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120-492: The original 16th-century palace was accessed through the entrance at Via Malaspina, and was refurbished by the Marquis Luigi Malaspina di Sannazaro (1754-1835). The iron gate is flanked by two converging screens with an eclectic array of decoration. On each side, two columns each flank a marble bust. From the street, the screen on the right has a bust of Boethius , the one on the left depicts Petrarch . One representing

240-649: A Burns Supper , an expensive watch and a day out at the Royal Windsor Horse Show . The Saudi-led coalition was accused of attempting to buy influence in the UK. While the MPs registered the trips and gifts at Westminster as per the rules, critics called it “absolutely shameful” to accept donations from countries with poor human rights records. Police corruption is a specific form of police misconduct designed to obtain financial benefits, personal gain, career advancement for

360-558: A corporation (i.e., a business entity having a separate legal personality from the natural persons that manage its activities), or by individuals acting on behalf of a corporation or other business entity (see vicarious liability and corporate liability ). Some negative behaviours by corporations may not be criminal; laws vary between jurisdictions. For example, some jurisdictions allow insider trading . Petróleo Brasileiro S.A. — Petrobras, more commonly known as simply Petrobras ( Portuguese pronunciation: [ˌpɛtɾoˈbɾas] ),

480-462: A politician or a crime boss bribes a prosecutor to open investigations and file charges against an opposing politician or a rival crime boss, in order to hurt the competition. Governmental corruption of the judiciary is broadly known in many transitional and developing countries because the budget is almost completely controlled by the executive. The latter critically undermines the separation of powers, because it fosters financial dependence on

600-640: A 2017 survey study, the following factors have been attributed as causes of corruption: It has been noted that in a comparison of the most corrupt with the least corrupt countries, the former group contains nations with huge socio-economic inequalities , and the latter contains nations with a high degree of social and economic justice. Social norms have been posited as an explanation for why some environments are corrupt and others are not. Corruption can occur in many sectors, whether they be public or private industry or even NGOs (especially in public sector). However, only in democratically controlled institutions

720-595: A 2022 speech on "Modern Corruption," USAID Administrator Samantha Power stated: "Corruption is no longer just about individual autocrats pilfering their nation's wealth to live large", but also involves sophisticated transnational networks, including financial institutions hidden in secrecy. Responding to Whyte's book, George Monbiot criticized the CPI for its narrow definition of corruption that surveys mostly only Western executives about bribery. Similarly, others point out that "global metrics systematically under-measure 'corruption of

840-568: A clear lack of university autonomy. Both quantitative and qualitative methodologies are employed to study education corruption, but the topic remains largely unattended by the scholars. In many societies and international organizations, education corruption remains a taboo. In some countries, such as certain eastern European countries, some Balkan countries and certain Asian countries, corruption occurs frequently in universities. This can include bribes to bypass bureaucratic procedures and bribing faculty for

960-640: A consul by age 33, and later chosen as a personal advisor to Theodoric the Great . In seeking to reconcile the teachings of Plato and Aristotle with Christian theology , Boethius sought to translate the entirety of the Greek classics for Western scholars. He published numerous transcriptions and commentaries of the works of Nicomachus , Porphyry , and Cicero , among others, and wrote extensively on matters concerning music , mathematics , and theology . Though his translations were unfinished following an untimely death, it

1080-544: A culture of reason. — Johannes Fried , The Middle Ages The method of Boethius' execution varies in the sources. He may have been beheaded , clubbed to death, or hanged. It is likely that he was tortured with a rope that was constricted around his head, bludgeoned until his eyes bulged out; then his skull was cracked. Following an agonizing death, his remains were entombed in the church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia, also

1200-661: A newer literature has turned to money politics in wealthy democracies and extreme global inequalities. Simon Weschle at Syracuse University examines the prevalence of campaign finance and its consequences for democracy. Kristin Surak at the London School of Economics explores the controversial practice of millionaires buying "golden passports" with no intention of actually migrating. In her words, "a full-blown citizenship industry that thrives on global inequalities" has arisen." While not necessarily involving bribery, recent research documents

1320-521: A palace in Italy is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Boethius Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius , commonly known simply as Boethius ( / b oʊ ˈ iː θ i ə s / ; Latin : Boetius ; c. 480–524 AD), was a Roman senator , consul , magister officiorum , polymath, historian, and philosopher of the Early Middle Ages . He was a central figure in the translation of

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1440-443: A person or an organization that is entrusted in a position of authority to acquire illicit benefits or abuse power for one's gain. Corruption may involve activities like bribery , influence peddling , and embezzlement , as well as practices that are legal in many countries, such as lobbying . Political corruption occurs when an office-holder or other governmental employee acts in an official capacity for personal gain. Corruption

1560-579: A police officer or officers in exchange for not pursuing or selectively pursuing an investigation or arrest or aspects of the " thin blue line " itself where force members collude in lies to protect their precincts , unions and/or other law enforcement members from accountability. One common form of police corruption is soliciting or accepting bribes in exchange for not reporting organized drug or prostitution rings or other illegal activities. When civilians become witnesses to police brutality , officers are often known to respond by harassing and intimidating

1680-412: A professor of politics , wrote that political corruption is the illegitimate use of public power to benefit a private interest. Economist Ian Senior defined corruption as an action to secretly provide a good or a service to a third party to influence certain actions which benefit the corrupt, a third party, or both in which the corrupt agent has authority. World Bank economist Daniel Kaufmann extended

1800-567: A report claiming the Emirati city, Dubai , of being an enabler of global corruption, crime and illicit financial flows . It stated that the global corrupt and criminal actors either operated through or from Dubai. The city was also called a haven for trade-based money laundering , as it gives space to free trade zones, with minimal regulatory laws and customs enforcement. A report in September 2022 revealed that British Members of Parliament received

1920-409: A small number of people (petty corruption), to corruption that affects the government on a large scale (grand corruption), and corruption that is so prevalent that it is part of the everyday structure of society, including corruption as one of the symptoms of organized crime (systemic corruption). "Corruption of the rich" is particularly hard to measure and largely excluded from conventional metrics like

2040-571: A total of £828,211 over a period of eight years from countries of the Saudi-led coalition in the Yemeni Civil War . The money was granted in the form of all-expenses-paid trips to 96 MPs by Saudi Arabia (at least £319,406), Bahrain (£197,985), the United Arab Emirates (£187,251), Egypt (£66,695) and Kuwait (£56,872). MPs also received gifts, including a £500 food hamper, tickets for

2160-411: A variety of fields including music, mathematics, astrology, and theology. Taking inspiration from Plato's Republic , Boethius left his scholarly pursuits to enter the service of Theodoric the Great . The two had first met in the year 500 when Theodoric traveled to Rome to stay for six months. Though no record survives detailing the early relationship between Theodoric and Boethius, it is clear that

2280-464: A very similar, but more advanced solution for 4,500 euros. Because of the inflated cost of the outdoor toilet, it was nicknamed the "Golden Toilet". Despite the investment, the "Golden Toilet" remained closed for years due to the dysfunctionality and was a subject of a lengthy anti-corruption investigation into those who had created it and the local municipality even considered demolishing the building at one point. The group of public servants involved in

2400-624: A woman of wisdom and compassion. "Alternately composed in prose and verse, the Consolation teaches acceptance of hardship in a spirit of philosophical detachment from misfortune". Parts of the work are reminiscent of the Socratic method of Plato's dialogues, as the spirit of philosophy questions Boethius and challenges his emotional reactions to adversity. The work was translated into Old English by King Alfred and later into English by Chaucer and Queen Elizabeth . Many manuscripts survive and it

2520-400: Is 23 October, provided by some as a date for his death. In the current Martyrologium Romanum , his feast is still restricted to that diocese. Pope Benedict XVI explained the relevance of Boethius to modern-day Christians by linking his teachings to an understanding of Providence. Corruption Corruption is a form of dishonesty or a criminal offense that is undertaken by

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2640-673: Is a privately held Brazilian conglomerate consisting of businesses in the fields of engineering, real estate , construction, chemicals and petrochemicals . The company was founded in 1944 in Salvador da Bahia by Norberto Odebrecht , and the firm is now present in South America, Central America, North America, the Caribbean, Africa, Europe and the Middle East. Its leading company is Norberto Odebrecht Construtora  [ pt ] . Odebrecht

2760-549: Is a second kind of Topic, which he calls the differentia of a maximal proposition. Maximal propositions are "propositions [that are] known per se, and no proof can be found for these." This is the basis for the idea that demonstration (or the construction of arguments) is dependent ultimately upon ideas or proofs that are known so well and are so fundamental to human understanding of logic that no other proofs come before it. They must hold true in and of themselves. According to Stump, "the role of maximal propositions in argumentation

2880-487: Is a semi-public Brazilian multinational corporation in the petroleum industry headquartered in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil . The company's name translates to Brazilian Petroleum Corporation – Petrobras. The company was ranked No. 58 in the 2016 Fortune Global 500 list. From 2014 to 2021, an investigation known as Operation Car Wash examined allegations of corporate and political collusion and corruption by Petrobras. Odebrecht

3000-504: Is a well known and now global form of political corruption, being the unscrupulous and illegal use of a politician's authority for personal gain, when funds intended for public projects are intentionally misdirected in order to maximize the benefits to illegally private interests of the corrupted individual(s) and their cronies. In some cases government institutions are "repurposed" or shifted away from their official mandate to serve other, often corrupt purposes. The Kaunas golden toilet case

3120-690: Is difficult to completely eradicate, even in developed countries. Military corruption refers to the abuse of power by members in the armed forces, in order for career advancement or for personal gain by a soldier or soldiers. One form of military corruption in the United States Armed Forces is a military soldier being promoted in rank or being given better treatment than their colleagues by their officers due to their race , sexual orientation , ethnicity , gender , religious beliefs , social class or personal relationships with higher-ranking officers in spite of their merit. In addition to that,

3240-618: Is disputed about this sequence of events is the interpretation that should be put on them." Boethius claims his crime was seeking "the safety of the Senate". He describes the three witnesses against him as dishonorable: Basilius had been dismissed from Royal service for his debts, while Venantius Opilio and Gaudentius had been exiled for fraud. However, other sources depict these men in a far more positive light. For example, Cassiodorus describes Cyprianus and Opilio as "utterly scrupulous, just and loyal" and mentions they are brothers and grandsons of

3360-524: Is distinct with widespread bribery, corruption in the US and the UK features a significant amount of fraud. The US is distinct with grey areas and institutional corruption in the higher education sector. Authoritarian regimes, including those in former Soviet republics, encourage educational corruption and control universities, especially during the election campaigns. This is typical for Russia, Ukraine, and Central Asian regimes, among others. The general public

3480-418: Is divided into the legislative, executive and judicial branches in an attempt to provide independent services that are less subject to grand corruption due to their independence from one another. Systemic corruption (or endemic corruption ) is corruption which is primarily due to the weaknesses of an organization or process. It can be contrasted with individual officials or agents who act corruptly within

3600-497: Is enormous." It was also in De Topicis Differentiis that Boethius made a unique contribution to the discourse on dialectic and rhetoric. Topical argumentation for Boethius is dependent upon a new category for the topics discussed by Aristotle and Cicero, and "[u]nlike Aristotle, Boethius recognizes two different types of Topics. First, he says, a Topic is a maximal proposition ( maxima propositio ), or principle; but there

3720-610: Is found in acquaintances. Acquaintances are treated with trust and respect—a level of trust that is not found among acquaintances in countries like the United States. This is what permits for corruption in Latin American countries. If there is a strong enough trust within an administration that no one will betray the rest, corruptive policies will take place with ease. While petty, grand, and systemic corruption, described above, are largely found in poor countries with weak institutions,

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3840-646: Is largely a response to Cicero 's Topica . The first book of In Ciceronis Topica begins with a dedication to Patricius. It includes distinctions and assertions important to Boethius's overall philosophy, such as his view of the role of philosophy as "establish[ing] our judgment concerning the governing of life", and definitions of logic from Plato, Aristotle and Cicero. He breaks logic into three parts: that which defines, that which divides, and that which deduces. He asserts that there are three types of arguments: those of necessity, of ready believability, and sophistry. He follows Aristotle in defining one sort of Topic as

3960-526: Is largely due to them that the works of Aristotle survived into the Renaissance . Despite his successes as a senior official, Boethius became deeply unpopular among other members of the Ostrogothic court for denouncing the extensive corruption prevalent among other members of government. After publicly defending fellow consul Caecina Albinus from charges of conspiracy , he was imprisoned by Theodoric around

4080-435: Is less a tax than an investment... making it more sludge than grease." The Unbundled Corruption Index measures the prevalence of these four types of corruption. Whereas corruption with theft and speed money is endemic in poor countries, access money can be found in both poor and rich countries. Petty corruption occurs at a smaller scale and takes place at the implementation end of public services when public officials meet

4200-488: Is necessary to understand Boethius as separate from past rhetorical theories. Maximal propositions and Differentiae belong not only to rhetoric, but also to dialectic. Boethius defines dialectic through an analysis of "thesis" and hypothetical propositions. He claims that "[t]here are two kinds of questions. One is that called, 'thesis' by the [Greek] dialecticians. This is the kind of question which asks about and discusses things stripped of relation to other circumstances; it

4320-536: Is no known surviving translation, if it was actually ever begun. Boethius chose to pass on the great Greco-Roman culture to future generations by writing manuals on music, astronomy, geometry and arithmetic. Several of Boethius' writings, which were hugely influential during the Middle Ages, drew on the thinking of Porphyry and Iamblichus . Boethius wrote a commentary on the Isagoge by Porphyry , which highlighted

4440-432: Is one of the 25 largest international construction companies and led by Odebrecht family. In 2016, the firm's executives were examined during Operation Car Wash part of an investigation over Odebrecht Organization bribes to executives of Petrobras, in exchange for contracts and influence. Operation Car Wash is an ongoing criminal money laundering and bribes related corporate crime investigation being carried out by

4560-510: Is perceived as most common in kleptocracies , oligarchies , narco-states , and mafia states , however, more recent research and policy statements acknowledge that it also exists in wealthy capitalist economies. In How Corrupt is Britain , David Whyte reveals that corruption exists "across a wide range of venerated institutions" in the UK, ranked as one of the least corrupt countries by the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI). In

4680-456: Is permitted as a result of the cultural norms of the institution. In countries like the United States, there is a relatively strong sense of trust among strangers, one that is not found in Latin American countries. In Latin American countries, this trust does not exist, whereas the social norms imply that no stranger is responsible for the wellbeing or happiness of another stranger. Instead, the trust

4800-437: Is the kind of corruption associated with the "efficient grease hypothesis," which economists found burdensome to businesses in practice. Ang defines access money as "high-stakes rewards extended by business actors to powerful officials, not just for speed, but to access exclusive, valuable privileges." Most theories about bribery focus on speed money, but neglects access money. "From a businessperson's point of view, access money

4920-508: Is the sort of question dialecticians most frequently dispute about—for example, 'Is pleasure the greatest good?' [or] 'Should one marry?'. " Dialectic has "dialectical topics" as well as "dialectical-rhetorical topics", all of which are still discussed in De Topicis Differentiis . Dialectic, especially in Book   I, comprises a major component of Boethius' discussion on Topics. Boethius planned to completely translate Plato's Dialogues , but there

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5040-561: Is there an interest of the public (owner) to develop internal mechanisms to fight active or passive corruption, whereas in private industry as well as in NGOs there is no public control. Therefore, the owners' investors' or sponsors' profits are largely decisive. Public corruption includes corruption of the political process and of government agencies such as tax collectors and the police, as well as corruption in processes of allocating public funds for contracts, grants, and hiring. Recent research by

5160-476: Is to ensure the truth of a conclusion by ensuring the truth of its premises either directly or indirectly." These propositions would be used in constructing arguments through the Differentia , which is the second part of Boethius' theory. This is "the genus of the intermediate in the argument." So maximal propositions allow room for an argument to be founded in some sense of logic while differentia are critical for

5280-399: Is unambiguously associated with corruption, whereas mineral exports only increased corruption in poorer countries. In wealthier countries, mineral exports such as gold and diamonds are actually associated with reduced corruption. The international Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative seeks to create best practices for good governance of gas, oil, and minerals, particularly focusing on

5400-431: Is well aware of the high level of corruption in colleges and universities, including thanks to the media. Doctoral education is no exception, with dissertations and doctoral degrees available for sale, including for politicians. Russian Parliament is notorious for "highly educated" MPs High levels of corruption are a result of universities not being able to break away from their Stalinist past, over bureaucratization, and

5520-482: Is when white supremacist groups, such as Neo-Nazi Skinheads or Neo-Confederates (such as the Ku Klux Klan ), recruit members of law enforcement into their ranks or encourage their members to join local police departments to repress minorities and covertly promote white supremacy. Another example is police officers flouting the police code of conduct in order to secure convictions of suspects—for example, through

5640-697: The East–West Schism in 1054, in which communion between the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church was broken. In 523, Boethius fell from power. After a period of imprisonment in Pavia for what was deemed a treasonable offence, he was executed in 524. The primary sources are in general agreement over the facts of what happened. At a meeting of the Royal Council in Verona, the referendarius Cyprianus accused

5760-460: The Federal Police of Brazil , Curitiba Branch, and judicially commanded by Judge Sergio Moro since 17 March 2014. Corruption in education is a worldwide phenomenon. Corruption in admissions to universities is traditionally considered one of the most corrupt areas of the education sector. Recent attempts in some countries, such as Russia and Ukraine, to curb corruption in admissions through

5880-656: The Greek classics into Latin, a precursor to the Scholastic movement , and, along with Cassiodorus , one of the two leading Christian scholars of the 6th century. The local cult of Boethius in the Diocese of Pavia was sanctioned by the Sacred Congregation of Rites in 1883, confirming the diocese's custom of honouring him on the 23 October. Boethius was born in Rome a few years after

6000-563: The Neoplatonist philosopher Ammonius Hermiae . However, Historian John Moorhead observes that the evidence supporting Boethius having studied in Alexandria is "not as strong as it may appear," adding that he may have been able to acquire his formidable learning without travelling. Whatever the case, Boethius' fluency in Greek proved useful throughout his life in translating the classic works of Greek thinkers, though his interests spanned across

6120-490: The abuse of prisoners . Another form of misconduct is probation officers taking bribes in exchange for allowing paroles to violate the terms of their probation or abusing their paroles. More rarely, police officers may deliberately and systematically participate in organized crime themselves, either while on the job or during off hours. In most major cities, there are internal affairs sections to investigate suspected police corruption or misconduct. Similar entities include

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6240-481: The leaders of criminal enterprises as well as their criminal organizations , with the use of unethical and/or illegal conduct such as making false or misleading statements, hiding evidence from prosecutors, failing to disclose all relevant facts about the case, or even giving clients advice on how to commit crimes in ways that would make prosecution more difficult for any investigating authorities. In criminology , corporate crime refers to crimes committed either by

6360-485: The post-Soviet states both types occur. Some scholars argue that there is a negative duty of western governments to protect against systematic corruption of underdeveloped governments. Corruption has been a major issue in China, where society depends heavily on personal relationships. By the late 20th century that combined with the new lust for wealth, produced escalating corruption. Historian Keith Schoppa says that bribery

6480-572: The "last of the Roman philosophers and the first of the scholastic theologians". Despite the use of his mathematical texts in the early universities, it is his final work, the Consolation of Philosophy , that assured his legacy in the Middle Ages and beyond. This work is cast as a dialogue between Boethius himself, at first bitter and despairing over his imprisonment, and the spirit of philosophy, depicted as

6600-541: The British Independent Police Complaints Commission . Private sector corruption occurs when any institution, entity or person that is not controlled by the public sector company, household and institution that is not controlled by the public sector engages in corrupt acts. Private sector corruption may overlap with public sector corruption, for example when a private entity operates in conjunction with corrupt government officials, or where

6720-634: The Burgundians, and to recruit a lyre-player to perform for Clovis , King of the Franks . Boethius writes in the Consolation that, despite his own successes, he believed that his greatest achievement came when both his sons were selected by Theodoric to be consuls in 522, with each representing the whole of the Roman Empire . The appointment of his sons was an exceptional honor, not only since it made conspicuous Theodoric's favor for Boethius, but also because

6840-488: The Byzantine emperor Justin I had forfeited his own nomination as a sign of goodwill, thus also endorsing Boethius' sons. In the same year as the appointment of his sons, Boethius was elevated to the position of magister officiorum , becoming the head of all government and palace affairs. Recalling the event, he wrote that he was sitting "between the two consuls as if it were a military triumph, [letting my] largesse fulfill

6960-736: The CPI. A number of indicators and tools have been developed which can measure different forms of corruption with increasing accuracy; but when those are impractical, one study suggests looking at bodyfat as a rough guide after finding that obesity of cabinet ministers in post-Soviet states was highly correlated with more accurate measures of corruption. Political economist Yuen Yuen Ang "unbundles corruption" into four types, encompassing both petty and grand corruption as well as legal and illegal versions: petty theft, grand theft, speed money, access money. According to her definition, speed money "means petty bribes that businesses or citizens pay to bureaucrats to get around hurdles or speed things up." This

7080-539: The Mediaeval Libraries , James Stuart Beddie cites Boethius as the reason Aristotle's works were popular in the Middle Ages, as Boethius preserved many of the philosopher's works. Boethius' De institutione musica or De musica was one of the first musical texts to be printed in Venice between the years of 1491 and 1492. It was written toward the beginning of the sixth century and helped medieval theorists during

7200-434: The Ostrogothic king viewed him favorably. In the next few years, Boethius rapidly ascended through the ranks of government, becoming a senator by age 25 and a consul by the year 510. His earliest documented acts on behalf of the Ostrogothic ruler were to investigate allegations that the paymaster of Theodoric's bodyguards had debased the coins of their pay, to produce a waterclock for Theodoric to gift to king Gundobad of

7320-657: The UK is a developed economy with a robust democracy, and yet London is a hub for money laundering. In a critique of the failures and politics leading up to the US financial crisis, a Stanford financial economist noted, "In the real world, it turned out, important economic outcomes are often the consequences of political forces. During 2010, people within regulatory bodies told me privately that false and misleading claims were affecting key policy decisions... I saw confusion, willful blindness, political forces, various and sometimes subtle forms of corruption, and moral disengagement, first hand." Per R. Klitgaard corruption will occur if

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7440-517: The US military has also had many instances of officers sexually assaulting fellow officers and in many cases, there were allegations that many of the attacks were covered up and victims were coerced to remain silent by officers of the same rank or of higher rank. Another example of military corruption, is a military officer or officers using the power of their positions to commit activities that are illegal, such as skimming logistical supplies such as food, medicine, fuel, body armor or weapons to sell on

7560-640: The World Bank suggests that who makes policy decisions (elected officials or bureaucrats) can be critical in determining the level of corruption because of the incentives different policy-makers face. Judicial corruption refers to the corruption-related misconduct of judges , through the receiving or giving of bribes, the improper sentencing of convicted criminals, bias in the hearing and judgement of arguments and other forms of misconduct. Judicial corruption can also be conducted by prosecutors and defense attorneys. An example of prosecutorial misconduct , occurs when

7680-506: The abolition of university entrance examinations and introduction of standardized computer-graded tests have met backlash from part of society, while others appreciate the changes. Vouchers for university entrants have never materialized. The cost of corruption is that it impedes sustainable economic growth. Endemic corruption in educational institutions leads to the formation of sustainable corrupt hierarchies. While higher education in Russia

7800-587: The adaptation of measures to combat climate change . Political corruption is the abuse of public power, office, or resources by elected government officials for personal gain, by extortion, soliciting or offering bribes. It can also take the form of office holders maintaining themselves in office by purchasing votes by enacting laws which use taxpayers' money. Evidence suggests that corruption can have political consequences- with citizens being asked for bribes becoming less likely to identify with their country or region. The political act of "graft" (American English),

7920-424: The concept to include "legal corruption" in which power is abused within the confines of the law—as those with power often have the ability to make laws for their protection. The effect of corruption in infrastructure is to increase costs and construction time, lower the quality and decrease the benefit. Corruption is a complex phenomenon and can occur on different scales. Corruption ranges from small favors between

8040-553: The consul Opilio. Theodoric was feeling threatened by international events. The Acacian schism had been resolved, and the Nicene Christian aristocrats of his kingdom were seeking to renew their ties with Constantinople. The Catholic Hilderic had become king of the Vandals and had put Theodoric's sister Amalafrida to death, and Arians in the East were being persecuted. Then there

8160-660: The corrupt gain is greater than the penalty multiplied by the likelihood of being caught and prosecuted. Since a high degree of monopoly and discretion accompanied by a low degree of transparency does not automatically lead to corruption, a fourth variable of "morality" or "integrity" has been introduced by others. The moral dimension has an intrinsic component and refers to a "mentality problem", and an extrinsic component referring to circumstances like poverty, inadequate remuneration, inappropriate work conditions and inoperable or over-complicated procedures which demoralize people and let them search for "alternative" solutions. According to

8280-615: The demonstration and construction of arguments. Boethius' definition of "differentiae" is that they are "the Topics of arguments ... The Topics which are the Differentiae of [maximal] propositions are more universal than those propositions, just as rationality is more universal than man." This is the second part of Boethius' unique contribution to the field of rhetoric. Differentia operate under maximal propositions to "be of use in finding maximal propositions as well as intermediate terms," or

8400-606: The deterrence of crime. Strategies undertaken to counter corruption are often summarized under the umbrella term anti-corruption . Additionally, global initiatives like the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 16 also have a targeted goal which is supposed to reduce corruption in all of its forms substantially. Recent initiatives like the Tax Justice Network go beyond bribery and theft and bring attention to tax abuses. Stephen D. Morris,

8520-438: The emergence of "a particular kind of large, non-state business group" that is akin to a mafia system in China. In this situation, the boundary between public and private actors blurs. Much of existing literature focuses on explicit corrupt actions like bribery and embezzlement, endemic in poor countries (see below). For "money in politics," the causes are very different and largely ignored in conventional literature. For example,

8640-445: The ex-consul Caecina Decius Faustus Albinus of treasonous correspondence with Justin I . Boethius leapt to his defense, crying, "The charge of Cyprianus is false, but if Albinus did that, so also have I and the whole senate with one accord done it; it is false, my Lord King." Cyprianus then also accused Boethius of the same crime and produced three men who claimed they had witnessed the crime. Boethius and Basilius were arrested. First

8760-476: The exact date of his birth is unknown. His birth family , the Anicii , was a notably wealthy and influential gens that included emperors Petronius Maximus and Olybrius , in addition to many consuls . However, in the years prior to Boethius' birth, the family had lost much of its influence. The grandfather of Boethius, a senator by the same name, was appointed as praetorian prefect of Italy but died in 454 during

8880-427: The existence of the problem of universals : whether these concepts are subsistent entities which would exist whether anyone thought of them, or whether they only exist as ideas. This topic concerning the ontological nature of universal ideas was one of the most vocal controversies in medieval philosophy . Besides these advanced philosophical works, Boethius is also reported to have translated important Greek texts on

9000-460: The forced abdication of the last Western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus . A member of the Anicii family, he was orphaned following the family's sudden decline and was raised by Quintus Aurelius Memmius Symmachus , a later consul . After mastering both Latin and Greek in his youth, Boethius rose to prominence as a statesman during the Ostrogothic Kingdom , becoming a senator by age 25,

9120-426: The government involves itself in activity normally performed by private entities. Corruption facilitated by lawyers is a well known form of judicial misconduct. Such abuse is called Attorney misconduct . Attorney misconduct can be either conducted by individuals acting on their own accord or by entire law firms . A well known example of such corruption are mob lawyers . Mob lawyers are attorneys who seek to protect

9240-458: The header of wind instruments ("administratur ... aut spiritu ut tibiis" ), but Boethius himself never writes about "instrumentalis" as separate from "instrumentis" explicitly in his very brief description. In one of his works within De institutione musica , Boethius said that "music is so naturally united with us that we cannot be free from it even if we so desired." During the Middle Ages, Boethius

9360-693: The history of topical lore. It is largely due to Boethius that the Topics of Aristotle and Cicero were revived, and the Boethian tradition of topical argumentation spans its influence throughout the Middle Ages and into the early Renaissance: "In the works of Ockham , Buridan , Albert of Saxony , and the Pseudo-Scotus, for instance, many of the rules of consequence bear a strong resemblance to or are simply identical with certain Boethian Topics ;... Boethius's influence, direct and indirect, on this tradition

9480-424: The judiciary. The proper distribution of a nation's wealth, including its government's spending on the judiciary, is subject to constitutional economics . The judiciary may be corrupted by acts of the government, such as through budget planning and various privileges, and by private acts. Corruption in judiciary may also involve the government using its judicial arm to oppress opposition parties. Judicial corruption

9600-560: The late 15th century and later in Europe. Beyond Consolation of Philosophy , his lifelong project was a deliberate attempt to preserve ancient classical knowledge, particularly philosophy. Boethius intended to translate all the works of Aristotle and Plato from the original Greek into Latin . His completed translations of Aristotle's works on logic were the only significant portions of Aristotle available in Latin Christendom from

9720-407: The local black market . There have also been instances of military officials, providing equipment and combat support to criminal syndicates , private military companies and terrorist groups , without approval from their superiors. As a result, many countries have a military police force to ensure that the military officers follow the laws and conduct of their respective countries but sometimes

9840-480: The majority of scholarship has taken a different view, with Arthur Herman writing that Boethius was "unshakably Orthodox Catholic", and Thomas Hodgkin having asserted that uncovered manuscripts "prove beyond a doubt that Boethius was a Christian". Furthermore, the community that he was a part of valued equally both classical and Christian culture. Boethius's best known work is the Consolation of Philosophy ( De consolatione philosophiae ), which he wrote at

9960-406: The maximal proposition, a proposition which is somehow shown to be universal or readily believable. The other sort of Topic, the differentiae, are "Topics that contain and include the maximal propositions"; means of categorizing the Topics which Boethius credits to Cicero. Book   II covers two kinds of topics: those from related things and those from extrinsic topics. Book   III discusses

10080-413: The military police have levels of corruption themselves. Within less democratic countries, the presence of resources such as diamonds, gold, oil, and forestry increases the prevalence of corruption. Corruption includes industrial corruption, consisting of large bribes, as well as petty corruption such as a poacher paying off a park ranger to ignore poaching . The presence of fuel extraction and export

10200-679: The nature of rhetorical and dialectical Topics together, Boethius's overall purpose being "to show what the Topics are, what their differentiae are, and which are suited for what syllogisms." He distinguishes between argument (that which constitutes belief) and argumentation (that which demonstrates belief). Propositions are divided into three parts: those that are universal, those that are particular, and those that are somewhere in between. These distinctions, and others, are applicable to both types of Topical argument, rhetorical and dialectical. Books   II and III are primarily focused on Topics of dialectic (syllogisms), while Book   IV concentrates on

10320-659: The ninth century and onwards understand ancient Greek music . Like his Greek predecessors, Boethius believed that arithmetic and music were intertwined, and helped to mutually reinforce the understanding of each, and together exemplified the fundamental principles of order and harmony in the understanding of the universe as it was known during his time. In De Musica , Boethius introduced the threefold classification of music: In De musica I.2, Boethius describes 'musica instrumentis' as music produced by something under tension (e.g., strings), by wind (e.g., aulos), by water, or by percussion (e.g., cymbals). Boethius himself does not use

10440-597: The only surviving transcriptions of Greek texts into the Middle Ages . The unusual fluency of Boethius in the Greek language has led some scholars to believe that he was educated in the East ; a traditional view, first proposed by Edward Gibbon , is that Boethius studied in Athens for eighteen years based on the letters of Cassiodorus , though this was likely to have been a misreading by past historians. Historian Pierre Courcelle has argued that Boethius studied at Alexandria with

10560-513: The pair were detained in the baptistery of a church, then Boethius was exiled to the Ager Calventianus , a distant country estate, where he was put to death. Not long afterwards Theodoric had Boethius' father-in-law Symmachus put to death, according to Procopius , on the grounds that he and Boethius together were planning a revolution, and confiscated their property. "The basic facts in the case are not in dispute," writes Jeffrey Richards. "What

10680-501: The palace plot against Flavius Aetius . Boethius' father, Manlius Boethius , who was appointed consul in 487, died while Boethius was still young. Quintus Aurelius Memmius Symmachus , another patrician, adopted and raised him instead, introducing to him philosophy and literature. As a sign of their good relationship, Boethius would later marry his foster-father's daughter, Rusticiana, with whom he would have two children also named Symmachus and Boethius . Having been adopted into

10800-588: The political, legal and economic systems. Such corruption is commonly found in countries with authoritarian or dictatorial governments but also in those without adequate policing of corruption. Still, it can also occur in democracies lacking effective corruption oversight . This type of corruption typically involves large-scale embezzlement, bribery, or fraud that affects national policies and governance, hindering development and eroding public trust. combatting it requires robust institutions, transparency, and accountability measures. The government system in many countries

10920-497: The poor"; and of having to use the authority of the king to stop a shipment of food from Campania which, if carried, would have exacerbated an ongoing famine in the region. These actions made Boethius an increasingly unpopular figure among court officials, though he remained in Theodoric's favor. The young philosopher Boethius, a man whose varied accomplishments adorned the middle period of the reign of Theodoric, and whose tragic death

11040-655: The premises that follow maximal propositions. Though Boethius is drawing from Aristotle's Topics, Differentiae are not the same as Topics in some ways. Boethius arranges differentiae through statements, instead of generalized groups as Aristotle does. Stump articulates the difference. They are "expressed as words or phrases whose expansion into appropriate propositions is neither intended nor readily conceivable", unlike Aristotle's clearly defined four groups of Topics. Aristotle had hundreds of topics organized into those four groups, whereas Boethius has twenty-eight "Topics" that are "highly ordered among themselves." This distinction

11160-402: The public. For example, in many small places such as registration offices, police stations, state licensing boards, and many other private and government sectors. It may seem minor, but it erodes trust in institutions and fosters a culture of dishonesty. Grand corruption is defined as corruption occurring at the highest levels of government in a way that requires significant subversion of

11280-417: The rational enterprise, the other the poetic enterprise. The allegorical figures atop reinforce these themes. Beyond the elegantly decorated iron gate is the main entrance through a portico of five arches, it leads to a grand staircase. The piano nobile has various frescoed and stuccoed rooms. The entrance of Piazza Petrarca was completed in by 1835 has a more sober neoclassical facade. The Marchese Malaspina

11400-523: The relationship among things studied through Topics, Topics themselves, and the nature of definition. Book   IV analyzes partition, designation and relationships between things (such as pairing, numbering, genus and species, etc.). After a review of his terms, Boethius spends Book   V discussing Stoic logic and Aristotelian causation. Book   VI relates the nature of the Topic to causes. In Topicis Differentiis has four books; Book   I discusses

11520-599: The resting place of Augustine of Hippo . His wealth was also confiscated, and his wife, Rusticiana, reduced to poverty. Past historians have had a hard time accepting a sincere Christian who was also a serious Hellenist. These worries have largely stemmed from the lack of any mention of Jesus in Boethius' Consolation , nor of any other Christian figure. Arnaldo Momigliano argues that "Boethius turned to paganism. His Christianity collapsed—it collapsed so thoroughly that perhaps he did not even notice its disappearance." However,

11640-431: The rich' - which tends to be legalized, institutionalized, and ambiguously unethical - as opposed to 'corruption of the poor'". Corruption and crime are endemic sociological occurrences that appear regularly in virtually all countries on a global scale in varying degrees and proportions. Recent data suggests corruption is on the rise. Each nation allocates domestic resources for the control and regulation of corruption and

11760-549: The sixth century until the rediscovery of Aristotle in the 12th century. However, some of his translations (such as his treatment of the topoi in The Topics ) were mixed with his own commentary, which reflected both Aristotelian and Platonic concepts. The commentaries themselves have been lost. In addition to his commentary on the Topics, Boethius composed two treatises on Topical argumentation, In Ciceronis Topica and De topicis differentiis . The first work has six books, and

11880-582: The state management of revenue from these resources. Any valued natural resource can be affected by corruption, including water for irrigation , land for livestock grazing, forests for hunting and logging, and fisheries. The presence or perception of corruption also undermines environmental initiatives. In Kenya, farmers blame poor agricultural productivity on corruption, and thus are less likely to undertake soil conservation measures to prevent soil erosion and loss of nutrients. In Benin, mistrust of government due to perceived corruption led small farmers to reject

12000-525: The system. Factors which encourage systemic corruption include conflicting incentives , discretionary powers ; monopolistic powers ; lack of transparency ; low pay; and a culture of impunity . Specific acts of corruption include "bribery, extortion, and embezzlement" in a system where "corruption becomes the rule rather than the exception." Scholars distinguish between centralized and decentralized systemic corruption, depending on which level of state or government corruption takes place; in countries such as

12120-400: The term 'instrumentalis', which was used by Adalbold II of Utrecht (975–1026) in his Epistola cum tractatu . The term is much more common in the 13th century and later. It is also in these later texts that musica instrumentalis is firmly associated with audible music in general, including vocal music. Scholars have traditionally assumed that Boethius also made this connection, possibly under

12240-484: The toilet's procurement received various prison sentences for recklessness, malfeasance, misuse of power and document falsifications in a 2012 court case, but were cleared of their corruption charges and received compensation, which pushed the total construction cost and subsequent related financial losses to 352,000 euros. On 7 July 2020, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace , a global think tank, released

12360-709: The topics of the quadrivium His loose translation of Nicomachus 's treatise on arithmetic ( De institutione arithmetica libri duo ) and his textbook on music ( De institutione musica libri quinque , unfinished) contributed to medieval education. De arithmetica begins with modular arithmetic, such as even and odd, evenly even, evenly odd, and oddly even. He then turns to unpredicted complexity by categorizing numbers and parts of numbers. His translations of Euclid on geometry and Ptolemy on astronomy, if they were completed, no longer survive. Boethius made Latin translations of Aristotle's De interpretatione and Categories with commentaries. In his article The Ancient Classics in

12480-552: The turn of the wheel. It was represented in the Middle Ages in many relics of art depicting the rise and fall of man. Descriptions of "The Boethian Wheel" can be found in the literature of the Middle Ages from the Romance of the Rose to Chaucer. De topicis differentiis was the basis for one of the first works of logic in a western European vernacular, a selection of excerpts translated into Old French by John of Antioch in 1282. Boethius

12600-432: The unit of the rhetorical Topic, the enthymeme. Topical argumentation is at the core of Boethius's conception of dialectic, which "have categorical rather than conditional conclusions, and he conceives of the discovery of an argument as the discovery of a middle term capable of linking the two terms of the desired conclusion." Not only are these texts of paramount importance to the study of Boethius, they are also crucial to

12720-431: The use of surveillance abuse , false confessions , police perjury and/or falsified evidence . Police officers have also been known to sell forms of contraband that were taken during seizers (such as confiscated drugs , stolen property or weapons ). Corruption and misconduct can also be done by prison officers, such as the smuggling of contraband (such as drugs or electronics) into jails and prisons for inmates or

12840-490: The very end of his career, awaiting his execution in prison. This work represented an imaginary dialogue between himself and philosophy, with philosophy personified as a woman, arguing that despite the apparent inequality of the world, there is, in Platonic fashion, a higher power and everything else is secondary to that divine Providence. Several manuscripts survived and these were widely edited, translated and printed throughout

12960-511: The wealthy Symmachi family, Boethius had access to tutors that would have educated him during his youth. Though Symmachus had some fluency in Greek , Boethius achieved a mastery of the language—an increasingly rare skill in the Western regions of the Empire—and dedicated his early career to translating the entire works of Plato and Aristotle , with some of the translations that he produced being

13080-510: The wildest expectations of the people packed in their seats around [me]." Boethius' struggles came within a year of his appointment as magister officiorum : in seeking to mend the rampant corruption present in the Roman Court, he writes of having to thwart the conspiracies of Triguilla, the steward of the royal house; of confronting the Gothic minister, Cunigast, who went to "devour the substance of

13200-535: The witnesses as retribution for reporting the misconduct. Whistleblowing is not common in law enforcement in part because officers who do so normally face reprisal by being fired, being forced to transfer to another department, being demoted, being shunned, losing friends, not being given back-up during emergencies, receiving professional or even physical threats as well as having threats be made against friends or relatives of theirs or having their own misconduct exposed. In America another common form of police corruption

13320-624: The year 523. While jailed Boethius wrote On the Consolation of Philosophy , a philosophical treatise on fortune, death, and other issues which became one of the most influential and widely reproduced works of the Early Middle Ages. He was tortured and executed in 524, becoming a martyr in the Christian faith by tradition. Boethius was born in Rome to a patrician family c.  480 , but

13440-402: Was a major Lithuanian scandal. In 2009, the municipality of Kaunas (led by mayor Andrius Kupčinskas) ordered that a shipping container was to be converted into an outdoor toilet at a cost of 500,000 litai (around 150,000 euros). It was to also require 5,000 litai (1,500 euros) in monthly maintenance costs. At the same time when Kaunas's "Golden Toilet" was built, Kėdainiai tennis club acquired

13560-454: Was connected to several texts that were used to teach liberal arts. Although he did not address the subject of trivium, he did write many treatises explaining the principles of rhetoric, grammar, and logic. During the Middle Ages, his works of these disciplines were commonly used when studying the three elementary arts. The historian R. W. Southern called Boethius "the schoolmaster of medieval Europe." An 1872 German translation of "De Musica"

13680-488: Was extensively edited, translated and printed throughout Europe from the 14th century onwards. "The Boethian Wheel" is a model for Boethius' belief that history is a wheel, a metaphor that Boethius uses frequently in the Consolation ; it remained very popular throughout the Middle Ages, and is still often seen today. As the wheel turns, those who have power and wealth will turn to dust; men may rise from poverty and hunger to greatness, while those who are great may fall with

13800-438: Was only one of the tools of Chinese corruption, which also included, "embezzlement, nepotism, smuggling, extortion, cronyism, kickbacks, deception, fraud, squandering of public money, illegal business transactions, stock manipulation and real estate fraud." Given the repeated anti-corruption campaigns it was a prudent precaution to move as much of the fraudulent money as possible overseas. In Latin American countries , corruption

13920-908: Was proud of his collection of art and archeological artifacts. In 1838 part of this palace was designated the Stabilimento di Belle Arti Malaspina , and served as a civic museum. In 1977, the Pinacoteca Malaspina was brought together with other collections to the Castello Visconteo . The building is now home to the Carlo Bonetta Library and the Historical Civic Archive of the City Council of Pavia. 45°11′15″N 9°09′17″E  /  45.18763°N 9.15459°E  / 45.18763; 9.15459 This article about

14040-584: Was regarded as a Christian martyr by those who lived in succeeding centuries after his death. Currently, he is recognized as a saint and martyr for the Christian faith. He is included within the Roman Martyrology , though to Watkins "his status as martyr is dubious". His cult is held in Pavia, where Boethius' status as a saint was confirmed in 1883, and in the Church of Santa Maria in Portico in Rome. His feast day

14160-465: Was the magnum opus of Oscar Paul . Boethius also wrote Christian theological treatises, which supported orthodox theology and condemned Arianism and other heterodox forms of Christianity. Five theological works are known: His theological works played an important part during the Middle Ages in philosophical thought, including the fields of logic , ontology , and metaphysics . Dates of composition: Edward Kennard Rand dubbed Boethius

14280-445: Was the matter that with his previous ties to Theodahad , Boethius apparently found himself on the wrong side in the succession dispute following the untimely death of Eutharic , Theodoric's announced heir. Boethius, the most learned man of his time, met his death in the hangman's noose...and yet the life of Boethius was a triumph! The West owes this individual, Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, nothing less than its progression toward

14400-625: Was to bring sadness over its close. — Thomas Hodgkin , Theodoric the Goth In 520, Boethius was working to revitalize the relationship between the Roman See and the Constantinopolitan See —though the two were then still a part of the same Church , disagreements had begun to emerge between them. This may have set in place a course of events that would lead to loss of royal favour. Five hundred years later, this continuing disagreement led to

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