adopted the British Westminster system . In 1948,
5535-565: The United Kingdom (which originated the Westminster system ), the dominant principle is that of parliamentary sovereignty , while maintaining judicial independence . In India , parliamentary sovereignty is subject to the Constitution of India which includes judicial review . Though the term "democracy" is typically used in the context of a political state , the principles also are potentially applicable to private organisations, such as clubs, societies and firms . Democracies may use many different decision-making methods, but majority rule
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5670-418: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights mandated democracy: 3. The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures. By 1960, the vast majority of country-states were nominally democracies, although most of
5805-405: The V-Dem Democracy indices and The Economist Democracy Index , less than half the world's population lives in a democracy as of 2022 . Although democracy is generally understood to be defined by voting, no consensus exists on a precise definition of democracy. Karl Popper says that the "classical" view of democracy is, "in brief, the theory that democracy is the rule of the people and that
5940-446: The Young Turks who controlled the Ottoman Empire and more so against the British Mandate government and early Zionist immigration. Jamal al-Husayni was the founder and chairman of the Palestine Arab Party (PAP) in 1935. Emil Ghoury was elected as General Secretary, a post he held until the end of the British Mandate in 1948. In 1948, after Jordan had occupied Jerusalem, King Abdullah of Jordan removed Hajj Amīn al-Husayni from
6075-414: The general population of a state. Under a minimalist definition of democracy, rulers are elected through competitive elections while more expansive definitions link democracy to guarantees of civil liberties and human rights in addition to competitive elections. In a direct democracy , the people have the direct authority to deliberate and decide legislation. In a representative democracy ,
6210-426: The interwar period in response to Zionist immigration and settlement." However, this does not make Palestinian identity any less legitimate: "The fact that Palestinian nationalism developed later than Zionism and indeed in response to it does not in any way diminish the legitimacy of Palestinian nationalism or make it less valid than Zionism. All nationalisms arise in opposition to some "other." Why else would there be
6345-509: The random selection of ordinary citizens to fill the few existing government administrative and judicial offices, and a legislative assembly consisting of all Athenian citizens. All eligible citizens were allowed to speak and vote in the assembly, which set the laws of the city-state. However, Athenian citizenship excluded women, slaves, foreigners (μέτοικοι / métoikoi ), and youths below the age of military service. Effectively, only 1 in 4 residents in Athens qualified as citizens. Owning land
6480-467: The region of Palestine . Originally formed in the early 20th century in opposition to Zionism , Palestinian nationalism later internationalized and attached itself to other ideologies; it has thus rejected the occupation of the Palestinian territories by the government of Israel since the 1967 Six-Day War . Palestinian nationalists often draw upon broader political traditions in their ideology , such as Arab socialism and ethnic nationalism in
6615-443: The 192 existing countries and constitute 58.2 per cent of the world's population. At the same time liberal democracies i.e. countries Freedom House regards as free and respectful of basic human rights and the rule of law are 85 in number and represent 38 per cent of the global population. Also in 2007 the United Nations declared 15 September the International Day of Democracy . Many countries reduced their voting age to 18 years;
6750-623: The 1920s and 30s, in the 1960s and 1970s, and in the 2010s. World War I and the dissolution of the autocratic Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires resulted in the creation of new nation-states in Europe, most of them at least nominally democratic. In the 1920s democratic movements flourished and women's suffrage advanced, but the Great Depression brought disenchantment and most of the countries of Europe, Latin America, and Asia turned to strong-man rule or dictatorships. Fascism and dictatorships flourished in Nazi Germany , Italy , Spain and Portugal , as well as non-democratic governments in
6885-497: The 1970s and 1980s. This was followed by countries in East and South Asia by the mid-to-late 1980s. Economic malaise in the 1980s, along with resentment of Soviet oppression, contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union , the associated end of the Cold War , and the democratisation and liberalisation of the former Eastern bloc countries. The most successful of the new democracies were those geographically and culturally closest to western Europe, and they are now either part of
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#17330856089577020-423: The 20th century). In the 1860 United States census , the slave population had grown to four million, and in Reconstruction after the Civil War, three constitutional amendments were passed: the 13th Amendment (1865) that ended slavery; the 14th Amendment (1869) that gave black people citizenship, and the 15th Amendment (1870) that gave black males a nominal right to vote. Full enfranchisement of citizens
7155-457: The Arab states in the June 1967 Six-Day War , brought the West Bank , East Jerusalem and the Gaza Strip under Israeli military control. Yasser Arafat, claimed the Battle of Karameh (May 1968) as a victory (in Arabic , "karameh" means "dignity") and quickly became a Palestinian national hero; portrayed as one who dared to confront Israel. Masses of young Arabs joined the ranks of his group Fatah. Under pressure, Ahmad Shukeiri resigned from
7290-508: The Battle of Karameh there was a subsequent increase in the PLO's strength. In 1974 the PLO called for an independent state in the territory of Mandate Palestine . The group used guerilla tactics to attack Israel from their bases in Jordan , Lebanon , and Syria , as well as from within the Gaza Strip and West Bank. In 1988, the PLO officially endorsed a two-state solution, with Israel and Palestine living side by side contingent on specific terms such as making East Jerusalem capital of
7425-406: The British Mandate period. The dominance of the A’ayan had been encouraged and utilised during the Ottoman period and later, by the British during the Mandate period, to act as intermediaries between the authority and the people to administer the local affairs of Palestine. The al-Husayni family were a major force in rebelling against Muhammad Ali who governed Egypt and Palestine in defiance of
7560-471: The British to establish a "native government," making no further mention of "Southern Syria." The collapse of the Ottoman Empire was accompanied by an increasing sense of Arab identity in the Empire's Arab provinces, most notably Syria , considered to include both northern Palestine and Lebanon . This development is often seen as connected to the wider reformist trend known as al-Nahda ("awakening", sometimes called "the Arab renaissance "), which in
7695-424: The Europeans. This democracy continues to the present day and is the world's oldest standing representative democracy. While most regions in Europe during the Middle Ages were ruled by clergy or feudal lords , there existed various systems involving elections or assemblies, although often only involving a small part of the population. In Scandinavia , bodies known as things consisted of freemen presided by
7830-406: The Government was declared to cover the whole of the former Mandatory Palestine , its effective jurisdiction was limited to the Gaza Strip . The Prime Minister of the Gaza-seated administration was named Ahmed Hilmi Pasha , and the President was named Hajj Amin al-Husseini , former chairman of the Arab Higher Committee . The All-Palestine Government however lacked any significant authority and
7965-425: The Jewish National Fund in July 1930 despite nationalist opposition to such land sales. Tarab ‘Abd al Hadi feminist and activist was the wife of Awni ‘Abd al Hadi, Abd al-Hadi Palace built by Mahmud ‘Abd al Hadi in Nablus stands testament to the power and prestige of the family. Other A’ayan were the Khalidi family, al-Dajjani family, and the al-Shanti family. The views of the A’ayan and their allies largely shaped
8100-401: The Jewish community and the Palestinian Arab community, as the latter had been substantially disarmed. Al-Qadir moved to Egypt in 1946, but secretly returned to Palestine to lead the Army of the Holy War (AHW) in January 1948, and was killed during hand-to-hand fighting against Haganah ; where AHW captured Qastal Hill on the Tel Aviv – Jerusalem road, on 8 April 1948. al-Qadir's death
8235-406: The Ottoman Empire "had not reached significant proportions before the outbreak of World War I." Daniel Pipes asserts that "No 'Palestinian Arab people' existed at the start of 1920 but by December it took shape in a form recognizably similar to today's." Pipes argues that with the carving of the British Mandate of Palestine out of Greater Syria , the Arabs of the new Mandate were forced to make
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#17330856089578370-490: The PLO leadership and in July 1969, Fatah joined and soon controlled the PLO. The fierce Palestinian guerrilla fighting and the Jordanian Artillery bombardment forced the IDF withdrawal and gave the Palestinian Arabs an important morale boost. Israel was calling their army the indomitable army but this was the first chance for Arabs to claim victory after defeat in 1948, 1953, and 1967. After the battle, Fatah began to engage in communal projects to achieve popular affiliation. After
8505-490: The Palestinian Arab community. The Nashashibi family was led by Raghib Nashashibi , who was appointed as Mayor of Jerusalem in 1920. Raghib was an influential political figure throughout the British Mandate period, and helped form the National Defence Party in 1934. He also served as a minister in the Jordanian government, governor of the West Bank, member of the Jordanian Senate, and the first military governor in Palestine. The Tuqan family, originally from northern Syria,
8640-455: The Palestinian state and giving Palestinians the right of return to land occupied by Palestinians prior to the 1948 and 1967 wars with Israel. The First Intifada (1987–1993) would prove another watershed in Palestinian nationalism, as it brought the Palestinians of the West Bank and Gaza to the forefront of the struggle. The Unified National Leadership of the Uprising (UNLU; Arabic al-Qiyada al Muwhhada ) mobilised grassroots support for
8775-416: The Palin report, 'had a profound effect on his co-religionists, definitely confirming the conviction they had already formed from other evidence that the Civil Administration was the mere puppet of the Zionist Organization.' The High Commissioner of Palestine , Herbert Samuel , as a counterbalance the Nashashibis gaining the position of Mayor of Jerusalem, pardoned Hajj Amīn and Aref al-Aref and established
8910-429: The Roman Empire collapsed: Roman territory was conquered by small fragmented groups of Germanic tribes, thus leading to the creation of small political units where rulers were relatively weak and needed the consent of the governed to ward off foreign threats. In Poland , noble democracy was characterized by an increase in the activity of the middle nobility , which wanted to increase their share in exercising power at
9045-461: The Tuqans, they gained the governorship of Jabal Nablus and other sanjaqs . In 1887 the Mutassariflik (Mutasarrifate) of Jerusalem was constituted as part of an Ottoman government policy dividing the vilayet of Greater Syria into smaller administrative units. The administration of the mutasarrifate took on a distinctly local appearance. Michelle Compos records that "Later, after the founding of Tel Aviv in 1909, conflicts over land grew in
9180-408: The archaeological strata that denote the history of Palestine—encompassing the Biblical, Roman, Byzantine, Umayyad, Fatimid, Crusader, Ayyubid, Mamluk and Ottoman periods—form part of the identity of the modern-day Palestinian people, as they have come to understand it over the last century, but derides the efforts of some Palestinian nationalists to attempt to "anachronistically" read back into history
9315-528: The arrival of the British a number of Muslim-Christian Associations were established in all the major towns. In 1919 they joined together to hold the first Palestine Arab Congress in Jerusalem. Its main platforms were a call for representative government and opposition to the Balfour Declaration . The Faisal-Weizmann Agreement led the Palestinian Arab population to reject the Syrian-Arab-Nationalist movement led by Faisal (in which many previously placed their hopes) and instead to agitate for Palestine to become
9450-423: The best they could of their situation, and therefore began to define themselves as Palestinian . Benny Morris concurs, suggesting that the emergence of the Palestinian national identity can be traced through the successive postwar Palestine Arab Congresses . The First Congress , held in January 1919, resolved that "We see Palestine as part of Arab Syria," while the third , meeting in December 1920, called upon
9585-444: The book, Akim Olesnitsky's A Description of the Holy Land , Beidas explained that the summer agricultural work in Palestine began in May with the wheat and barley harvest. After enduring the entire summer with no rain at all—leaving the water cisterns depleted and the rivers and springs dry—"the Palestinian peasant waits impatiently for winter to come, for the season's rain to moisten his fossilized fields." Foster explained that this
9720-511: The boundaries it had during the British Mandate . The original PLO Charter (issued on 28 May 1964 ) stated that "Palestine with its boundaries that existed at the time of the British mandate is an integral regional unit" and sought to "prohibit... the existence and activity" of Zionism. The charter also called for a right of return and self-determination for Palestinians. Defeat suffered by
9855-521: The charter made Mali more similar to a constitutional monarchy than a democratic republic . The Parliament of England had its roots in the restrictions on the power of kings written into Magna Carta (1215), which explicitly protected certain rights of the King's subjects and implicitly supported what became the English writ of habeas corpus , safeguarding individual freedom against unlawful imprisonment with
9990-660: The city; King Abdullah 's assassin was a member of an underground Palestinian organization led by Daoud al-Husayni . The Fatah movement, which espoused a Palestinian nationalist ideology in which Palestinians would be liberated by the actions of Palestinian Arabs, was founded in 1954 by members of the Palestinian diaspora —principally professionals working in the Gulf States who had been refugees in Gaza and had gone on to study in Cairo or Beirut . The founders included Yasser Arafat who
10125-456: The context of Muslim religious nationalism . Related beliefs have shaped the government of Palestine and continue to do so. In the broader context of the Arab–Israeli conflict in the 21st century, Palestinian nationalist aims have included an end to the refugee status of individuals separated from their native lands during the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight , advocates stating that
10260-515: The convention that forbade detention lacking sufficient cause or evidence. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the Bill of Rights was enacted in 1689 which codified certain rights and liberties and is still in effect. The Bill set out the requirement for regular elections, rules for freedom of speech in Parliament and limited the power of the monarch, ensuring that, unlike much of Europe at
10395-644: The courts for the first 130 years after ratification. In 1789, Revolutionary France adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and, although short-lived, the National Convention was elected by all men in 1792. The Polish-Lithuanian Constitution of 3 May 1791 sought to implement a more effective constitutional monarchy , introduced political equality between townspeople and nobility, and placed
10530-543: The demarcation of modern nation-state boundaries in the Middle East after World War I . He acknowledges that Zionism played a role in shaping this identity, though "it is a serious mistake to suggest that Palestinian identity emerged mainly as a response to Zionism." Khalidi describes the Arab population of British Mandatory Palestine as having "overlapping identities", with some or many expressing loyalties to villages, regions,
10665-640: The direction of explicit national rivalry." Zionist ambitions were increasingly identified as a threat by Palestinian leaders, while cases of purchase of lands by Zionist settlers and the subsequent eviction of Palestinian peasants aggravated the issue. The programmes of four Palestinian nationalist societies jamyyat al-Ikha’ wal-‘Afaf (Brotherhood and Purity), al-jam’iyya al-Khayriyya al-Islamiyya (Islamic Charitable Society), Shirkat al-Iqtissad al-Falastini al-Arabi (lit. Arab Palestinian Economic Association) and Shirkat al-Tijara al-Wataniyya al-Iqtisadiyya (lit. National Economic Trade Association) were reported in
10800-510: The divergent political stances of Palestinian Arabs at the time. In 1918, as the Palestinian Arab national movements gained strength in Jerusalem, Jaffa , Haifa , Acre and Nablus , Aref al-Aref joined Hajj Amīn, his brother Fakhri Al Husseini, Ishaaq Darweesh, Ibrahim Darweesh, Jamal al-Husayni , Kamel Al Budeiri , and Sheikh Hassan Abu Al-So’oud in establishing the Arab Club. Following
10935-674: The elected members of the Provincial Administrative Councils would elect members to the first Parliament . Later that year, a new constitution was promulgated, which provided for a bicameral Parliament with a Senate appointed by the Sultan and a popularly elected Chamber of Deputies . Only men above the age of 30 who were competent in Turkish and had full civil rights were allowed to stand for election. Reasons for disqualification included holding dual citizenship, being employed by
11070-456: The expense of the magnates. Magnates dominated the most important offices in the state (secular and ecclesiastical) and sat on the royal council, later the senate. The growing importance of the middle nobility had an impact on the establishment of the institution of the land sejmik (local assembly), which subsequently obtained more rights. During the fifteenth and first half of the sixteenth century, sejmiks received more and more power and became
11205-637: The founding documents of liberal thought and profoundly influenced the leaders of the American Revolution and later the French Revolution . His liberal democratic framework of governance remains the preeminent form of democracy in the world. In the Cossack republics of Ukraine in the 16th and 17th centuries, the Cossack Hetmanate and Zaporizhian Sich , the holder of the highest post of Hetman
11340-481: The governed , voting rights , freedom from unwarranted governmental deprivation of the right to life and liberty , and minority rights . The notion of democracy has evolved considerably over time. Throughout history, one can find evidence of direct democracy, in which communities make decisions through popular assembly . Today, the dominant form of democracy is representative democracy, where citizens elect government officials to govern on their behalf such as in
11475-495: The government but by living in a city that was not subject to another power and by not being subjects themselves to the rule of another person. Range voting appeared in Sparta as early as 700 BC. The Spartan ecclesia was an assembly of the people, held once a month, in which every male citizen of at least 20 years of age could participate. In the assembly, Spartans elected leaders and cast votes by range voting and shouting (the vote
11610-594: The growth of political philosophy on the British Isles. Thomas Hobbes was the first philosopher to articulate a detailed social contract theory . Writing in the Leviathan (1651), Hobbes theorized that individuals living in the state of nature led lives that were "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short" and constantly waged a war of all against all . In order to prevent the occurrence of an anarchic state of nature, Hobbes reasoned that individuals ceded their rights to
11745-504: The gulf between Islamist Palestinians favoring a more authoritarian state compared to centrist and secular Palestinians supporting democratic self-determination . Palestinians favoring nonviolent resistance also frequently clash with those who advocate for and engage in political violence both inside and outside Israel . Zachary J. Foster argued in a 2015 Foreign Affairs article that "based on hundreds of manuscripts, Islamic court records, books, magazines, and newspapers from
11880-533: The influential Husayni family in the early 1940s. The British estimated the strength of the al-Najjada paramilitary scout movement, led by Al-Hawari, at 8,000 prior to 1947. The Nashashibis broke with the Arab High Committee and Hajj Amīn shortly after the contents of the Palestine Royal Commission report were released on 7 July 1937, announcing a territorial partition plan. The split in
12015-440: The issue of suffrage to the individual states. Generally, states limited suffrage to white male property owners and taxpayers. At the time of the first Presidential election in 1789 , about 6% of the population was eligible to vote. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U.S. citizenship to whites only. The Bill of Rights in 1791 set limits on government power to protect personal freedoms but had little impact on judgements by
12150-609: The late 19th century brought about a redefinition of Arab cultural and political identities with the unifying feature of Arabic . Under the Ottomans, Palestine's Arab population mostly saw themselves as Ottoman subjects. In the 1830s however, Palestine was occupied by the Egyptian vassal of the Ottomans, Muhammad Ali and his son Ibrahim Pasha . The Palestinian Arab revolt was precipitated by popular resistance against heavy demands for conscripts, as peasants were well aware that conscription
12285-449: The likelihood increased that the government would turn despotic. At the same time, small political units were vulnerable to conquest. Montesquieu wrote, "If a republic be small, it is destroyed by a foreign force; if it is large, it is ruined by an internal imperfection." According to Johns Hopkins University political scientist Daniel Deudney , the creation of the United States, with its large size and its system of checks and balances,
12420-413: The lowest levels of authority), political equality , and social norms by which individuals and institutions only consider acceptable acts that reflect the first two principles of upward control and political equality. Legal equality , political freedom and rule of law are often identified by commentators as foundational characteristics for a well-functioning democracy. In some countries, notably in
12555-401: The major democracies began to do so in the 1970s starting in Western Europe and North America. Most electoral democracies continue to exclude those younger than 18 from voting. The voting age has been lowered to 16 for national elections in a number of countries, including Brazil, Austria, Cuba, and Nicaragua. In California, a 2004 proposal to permit a quarter vote at 14 and a half vote at 16
12690-401: The medieval period to urban agglomeration and the creation of new classes, such as artisans, as well as the presence of nobility and religious elites. Scholars have also linked the emergence of representative government to Europe's relative political fragmentation. Political scientist David Stasavage links the fragmentation of Europe, and its subsequent democratization, to the manner in which
12825-641: The most important institutions of local power. In 1454, Casimir IV Jagiellon granted the sejmiks the right to decide on taxes and to convene a mass mobilization in the Nieszawa Statutes . He also pledged not to create new laws without their consent. In 17th century England, there was renewed interest in Magna Carta . The Parliament of England passed the Petition of Right in 1628 which established certain liberties for subjects. The English Civil War (1642–1651)
12960-439: The name al-Fatawa al-Khayriyah , attest to territorial awareness: "These fatawa are a contemporary record of the time, and also give a complex view of agrarian relations." The 1670 collection mentions the concepts Filastin , biladuna (our country), al-Sham (Syria), Misr ( Egypt ), and diyar ( country ), in senses that appear to go beyond objective geography. Gerber describes this as "embryonic territorial awareness, though
13095-576: The need to specify who you are? And all nationalisms are defined by what they oppose." Bernard Lewis argues it was not as a Palestinian nation that the Palestinian Arabs of the Ottoman Empire objected to Zionists, since the very concept of such a nation was unknown to the Arabs of the area at the time and did not come into being until later. Even the concept of Arab nationalism in the Arab provinces of
13230-495: The newspaper Filastin in June 1914 by letter from R. Abu al-Sal’ud. The four societies has similarities in function and ideals; the promotion of patriotism, educational aspirations and support for national industries. Palestinian Arab A’ayan ("Notables") were a group of urban elites at the apex of the Palestinian socio-economic pyramid where the combination of economic and political power dominated Palestinian Arab politics throughout
13365-460: The peasants under the protection of the government, mitigating the worst abuses of serfdom . In force for less than 19 months, it was declared null and void by the Grodno Sejm that met in 1793. Nonetheless, the 1791 Constitution helped keep alive Polish aspirations for the eventual restoration of the country's sovereignty over a century later. In the United States, the 1828 presidential election
13500-401: The people choose governing officials through elections to do so. Who is considered part of "the people" and how authority is shared among or delegated by the people has changed over time and at different rates in different countries. Features of democracy oftentimes include freedom of assembly , association , personal property , freedom of religion and speech , citizenship , consent of
13635-472: The people have a right to rule". One study identified 2,234 adjectives used to describe democracy in the English language. Democratic principles are reflected in all eligible citizens being equal before the law and having equal access to legislative processes. For example, in a representative democracy , every vote has (in theory) equal weight, and the freedom of eligible citizens is secured by legitimised rights and liberties which are typically enshrined in
13770-546: The people", in contrast to aristocracy ( ἀριστοκρατία , aristokratía ), meaning "rule of an elite". Western democracy , as distinct from that which existed in antiquity, is generally considered to have originated in city-states such as those in Classical Athens and the Roman Republic , where various degrees of enfranchisement of the free male population were observed. In virtually all democratic governments throughout ancient and modern history, democratic citizenship
13905-416: The period before 1776 the abundance and availability of land meant that large numbers of colonists met such requirements with at least 60 per cent of adult white males able to vote. The great majority of white men were farmers who met the property ownership or taxpaying requirements. With few exceptions, no blacks or women could vote. Vermont , which, on declaring independence of Great Britain in 1777, adopted
14040-534: The population in 1780. The first known British person of African heritage to vote in a general election, Ignatius Sancho , voted in 1774 and 1780. During the Age of Liberty in Sweden (1718–1772), civil rights were expanded and power shifted from the monarch to parliament. The taxed peasantry was represented in parliament, although with little influence, but commoners without taxed property had no suffrage. The creation of
14175-586: The post of Grand Mufti of Jerusalem and banned him from entering Jerusalem. The Nashashibi family had particularly strong influence in Palestine during the British Mandate Period from 1920 until 1948. Throughout this period, they competed with the Husaynis, for dominance of the Palestinian Arab political scene. As with other A’ayan their lack of identification with the Palestinian Arab population allowed them to rise as leaders but not as representatives of
14310-466: The powers of the majority are exercised within the framework of a representative democracy, but a constitution and supreme court limit the majority and protect the minority—usually through securing the enjoyment by all of certain individual rights, such as freedom of speech or freedom of association. The term appeared in the 5th century BC in Greek city-states , notably Classical Athens , to mean "rule of
14445-436: The press are considered important to ensure that voters are well informed, enabling them to vote according to their own interests and beliefs. It has also been suggested that a basic feature of democracy is the capacity of all voters to participate freely and fully in the life of their society. With its emphasis on notions of social contract and the collective will of all the voters, democracy can also be characterised as
14580-607: The ranks of the Arab High Committee (this was nothing more than a group of "traditional notables") between rejectionists and pro Partitionists led to Hajj Amin taking control of the AHC and with the support of the Arab League, rejected the plan, however many Palestinians, principally Nashashibi clan and the Arab Palestinian Communist Party , accepted the plan. The revolt of 1936–1939 led to an imbalance of power between
14715-487: The reference is to social awareness rather than to a political one." Baruch Kimmerling and Joel Migdal consider the 1834 Arab revolt in Palestine as the first formative event of the Palestinian people, whereas Benny Morris attests that the Arabs in Palestine remained part of a larger Pan-Islamist or Pan-Arab national movement. In his book The Israel–Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War , James L. Gelvin states that "Palestinian nationalism emerged during
14850-548: The rest of the book." The Palestinian Arab Christian Falastin newspaper had addressed its readers as Palestinians since its inception in 1911 during the Ottoman period. Foster later revised his view in a 2016 piece published in Palestine Square , arguing that already in 1898 Khalil Beidas used the term "Palestinian" to describe the region's Arab inhabitants in the preface to a book he translated from Russian to Arabic. In
14985-492: The right to appeal. The first representative national assembly in England was Simon de Montfort's Parliament in 1265. The emergence of petitioning is some of the earliest evidence of parliament being used as a forum to address the general grievances of ordinary people. However, the power to call parliament remained at the pleasure of the monarch. Studies have linked the emergence of parliamentary institutions in Europe during
15120-651: The secretary was Hajj Amīn's relative Jamāl al-Husaynī , Sa’d al Dīn al-Khaţīb and later another of the Hajj Amīn's relatives ‘Alī al-Husaynī and ‘Ajaj Nuwayhid , a Druze was an adviser. It was during the British mandate period that politicisation of the Wailing Wall occurred. The disturbances at the Wailing wall in 1928 were repeated in 1929, however the violence in the riots that followed , that left 116 Palestinian Arabs, 133 Jews dead and 339 wounded, were surprising in their intensity. Izz ad-Din al-Qassam established
15255-432: The sense that the people through the assembly, boule and courts of law controlled the entire political process and a large proportion of citizens were involved constantly in the public business. Even though the rights of the individual were not secured by the Athenian constitution in the modern sense (the ancient Greeks had no word for "rights" ), those who were citizens of Athens enjoyed their liberties not in opposition to
15390-419: The short-lived Corsican Republic in 1755 was an early attempt to adopt a democratic constitution (all men and women above age of 25 could vote). This Corsican Constitution was the first based on Enlightenment principles and included female suffrage , something that was not included in most other democracies until the 20th century. Colonial America had similar property qualifications as Britain, and in
15525-532: The time, royal absolutism would not prevail. Economic historians Douglass North and Barry Weingast have characterized the institutions implemented in the Glorious Revolution as a resounding success in terms of restraining the government and ensuring protection for property rights. Renewed interest in the Magna Carta, the English Civil War, and the Glorious Revolution in the 17th century prompted
15660-516: The ultimate authority was held by the Crown and the English Parliament. The Puritans ( Pilgrim Fathers ), Baptists , and Quakers who founded these colonies applied the democratic organisation of their congregations also to the administration of their communities in worldly matters. The first Parliament of Great Britain was established in 1707, after the merger of the Kingdom of England and
15795-627: The uprising. In 1987, The Intifada caught the PLO by surprise, the leadership abroad could only indirectly influence the events. A new local leadership, the UNLU, emerged, comprising many leading Palestinian factions. The disturbances initially spontaneous soon came under local leadership from groups and organizations loyal to the PLO that operated within the Occupied Territories; Fatah, the Popular Front ,
15930-486: The world's populations lived in nominal democracies that experienced sham elections, and other forms of subterfuge (particularly in "Communist" states and the former colonies). A subsequent wave of democratisation brought substantial gains toward true liberal democracy for many states, dubbed "third wave of democracy". Portugal, Spain, and several of the military dictatorships in South America returned to civilian rule in
16065-514: The ‘Abd al Hadi family. The Abd al-Hadis were a leading landowning family in the Palestinian districts of Afula , Baysan , Jenin, and Nablus. Awni established the Hizb al-Istiqlal ( Independence Party ) as a branch of the pan-Arab party. Rushdi Abd al-Hadi joined the British administrative service in 1921. Amin Abd al-Hadi joined the SMC in 1929, and Tahsin Abd al-Hadi was mayor of Jenin. Some family members secretly sold their shares of Zirʿin village to
16200-696: Was a factor in the loss of morale among his forces, Ghuri, who had no experience of military command was appointed as commander of the AHW. Fawzi al-Qawuqji , at the head of the Arab Liberation Army remained as the only prominent military commander. In September 1948, the All-Palestine Government was proclaimed in Egyptian-controlled Gaza Strip, and immediately won the support of Arab League members except Jordan. Though jurisdiction of
16335-409: Was a solution to the dual problems of size. Forms of democracy occurred organically in societies around the world that had no contact with each other. The term democracy first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought in the city-state of Athens during classical antiquity . The word comes from dêmos '(common) people' and krátos 'force/might'. Under Cleisthenes , what
16470-654: Was elected by the representatives from the country's districts. In North America, representative government began in Jamestown, Virginia , with the election of the House of Burgesses (forerunner of the Virginia General Assembly ) in 1619. English Puritans who migrated from 1620 established colonies in New England whose local governance was democratic; although these local assemblies had some small amounts of devolved power,
16605-595: Was established in France in March 1848 in the wake of the French Revolution of 1848 . During that year, several revolutions broke out in Europe as rulers were confronted with popular demands for liberal constitutions and more democratic government. In 1876, the Ottoman Empire transitioned from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional one, and held two elections the next year to elect members to her newly formed parliament. Provisional Electoral Regulations were issued, stating that
16740-638: Was fought between the King and an oligarchic but elected Parliament, during which the idea of a political party took form with groups debating rights to political representation during the Putney Debates of 1647. Subsequently, the Protectorate (1653–59) and the English Restoration (1660) restored more autocratic rule, although Parliament passed the Habeas Corpus Act in 1679 which strengthened
16875-734: Was head of the General Union of Palestinian Students (GUPS) (1952–1956) in Cairo University , Salah Khalaf , Khalil al-Wazir , Khaled Yashruti was head of the GUPS in Beirut (1958–1962). The Palestine Liberation Organisation was founded by a meeting of 422 Palestinian national figures in Jerusalem in May 1964, following an earlier decision of the Arab League , its goal was the "liberation" of "Palestine" with
17010-566: Was in fact seated in Cairo. In 1959 it was officially merged into the United Arab Republic by the decree of Nasser, crippling any Palestinian hope for self governance. With the establishment in 1948 of the State of Israel , along with the migration of the Palestinian exodus , the common experience of the Palestinian refugee Arabs was mirrored in a fading of Palestinian identity. The institutions of
17145-433: Was initially restricted to an elite class, which was later extended to all adult citizens. In most modern democracies, this was achieved through the suffrage movements of the 19th and 20th centuries. Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is not vested in the general population of a state, such as authoritarian systems. World public opinion strongly favors democratic systems of government. According to
17280-628: Was led by Hajj Salih Pasha Tuqan in the early eighteenth century and were the competitors of the Nimr family in the Jabal Nablus (the sub-district of Nablus and Jenin). Members of the Tuqan family held the post of mutasallim (sub-district governor) longer than did any other family in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.The rivalry between the Tuqans and Nimr family continued until the 1820s. Awni Abd al-Hadi of
17415-483: Was little more than a death sentence. Starting in May 1834 the rebels took many cities, among them Jerusalem , Hebron and Nablus . In response, Ibrahim Pasha sent in an army, finally defeating the last rebels on 4 August in Hebron. While Arab nationalism , at least in an early form, and Syrian nationalism were the dominant tendencies along with continuing loyalty to the Ottoman state, Palestinian politics were marked by
17550-408: Was not a requirement for citizenship. The exclusion of large parts of the population from the citizen body is closely related to the ancient understanding of citizenship. In most of antiquity the benefit of citizenship was tied to the obligation to fight war campaigns. Athenian democracy was not only direct in the sense that decisions were made by the assembled people, but also the most direct in
17685-760: Was not secured until after the civil rights movement gained passage by the US Congress of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 . The voting franchise in the United Kingdom was expanded and made more uniform in a series of reforms that began with the Reform Act 1832 and continued into the 20th century, notably with the Representation of the People Act 1918 and the Equal Franchise Act 1928 . Universal male suffrage
17820-570: Was run by the al-Dajjani and al-Shanti families, with Ibrahim Hammani in charge of training and ‘Isa al-Sifri developed a secret code for correspondence. The society was initially based in Jaffa but moved its headquarters to Nablus , the Jerusalem branch was run by Mahmud Aziz al-Khalidi . After the April riots an event took place that turned the traditional rivalry between the Husayni and Nashashibi clans into
17955-450: Was the Cortes of León . Established by Alfonso IX in 1188, the Cortes had authority over setting taxation, foreign affairs and legislating, though the exact nature of its role remains disputed. The Republic of Ragusa , established in 1358 and centered around the city of Dubrovnik , provided representation and voting rights to its male aristocracy only. Various Italian city-states and polities had republic forms of government. For instance,
18090-471: Was the first in which non-property-holding white males could vote in the vast majority of states. Voter turnout soared during the 1830s, reaching about 80% of the adult white male population in the 1840 presidential election . North Carolina was the last state to abolish property qualification in 1856 resulting in a close approximation to universal white male suffrage (however tax-paying requirements remained in five states in 1860 and survived in two states until
18225-495: Was ultimately defeated. In 2008, the German parliament proposed but shelved a bill that would grant the vote to each citizen at birth, to be used by a parent until the child claims it for themselves. According to Freedom House, starting in 2005, there have been 17 consecutive years in which declines in political rights and civil liberties throughout the world have outnumbered improvements, as populist and nationalist political forces have gained ground everywhere from Poland (under
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