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117-542: In summer, Pajarito hosts numerous special events, many involving mountain biking . An extensive network of single and double track mountain bike trails criss-cross the mountain, including a new singletrack trail going to the summit. Pajarito hosts lift access downhill and freeride mountain biking off the Spruce chair, and has continued to do so after the Las Conchas Fire in 2011. There also are hiking trails, and horse riding

234-484: A Buffalo Soldier. The African American population, centered on the stationing of Buffalo Soldiers such as the 25th Infantry in Nogales, was a significant factor in the community, though they often faced racial discrimination in the binational border community in addition to racial segregation at the elementary-school level in Nogales's Grand Avenue/Frank Reed School (a school reserved for black children). The redeployment of

351-429: A crash occurs there are fewer components to break or cause the rider injury. Bikes are typically built from sturdier materials such as steel to handle repeated heavy impacts of crashes and bails. Trials riding consists of hopping and jumping bikes over obstacles, without touching a foot onto the ground. It can be performed either off-road or in an urban environment. This requires an excellent sense of balance. The emphasis

468-636: A degree carried out the traditions of the Buffalo Soldiers. Despite some official resistance and administrative barriers, Black airmen were trained and played a part in the air war in Europe, gaining a reputation for skill and bravery (see Tuskegee Airmen ). In early 1945, after the Battle of the Bulge , American forces in Europe experienced a shortage of combat troops, so the embargo on using black soldiers in combat units

585-404: A frame bag, handlebar roll, seat pack, and backpack and typical gear includes lightweight and basic camping gear, and a bike repair kit. Mountain bikes are generally used as many bike packing destinations are reached via forest-service roads or singletrack trails. Mountain bikes specific to bike-packing use a slightly taller frame to get the maximum frame bag capacity. This is achieved by using

702-437: A full suspension frame, but at a weight that is suitable for both climbing and descending. Enduro racing includes elements of DH racing, but Enduro races are much longer, sometimes taking a full day to complete, and incorporate climbing sections to connect the timed downhill descents (often referred to as stages). Typically, there is a maximum time limit for how long a rider takes to reach the top of each climb, while finishers of

819-667: A longer headtube, a more horizontal top tube, and a reduced stem degree. Generally, bikepackers tend to cover anywhere from 25 to 75 miles (40 – 120 km) in a given day as the riding can be technical. Cycling and green exercises have proven positive effects on self-esteem and total mood disturbance. Mountain biking is proven to improve mental health and well-being relating to coping abilities and reducing stress. There are strong links between outdoor environments and their therapeutic potential. Buffalo Soldiers Buffalo Soldiers were United States Army regiments composed exclusively of African American soldiers, formed during

936-401: A longer wheelbase, making the bike less agile, and in less travel space for the suspension. The single-speed is considered a return to simplicity with no drivetrain components or shifters but thus requires a stronger rider. Following the growing trend in 29-inch wheels, there have been other trends in the mountain biking community involving tire size. Some riders prefer to have a larger wheel in

1053-423: A loop including climbs and descents on a variety of terrain. A typical XC bike weighs around 9–13 kilos (20–30 lbs), and has 0–125 millimeters (0.0–4.9 inches) of suspension travel front and sometimes rear. Cross country mountain biking focuses on physical strength and endurance more than the other forms, which require greater technical skill. Cross country mountain biking is the only mountain biking discipline in

1170-491: A motorbike trials rider, began experimenting with off-road bicycle designs. By 1979 he had developed a custom-built lightweight bicycle which was uniquely suited to the wet and muddy off-road conditions found in the south-east of England. They were designed around 2 inch × 650b Nokian snow tires though a 700x47c (28 in.) version was also produced. These were sold under the Cleland Cycles brand until late 1984. Bikes based on

1287-516: A much larger participation in the fabled Johnson County War in Johnson County , Wyoming . It culminated in a lengthy shootout between local farmers, a band of hired killers, and a sheriff's posse . The 6th Cavalry was ordered in by President Benjamin Harrison to quell the violence and capture the band of hired killers. Soon afterward, however, the 9th Cavalry was specifically called on to replace

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1404-465: A number of trails of varying difficulty, and bicycle rental facilities. In 2020, due to COVID-19 , mountain bikes saw a surge in popularity in the US, with some vendors reporting that they were sold out of bikes under US$ 1000. ‹The template Manual is being considered for merging .›   The level of protection worn by individual riders varies greatly and is affected by speed, trail conditions,

1521-451: A short slalom track, as in 4X. Most bikes used are light hard-tails, although the last World Cup was actually won on a full-suspension bike. The track is downhill and has dirt jumps, berms, and gaps. Professionals in gravity mountain biking tend to concentrate either on downhill mountain biking or 4X/dual slalom because they are very different. However, some riders, such as Cedric Gracia , used to compete in both 4X and DH, although that

1638-519: A storied history of focusing on efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and freedom of travel over varied surfaces. Bikepacking is a self-supported style of lightly loaded single or multiple night mountain biking. Bikepacking is similar to bike touring, however the two sports generally use different bikes and the main difference is the method of carrying gear. Bikepacking generally involves carrying less gear and using smaller frame bags while bike touring will use panniers . A typical bikepacking set-up includes

1755-737: A suspension fork, with either a hard tail or a similar travel rear suspension. Many more technical trails are also used as routes for cross country, enduro, and even downhill racing. Mountain Bike Touring or Marathon is long-distance touring on dirt roads and single track with a mountain bike. With the popularity of the Great Divide Trail , the Colorado Trail and other long-distance off-road biking trails, specially outfitted mountain bikes are increasingly being used for touring. Bike manufacturers like Salsa have even developed MTB touring bikes like

1872-506: A thorough review by the Army Board for Correction of Military Records found that the soldiers were wrongly treated because of their race and not given fair trials. General of the Armies John J. Pershing is a controversial figure regarding the Buffalo Soldiers. He served with the 10th Cavalry Regiment from October 1895 to May 1897, starting as a first lieutenant when he took command of

1989-512: A troop of the 10th in October 1895. In 1897, Pershing became an instructor at West Point, where he joined the tactical staff. West Point cadets upset over Pershing's disciplinary treatment and high standards took to calling him " Nigger Jack", because he had learned to have full respect for black soldiers while leading them. Later during the Spanish–American War , where Pershing served with

2106-617: A verb since the term "mountain biking" was not yet in use. The first person known to fit multiple speeds and drum brakes to a klunker is Russ Mahon of Cupertino, California , who used the resulting bike in cyclo-cross racing. Early downhill racing on mountain fire roads , caused lesser branded coaster brakes to burn the grease inside, requiring the riders to "repack" the bearings after each race. The first organized series of downhill races in Fairfax, California, known as "Repack Races" triggered early innovations in mountain bike technology as well as

2223-462: A wider frame and fork to allow for a wider tire. The handlebars were also different in that they were a straight, transverse-mounted handlebar, rather than the dropped, curved handlebars that are typically installed on road racing bicycles. Also, some of the parts on early production mountain bicycles were taken from the BMX bicycle. Other contributors were Otis Guy and Keith Bontrager . Tom Ritchey built

2340-404: Is a prominent archaeological site located on property owned by Los Alamos National Laboratory . Pajarito Mountain first opened on 23 November 1957 with no toilets, no water, no grooming, no modern lifts and a few short slopes. The Aspen run received a T-bar for the 1962–1963 season. An additional 400 acres (1.6 km) of land was purchased in the late 1960s and the first chairlift installed on

2457-768: Is a sport of riding bicycles off-road, often over rough terrain, usually using specially designed mountain bikes . Mountain bikes share similarities with other bikes but incorporate features designed to enhance durability and performance in rough terrain, such as air or coil-sprung shocks used as suspension, larger and wider wheels and tires, stronger frame materials, and mechanically or hydraulically actuated disc brakes . Mountain biking can generally be broken down into distinct categories: cross country , trail , all mountain, enduro , downhill and freeride . The sport requires endurance, core and back strength, balance, bike handling skills, and self-reliance. Advanced riders pursue both steep technical descents and high-incline climbs. In

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2574-434: Is an increasingly popular genre that combines big-air, stunt-ridden freeride with BMX style tricks. Slopestyle courses are usually constructed at already established mountain bike parks and include jumps, large drops, quarter-pipes, and other wooden obstacles. There are always multiple lines through a course and riders compete for judges' points by choosing lines that highlight their particular skills. A "typical" freeride bike

2691-432: Is becoming more rare as 4X takes on its own identity. Freeride / Big Hit / Hucking, as the name suggests, is a 'do anything' discipline that encompasses everything from downhill racing without the clock to jumping, riding 'North Shore' style (elevated trails made of interconnecting bridges and logs), and generally riding trails and/or stunts that require more skill and aggressive techniques than XC. "Slopestyle" type riding

2808-416: Is hard to define, but typical specifications are 13–18 kilos (30–40 lbs) with 150–250 millimeters (5.9–9.8 inches) of suspension front and rear. Freeride bikes are generally heavier and more amply suspended than their XC counterparts, but usually, retain much of their climbing ability. It is up to the rider to build his or her bike to lean more toward a preferred level of aggressiveness. Dirt Jumping (DJ)

2925-638: Is normally credited with introducing the first purpose-built mountain bike in 1978. Tom Ritchey then went on to make frames for a company called MountainBikes, a partnership between Gary Fisher , Charlie Kelly and Tom Ritchey . Tom Ritchey, a welder with skills in frame building, also built the original bikes. The company's three partners eventually dissolved their partnership, and the company became Fisher Mountain Bikes, while Tom Ritchey started his own frame shop. The first mountain bikes were basically road bicycle frames (with heavier tubing and different geometry) with

3042-509: Is permitted everywhere except on the mountain bike trails. Adjacent to Pajarito is a Los Alamos County campground, Camp May; Santa Fe National Forest ; and Valles Caldera National Preserve . Pajarito means "little bird" in Spanish and was first associated with the area by the archeologist Edgar Lee Hewett who was in turn inspired by Tsirege , which means "bird place" in the Tewa language . Tsirege

3159-515: Is placed on techniques of effectively overcoming the obstacles, although street-trials (as opposed to competition-oriented trials) is much like Street and DJ, where doing tricks with style is the essence. Trials bikes look almost nothing like mountain bikes. They use either 20″, 24″ or 26″ wheels and have very small, low frames, some types without a saddle. Urban/Street is essentially the same as urban BMX (or Freestyle BMX), in which riders perform tricks by riding on/over man-made objects. The bikes are

3276-450: Is present, and UV rays are known to degrade plastic components. Accordingly, and as a rule of thumb, a bicycle helmet should be replaced every five years, or sooner if it appears damaged. Additionally, if the helmet has been involved in an accident or has otherwise incurred impact-type damage, then it should be replaced promptly, even if it does not appear to be visibly damaged. Cross-Country (XC) generally means riding point-to-point or in

3393-574: Is the campaign hat they wore (popularly known as the Smokey Bear hat). Although not officially adopted by the Army until 1911, the distinctive hat crease, called a Montana peak, (or pinch) can be seen being worn by several of the Buffalo Soldiers in park photographs dating back to 1899. Soldiers serving in the Spanish–American War began to re-crease the Stetson hat with a Montana "pinch" to better shed water from

3510-438: Is the practice of riding bikes over shaped mounds of dirt or soil and becoming airborne. The goal is that after riding over the 'lip' the rider will become airborne, and aim to land on the 'knuckle'. Dirt jumping can be done on almost any bicycle, but the bikes chosen are generally smaller and more maneuverable hardtails so that tricks such as backflips, whips, and tabletops, are easier to complete. The bikes are simpler so that when

3627-683: The 27th Cavalry and the 28th (Horse) Cavalry , were disbanded. The 28th Cavalry was inactivated at Assi-Okba, Algeria , in April 1944 in North Africa, and marked the end of the regiment. Monuments to the Buffalo Soldiers are in Kansas at Fort Leavenworth and Junction City . Then– Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Colin Powell , who initiated the project to get a statue to honor the Buffalo Soldiers when he

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3744-573: The 9th Cavalry Regiment , 10th Cavalry Regiment , 24th Infantry Regiment , 25th Infantry Regiment and 38th Infantry Regiment . Although numerous African American Union Army regiments were raised during the Civil War (referred to collectively as the United States Colored Troops ), "Buffalo Soldiers" were established by the U.S Congress as the first all-black Army regiments in peacetime. The regiments were racially segregated , as

3861-542: The American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) during World War I, but experienced noncommissioned officers were provided to other segregated Black units for combat service—such as the 317th Engineer Battalion. The soldiers of the 92nd and the 93rd infantry divisions were the first Americans to fight in France. The four regiments of the 93rd fought under French command for the duration of the war. On August 27, 1918,

3978-807: The Houston riot of 1917 in which soldiers mutinied and marched on the city of Houston, killing over a dozen whites. Another little-known contribution of the Buffalo Soldiers involved eight troops of the 9th Cavalry Regiment and one company of the 24th Infantry Regiment who served in California's Sierra Nevada as some of the first national park rangers. In 1899, Buffalo Soldiers from Company H, 24th Infantry Regiment briefly served in Yosemite National Park , Sequoia National Park , and General Grant (Kings Canyon ) National Parks. U.S. Army regiments had been serving in these national parks since 1891, but until 1899,

4095-534: The Houston riot of 1917 , was a mutiny and riot by 156 soldiers from the all-black 24th Infantry Regiment of the United States Army, taking place on August 23, 1917, in Houston, Texas. 118 soldiers were tried in three courts-martial; 110 were convicted, of whom 19 were executed; and 63 sentenced to life imprisonment. The Army announced on November 13, 2023 that the convictions of the 110 soldiers were overturned after

4212-554: The Punitive Expedition into Chihuahua, Mexico , under General John Pershing to apprehend or kill Villa. The 9th and 10th regiments were deployed to Mexico along with the rest of Pershing's units. Although the manhunt for Villa failed, small-scale confrontations in the communities of Parral and Carrizal nearly brought about a war between Mexico and the United States in the summer of 1916. Tensions cooled through diplomacy as

4329-606: The Spanish–American War , the 9th Cavalry faced violent conflict with white citizens in multiple cities in Florida including Lakeland and Tampa . During the Indian Wars from 1866 to 1891, 416 soldiers were awarded the Medal of Honor . Although the Buffalo Soldiers were 12% of the U.S. Army infantry force and 20% of the cavalry force in this era, Buffalo Soldiers were awarded less than 4% of all Medals of Honor awarded. Other regiments during

4446-573: The Summer Olympic Games . Trail bikes typically have front suspension travel of 120-130mm. Mostly used for recreation not formal competitions. All-mountain bikes typically have front suspension travel of 140-150mm. They are less focused on speed and stability when riding down hills than enduro bikes, thereby increasing efficiency when riding up hills. Enduro bikes tend to have moderate-travel suspension systems and components which are stronger than XC models, typically 160–180 mm of travel on

4563-672: The United States Military Academy . At the time of his death, he was the highest-ranking African American in the U.S. military. He made history in Sequoia National Park in 1903 by becoming Acting Military Superintendent of Sequoia and General Grant National Parks. Young was also the first African American superintendent of a national park. During Young's tenure in the park, he named a giant sequoia for Booker T. Washington . Recently, another giant sequoia in Giant Forest

4680-413: The "Cavalry and Light Artillery School" at Fort Riley, Kansas that West Point cadets learn their riding skills from the black noncommissioned officers who were considered the best. The 100-man detachment from the 9th, and 10th Cavalry served to teach future officers at West Point riding instruction, mounted drill, and tactics until 1947. The West Point "Escort of Honour" detachment of the 10th Cavalry

4797-478: The 10th Cavalry supported the 35th Infantry Regiment in a border skirmish in the border towns of Nogales, Arizona , and Nogales, Sonora , between U.S. military forces, Mexican Federal troops, and armed Mexican civilians (militia) in the Battle of Ambos Nogales . This was the only incident in which German military advisers allegedly fought along with Mexican soldiers against United States soldiers on North America soil during World War I. The 35th Infantry Regiment

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4914-595: The 10th for six months in Cuba, the press softened the term to "Black Jack", which they continued to use in World War I. At the start of the Spanish–American War, First Lieutenant Pershing was offered a brevet rank and commissioned a major of volunteers on August 26, 1898. He fought with the 10th Cavalry (Buffalo Soldiers) on Kettle and San Juan Hills in Cuba and was cited for gallantry. During World War I , Pershing

5031-433: The 12th Army Group employed them as an additional platoon in existing rifle companies. The excellent record established by these volunteers, particularly those serving as platoons, presaged major postwar changes in the traditional approach to employing Black troops. In 1948, President Harry Truman signed Executive Order 9981 , which desegregated the military and marked the first federal piece of legislation that went against

5148-461: The 1940s, with the first world championship taking place in 1950. The Rough Stuff Fellowship was established in 1955 by off-road cyclists in the United Kingdom. In Oregon in 1966, one Chemeketan club member, D. Gwynn, built a rough terrain trail bicycle. He named it a "mountain bicycle" for its intended place of use. This may be the first use of that name. In England in 1968, Geoff Apps ,

5265-662: The 19th century to serve on the American frontier . On September 21, 1866, the 10th Cavalry Regiment was formed at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas . The nickname "Buffalo Soldiers" was purportedly given to the regiments by the American Indian tribes who fought against them during the American Indian Wars , and the term eventually became synonymous with all of the African American regiments that were established in 1866, including

5382-584: The 25th, with headquarters in Jackson Barracks in New Orleans, Louisiana , in November 1869. The 39th and 40th were reorganized as the 24th, with headquarters at Fort Clark, Texas , in April 1869. The two black infantry regiments represented 10 percent of the size of all twenty-five infantry regiments. Similarly, the two black cavalry units represented 20 percent of the size of all ten cavalry regiments. During

5499-413: The 6th. The 6th Cavalry was swaying under the local political and social pressures and was unable to keep the peace in the tense environment. The Buffalo Soldiers responded within about two weeks from Nebraska, and moved the men to the rail town of Suggs, Wyoming , creating " Camp Bettens " despite a hostile local population. One soldier was killed and two wounded in a gun battle with locals. Nevertheless,

5616-566: The 9th Cavalry remained in Wyoming for nearly a year to quell tensions in the area. After most of the Indian Wars ended in the 1890s, the regiments continued to serve and participated in the 1898 Spanish–American War (including the Battle of San Juan Hill ) in Cuba , where five more Medals of Honor were earned. The men of the Buffalo Soldiers were the only African Americans that fought in Cuba during

5733-534: The 9th Immunes served overseas in the war. The Buffalo Soldier regiments also took part in the Philippine–American War from 1899 to 1903 and the 1916 Mexican Expedition . There was strong opposition to war in the Philippines among African Americans. Many black soldiers established a rapport with "the brown-skinned natives on the islands," and an unusually large number of black troops deserted during

5850-716: The African-American regiments formed in 1866. During the Civil War , the U.S. government formed regiments known as the United States Colored Troops , composed of black soldiers and Native Americans. The USCT was disbanded in the fall of 1865. In 1867 the Regular Army was set at ten regiments of cavalry and 45 regiments of infantry. The Army was authorized to raise two regiments of black cavalry (the 9th and 10th (Colored) Cavalry ) and four regiments of black infantry (the 38th , 39th , 40th , and 41st (Colored) Infantry ), who were mostly drawn from USCT veterans. The first draft of

5967-603: The American Old West. Range wars were battles fought between large cattle ranchers against smaller ranchers and farmers who competed for land, water, and livestock in the open range . Many of these conflicts resulted in military intervention to pacify and maintain peace. A lesser known action was the 9th Cavalry 's participation in the Colfax County War in Colfax County, New Mexico in 1873. Buffalo Soldiers were among

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6084-661: The August 27, 1918, battle documented the departure of part of the Mexican garrison in Nogales, Sonora, to points south that August in an attempt to quell armed political rebels. Despite the Battle of Ambos Nogales controversy, the presence of the Buffalo Soldiers in the community left a significant impact on the border town. The famed jazz musician Charles Mingus was born in the Camp Stephen Little military base in Nogales in 1922, son of

6201-758: The Buffalo Soldier regiments were in New Mexico pursuing Victorio and Nana and their Apache warriors in Victorio's War . The 9th Cavalry spent the winter of 1890 to 1891 guarding the Pine Ridge Reservation during the events of the Ghost Dance War and the Wounded Knee Massacre . Cavalry regiments were also used to remove Sooners (whites), who were squatting (illegally occupying) native lands in

6318-598: The Buffalo Soldiers and the first black graduate of West Point , was Henry O. Flipper in 1877. From 1870 to 1898, the total strength of the US Army totaled 25,000 service members, with black soldiers maintaining their ten percent representation. From 1867 to the early 1890s, these regiments served at a variety of posts in the Southwestern United States and the Great Plains regions. They participated in most of

6435-447: The Buffalo Soldiers to other areas and the closure of Camp Little in 1933 initiated the decline of the African American community in Nogales. Before World War II, the black 25th Infantry Regiment was based at Ft Huachuca (Arizona). During the war, Ft Huachuca served as the home base of the Black 92nd and 93rd Infantry Divisions. The 9th and 10th Cavalry Regiments were mostly disbanded, and

6552-712: The Cleland design were also sold by English Cycles and Highpath Engineering until the early 1990s. There were several groups of riders in different areas of the U.S.A. who can make valid claims to playing a part in the birth of the sport. Riders in Marin County, California and Crested Butte, Colorado , tinkered with bikes and adapted them to the rigors of off-road riding. Modified heavy cruiser bicycles , old 1930s and '40s Schwinn bicycles retrofitted with better brakes and fat tires, were used for freewheeling down mountain trails in Marin in

6669-535: The Fargo model. Mixed Terrain Cycle-Touring or rough riding is a form of mountain-bike touring but involves cycling over a variety of surfaces and topography on a single route, with a single bicycle that is expected to be satisfactory for all segments. The recent surge in popularity of mixed-terrain touring is in part a reaction against the increasing specialization of the bicycle industry. Mixed-terrain bicycle travel has

6786-589: The South Fork of the Merced River in the southern section of the park. This arboretum had pathways and benches, and some plants were identified in both English and Latin . Yosemite's arboretum is considered to be the first museum in the National Park System . The NPS cites a 1904 report, where Yosemite superintendent (Lt. Col.) John Bigelow, Jr. declared the arboretum "To provide a great museum of nature for

6903-515: The Spruce run for the 1969–1970 season. A similar two person chairlift was installed on the Big Mother run for the 1976–1977 season. A beginners lift was installed, to replace a rope tow, for the 1981–1982 season, and a triple chairlift replaced the T-bar for the following 1982–1983 season. Construction of the new Ski Lodge began in the summer of 1987 and was finished for the 1988–1989 season. A quad chairlift

7020-473: The U.S. military would not desegregate until 1948 . On November 15, 2024, Robert Dixon , the last surviving Buffalo Soldier, died aged 103. The oldest living Buffalo Soldier, Mark Matthews , died in 2005 at the age of 111 and would be buried at Arlington National Cemetery . Sources disagree on how the nickname "Buffalo Soldiers" began. According to the Buffalo Soldiers National Museum

7137-469: The U.S.–Mexico boundary made border towns such as Matamoros, Tamaulipas , Ojinaga, Chihuahua , and Nogales, Sonora , important strategic assets. As the various factions in Mexico vied for power, the U.S. Army, including the Buffalo Soldier units, was dispatched to the border to maintain security. The Buffalo Soldiers played a key role in U.S.–Mexico relations as the maelstrom that followed the ousting of Díaz and

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7254-493: The assassination of his successor Francisco Madero intensified. By late 1915, the political faction led by Venustiano Carranza received diplomatic recognition from the U.S. government as the legitimate ruling force in Mexico. Francisco "Pancho" Villa , who had previously courted U.S. recognition and thus felt betrayed, then attacked the rural community of Columbus, New Mexico , directly leading to further border tensions as U.S. President Woodrow Wilson unilaterally dispatched

7371-597: The bill that the House Committee on Military Affairs sent to the full chamber on March 7, 1866, did not include a provision for regiments of black cavalry; however, this provision was added by Senator Benjamin Wade prior to the bill's passing on July 28, 1866. In 1869 the Regular Army was kept at ten regiments of cavalry but cut to 25 regiments of Infantry, reducing the black complement to two regiments (the 24th and 25th (Colored) Infantry) . The 38th and 41st were reorganized as

7488-525: The campaign, some of whom joined the Filipino rebels, of whom the most famous was the celebrated David Fagen . In 1918, the 10th Cavalry fought at the Battle of Ambos Nogales during the First World War , where they assisted in forcing the surrender of the federal Mexican and Mexican militia forces. In 1917, after being stationed in Houston, Texas, members of the 24th Infantry Regiment participated in

7605-439: The captured Buffalo Soldiers from Carrizal were released. Despite the public outrage over Villa's Columbus raid, Wilson and his cabinet felt that the U.S.'s attention ought to be centered on Germany and World War I, not the apprehension of the "Centauro del Norte". The Punitive Expedition exited Mexico in early 1917, just before the U.S. declaration of war against Germany in April 1917. The Buffalo Soldiers did not participate with

7722-462: The case of freeride, downhill, and dirt jumping, aerial maneuvers are performed off both natural features and specially constructed jumps and ramps. Mountain bikers ride on off-road trails such as singletrack , back-country roads, wider bike park trails, fire roads , and some advanced trails are designed with jumps, berms, and drop-offs to add excitement to the trail. Riders with enduro and downhill bikes will often visit ski resorts that stay open in

7839-412: The command of a foreign power for the first time in American history. The outbreak of the Mexican Revolution in 1910 against the long-time rule of President Porfirio Díaz initiated a decade-long period of high-intensity military conflict along the U.S.–Mexico border as different political/military factions in Mexico fought for power. The access to arms and customs duties from Mexican communities along

7956-493: The downhill portions are ranked by fastest times. Historically, many long-distance XC races would use the descriptor "enduro" in their race names to indicate their endurance aspect. Some long-standing race events have maintained this custom, sometimes leading to confusion with the modern Enduro format, that has been adopted to the Enduro World Series. Enduro racing was commonly seen as a race for all abilities. While there are many recreational riders that do compete in Enduro races,

8073-452: The era received a greater number of Medals of Honor but were not distinguished enough to see duty in Cuba for the Spanish–American War. For example, the 8th Cavalry Regiment with 84 Medals of Honor, were not assigned duty to fight in Cuba in 1898. Scholars have hypothesized that commanders were reticent to award behavior that they expected from soldiers, the bureaucracy impeded awards, and the posting of black soldiers to remote outposts reduced

8190-444: The extra bulk and weight may help mitigate the risks of bigger and more frequent crashes. Protective gear cannot provide immunity against injuries. For example, concussions can still occur despite the use of helmets, and spinal injuries can still occur with the use of spinal padding and neck braces. The use of high-tech protective gear can result in a revenge effect, whereupon some cyclists feel safe taking dangerous risks. Because

8307-499: The field. He established a college scholarship for descendants of the Buffalo Soldiers in his son, Thomas Nazzaro's name. The Buffalo Soldiers were often confronted with racial prejudice from other members of the U.S. Army. Civilians in the areas where the soldiers were stationed occasionally reacted to them with violence. Buffalo Soldiers were attacked during racial disturbances in Rio Grande City, Texas , in 1899, Brownsville, Texas , in 1906, and Houston, Texas , in 1917. During

8424-595: The first regularly available mountain bike frame, which was accessorized by Gary Fisher and Charlie Kelly and sold by their company called MountainBikes (later changed to Fisher Mountain Bikes, then bought by Trek , still under the name Gary Fisher, currently sold as Trek's "Gary Fisher Collection"). The first two mass-produced mountain bikes were sold in the early 1980s: the Specialized Stumpjumper and Univega Alpina Pro. In 1988, The Great Mountain Biking Video

8541-738: The form of single routes or part of a larger complex, known as trail centers. Trail difficulty typically varies from gentle 'family' trails (green) through routes with increasingly technical features (blue and red) to those requiring high levels of fitness and skill (black) incorporating demanding ascents with steep technical descents comparable to less extreme downhill routes. As difficulty increases trails incorporate more technical trail features such as berms, rock gardens, uneven surfaces, drop offs and jumps. The most basic of bike designs can be used for less severe trails, but there are "trail bike" designs which balance climbing ability with good downhill performance, almost always having 120–150 mm of travel on

8658-540: The frame tubes instead of fillet-brazing, a process better suited to mass production, and which helped to reduce labor and manufacturing cost. The bikes were configured with 15 gears using derailleurs , a triple chainring , and a cogset with five sprockets. Throughout the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, mountain biking moved from a little-known sport to a mainstream activity. Mountain bikes and mountain bike gear, once only available at specialty shops or via mail order, became available at standard bike stores. By

8775-406: The front than on the rear, such as on a motorcycle, to increase maneuverability. This is called a mullet bicycle, most common with a 29-inch wheel in the front and a 27.5-inch wheel in the back. Another interesting trend in mountain bikes is outfitting dirt jump or urban bikes with rigid forks. These bikes normally use 4–5″ travel suspension forks. The resulting product is used for the same purposes as

8892-431: The gap between cross-country bikes and those built specifically for downhill riding. They are characterized by 4–6 inches (100–150 millimetres) of fork travel. 29er bikes are those using 700c sized rims (as do most road bikes), but wider and suited for tires of two inches (50 mm) width or more; the increased diameter wheel is able to roll over obstacles better and offers a greater tire contact patch , but also results in

9009-465: The general public free of cost ..." Unfortunately, the forces of developers, miners, and greed cut the boundaries of Yosemite in 1905 and the arboretum was nearly destroyed. In the Sierra Nevada, the Buffalo Soldiers regularly endured long days in the saddle, slim rations, racism, and separation from family and friends. As military stewards, the African American cavalry and infantry regiments protected

9126-466: The initial exposure of the sport to a Nation-wide audience through TV media's Evening Magazine . The fire road unofficially named "Repack" still exists and is rideable. The sport originated in California on Marin County 's Mount Tamalpais . It was not until the late 1970s and early 1980s that road bicycle companies started to manufacture mountain bicycles using high-tech lightweight materials. Joe Breeze

9243-467: The key determinant of injury risk is kinetic energy , and because kinetic energy increases with the square of the speed, effectively each doubling of speed can quadruple the injury risk. Similarly, each tripling of speed can be expected to bring a nine-fold increase in risk, and each quadrupling of speed means that a sixteen-fold risk increase must be anticipated. Higher speeds of travel also add danger due to reaction time . Because higher speeds mean that

9360-460: The killings of Mexican border crossers by the U.S. Army along the vaguely defined border between the two cities during the previous year (the U.S. Border Patrol did not exist until 1924 ). For the Americans, the reinforcements were the 10th Cavalry, off-duty 35th Regiment soldiers, and militia. Hostilities quickly escalated, and several soldiers were killed, and others wounded on both sides, including

9477-465: The late 1880s and early 1890s. Buffalo Soldiers fought in the last engagement of the Indian Wars, the small Battle of Bear Valley in southern Arizona which occurred in 1918 between U.S. cavalry and Yaqui natives. In total, 23 Buffalo Soldiers received the Medal of Honor during the Indian Wars. The Buffalo Soldiers, specifically the 9th Cavalry , participated in two of the largest range conflicts in

9594-475: The late 1960s to-late 1970s. At the time, the bikes were comparatively primitive with single-speed coaster brakes. The earliest ancestors of modern mountain bikes were based around frames made by Schwinn , Colson and others. The Schwinn Excelsior was the frame of choice due to its geometry. These early bikes were eventually modified with multi-speed gearing, drum or rim brakes, and motocross or BMX-style handlebars, creating "klunkers". The term would also be used as

9711-443: The mayor of Nogales, Sonora , Felix B. Peñaloza (killed when waving a white truce flag /handkerchief with his cane). A cease-fire was arranged later after the US forces took the heights south of Nogales, Arizona. Due in part to the heightened hysteria caused by World War I, allegations surfaced that German agents fomented this violence and died fighting alongside the Mexican troops they led. U.S. newspaper reports in Nogales before

9828-514: The mid-first decade of the 21st century, even some department stores began selling inexpensive mountain bikes with full-suspension and disc brakes. In the first decade of the 21st century, trends in mountain bikes included the "all-mountain bike", the 29er and the one by drivetrain (though the first mass-produced 1x drivetrain was Sram's XX1 in 2012). "All-mountain bikes" were designed to descend and handle well in rough conditions, while still pedaling efficiently for climbing, and were intended to bridge

9945-410: The military campaigns in these areas and earned a distinguished record. Thirteen enlisted men and six officers from these four regiments earned the Medal of Honor during the Indian Wars. In addition to the military campaigns, the Buffalo Soldiers served a variety of roles along the frontier, from building roads to escorting the U.S. mail . On April 17, 1875, regimental headquarters for the 10th Cavalry

10062-537: The most expensive professional downhill mountain bikes can weigh as little as 15 kilograms (33 pounds), fully equipped with custom carbon fibre parts, air suspension, tubeless tires and more. Downhill frames have anywhere from 170–250 millimeters (6.7–9.8 inches) of travel and are usually equipped with a 200 millimeters (7.9 inches) travel dual-crown fork. Four-cross/Dual Slalom (4X) is a discipline in which riders compete either on separate tracks, as in Dual Slalom, or on

10179-554: The name originated with the Cheyenne warriors in the winter of 1877, the actual Cheyenne translation being "Wild Buffalo". However, writer Walter Hill documented the account of Colonel Benjamin Grierson , who founded the 10th Cavalry regiment, recalling an 1871 campaign against Comanches . Hill attributed the origin of the name to the Comanche , due to Grierson's assertions. The Apache used

10296-494: The national parks from illegal grazing, poaching , timber thieves, and forest fires. Yosemite Park Ranger Shelton Johnson researched and interpreted the history in an attempt to recover and celebrate the contributions of the Buffalo Soldiers of the Sierra Nevada. On March 23, 1907, the United States Military Academy Detachment of Cavalry was changed to a colored unit. It had been proposed in 1897 at

10413-637: The original bike. A commonly cited reason for making the change to a rigid fork is the enhancement of the rider's ability to transmit force to the ground, which is important for performing tricks. In the mid-first decade of the 21st century, an increasing number of mountain bike-oriented resorts opened. Often, they are similar to or in the same complex as a ski resort or they retrofit the concrete steps and platforms of an abandoned factory as an obstacle course, as with Ray's MTB Indoor Park . Mountain bike parks which are operated as summer season activities at ski hills usually include chairlifts that are adapted to bikes,

10530-457: The peacetime formation years (1865–1870), the black infantry and cavalry regiments were composed of black enlisted soldiers commanded by white commissioned officers and black noncommissioned officers . These included the first commander of the 10th Cavalry Benjamin Grierson , the first commander of the 9th Cavalry Edward Hatch , Medal of Honor recipient Louis H. Carpenter , and Nicholas M. Nolan . The first black commissioned officer to lead

10647-444: The rider travels further during their reaction time, this leaves less travel distance within which to react safely. This, in turn, further multiplies the risk of an injurious crash. In general, although protective gear cannot always prevent the occurrence of injuries, the use of such equipment is appropriate, as is maintaining it in serviceable condition. Because mountain biking takes place outdoors, ultraviolet radiation from sunlight

10764-501: The same as those used for Dirt Jumping, having 24″ or 26″ wheels. Also, they are very light, many in the range of 25–30 lb (11–14 kg), and are typically hardtails with between 0–100 millimeters of the front suspension. As with Dirt Jumping and Trials, style and execution are emphasized. Trail riding or trail biking is a varied and popular non-competitive form of mountain biking on recognized, and often waymarked and graded, trails ; unpaved tracks, forest paths, etc. Trails may take

10881-487: The same term ("We called them 'buffalo soldiers,' because they had curly, kinky hair ... like bison ") a claim supported by other sources. Another possible source could be from the Plains Indians who gave them that name because of the bison coats they wore in winter. The term Buffalo Soldiers became a generic term for all black soldiers. It is now used for U.S. Army units that trace their direct lineage back to any of

10998-605: The significance of an all-terrain bicycle and the coming boom in 'adventure sports'. Instead, the first mass-produced mountain bikes were pioneered by new companies such as MountainBikes (later, Fisher Mountain Bikes), Ritchey, and Specialized . Specialized was an American startup company that arranged for production of mountain bike frames from factories in Japan and Taiwan. First marketed in 1981, Specialized's mountain bike largely followed Tom Ritchey's frame geometry, but used TiG welding to join

11115-409: The skill of map navigation to mountain biking. One of the first examples of bicycles modified specifically for off-road use is the expedition of Buffalo Soldiers from Missoula, Montana , to Yellowstone in August 1896. Bicycles were ridden off-road by road racing cyclists who used cyclocross as a means of keeping fit during the winter. Cyclo-cross eventually became a sport in its own right in

11232-524: The societal norms implemented through Jim Crow laws . During the Korean War , black and white troops operated in integrated units for the first time. The 24th Infantry Regiment saw combat during the Korean War and was the last segregated regiment to engage in combat. The 24th was deactivated in 1951, and its soldiers were integrated into other units in Korea. On December 12, 1951, the last Buffalo Soldier units,

11349-482: The soldiers serving were white. Beginning in 1899, and continuing in 1903 and 1904, African American regiments served during the summer in the second and third oldest national parks in the United States (Sequoia and Yosemite). Because these soldiers served before the National Park Service was created in 1916, they were " park rangers " before the term was coined. A lasting legacy of the soldiers as park rangers

11466-627: The soldiers were moved into service-oriented units, along with the entire 2nd Cavalry Division . The 92nd Infantry Division , the "Buffalo Division", served in combat during the Italian campaign . The 93rd Infantry Division —including the 25th Infantry Regiment —served in the Pacific theater . Separately, independent Black artillery, tank, and tank destroyer battalions, as well as quartermaster and support battalions served in World War II. All of these units to

11583-422: The sport is increasingly attracting high-level riders such as Sam Hill or Isabeau Courdurier . Downhill (DH) is, in the most general sense, riding mountain bikes downhill. Downhill tracks normally include large jumps, drops or other features, and are generally rough and steep from top to bottom. Often, facilities such as an automobile up-lift or ski lift , will be available to transport riders and their bikes to

11700-672: The start-point, as the weight of downhill mountain bikes precludes any serious climbing. Because of the extremely steep terrain, downhill mountain biking is one of the most extreme and dangerous cycling disciplines. Minimum body protection for downhill riding include gloves, knee pads and a full-face helmet, although many riders and racers commonly wear more extensive, full-body, protection that include padding at selected locations. Downhill-specific bikes are universally equipped with front and rear suspension, large disc brakes, and use heavier frame tubing than other mountain bikes. Downhill bicycles now weigh around 16–20 kg (35–44 lb), while

11817-491: The summer to ride downhill-specific trails, using the ski lifts to return to the top with their bikes. Because riders are often far from civilization, there is a strong element of self-reliance in the sport. Riders learn to repair broken bikes and flat tires to avoid being stranded. Many riders carry a backpack, including water, food, tools for trailside repairs, and a first aid kit in case of injury. Group rides are common, especially on longer treks. Mountain bike orienteering adds

11934-484: The torrential tropical rains. Many retained that distinctive crease upon their return to the U.S. The park photographs, in all likelihood, show Buffalo Soldiers who were veterans from that war. One particular Buffalo Soldier stands out in history: Captain Charles Young , who served with Troop I, 9th Cavalry Regiment in Sequoia National Park during the summer of 1903. Young was the third African American to graduate from

12051-445: The units sent, and on one occasion, some of them had a shootout with a group of Texas cowboys in the St. James Hotel. Three soldiers died during the shootout and a few months later one of the cowboys, Davy Crockett , who was involved, was killed by the local sheriffs. Notorious gunfighter, Clay Allison , shot and killed a black sergeant in a bar where he was drinking. The 9th cavalry had

12168-407: The visibility of black soldiers (the 1st Cavalry participated in twenty-one campaigns and the 2nd cavalry participated in nineteen campaigns during this era, compared to the 9th Cavalry 's eight campaigns). Historian Thomas Phillips counted 2,704 engagements with native tribes during this era, of which the four black regiments participated in 141 or about 5%. The Camp Logan Mutiny, also known as

12285-684: The war. Additionally, the 6th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry Regiment had a company of African-American soldiers, company L, that saw action in Puerto Rico . Up to 5,000 "Black men" enlisted in volunteer regiments in the Spanish–American War in Alabama, Illinois, Kansas, North Carolina, Ohio and Virginia, and some had all black officers. Several other African-American regiments of United States Volunteer Infantry (USVI) were formed and nicknamed "Immune Regiments", due to having more natural resistance to malaria, yellow fever & other tropical diseases , but only

12402-401: The weather, and numerous other factors, including personal choice. Protection becomes more important where these factors may be considered to increase the possibility or severity of a crash. A helmet and gloves are usually regarded as sufficient for the majority of non-technical riding. Full-face helmets, goggles and armored suits or jackets are frequently used in downhill mountain biking, where

12519-425: Was cognizant of the many problems of domestic and allied political involvement in military decision-making during wartime, and gave Pershing unmatched authority to run his command as he saw fit, but Pershing practiced careful realpolitik where black participation was concerned, not engaging in issues that might distract or diminish his command. Even so, Pershing allowed American soldiers (African Americans) to be under

12636-521: Was completed in 1994 for the Townsight run. In the summer of 2011, the Las Conchas Fire burned a portion of the ski area. The fire burned ten of the mountain's 44 runs, and damaged two chairlifts. The most significant damage occurred on the mountain's east side, in the Townsight area. Despite fire damage, Pajarito Mountain opened for the 2011–2012 season with four lifts operating and 34 runs open. Mountain biking Mountain biking ( abbr. MTB )

12753-517: Was distinguished in 1931 by being the last regular army unit to be issued with the M1902 blue dress uniform for all ranks. This parade uniform had ceased to be worn by other regiments after 1917. The last commanding officer of the West Point detachment of the Buffalo Soldiers, (9th and 10th Cavalry,) was Lt. Col. John "Duke" Nazzaro. Nazzaro was known and recognized for standing with his detachment on and off

12870-590: Was named in Captain Young's honor. Some of Young's descendants attended the ceremony. In 1903, 9th Cavalrymen in Sequoia built the first trail to the top of Mount Whitney , the highest mountain in the contiguous United States. They also built the first wagon road into Sequoia's Giant Forest , the most famous grove of giant sequoia trees in Sequoia National Park. In 1904, 9th Cavalrymen in Yosemite built an arboretum on

12987-607: Was posted as a brigadier general to Fort Leavenworth, was guest speaker for the unveiling of the Fort Leavenworth monument in July 1992. In the 21st century, the employment of the Buffalo Soldiers by the United States Army in the American Indian Wars has led some to call for the critical reappraisal of the African American regiments. In the opinion of some, the Buffalo Soldiers were used as mere shock troops or accessories to

13104-412: Was relaxed. The American Military History says: Faced with a shortage of infantry replacements during the enemy's counteroffensive, General Eisenhower offered black soldiers in service units an opportunity to volunteer for duty with the infantry. More than 4,500 responded, many taking reductions in grade to meet specified requirements. The 6th Army Group formed these men into provisional companies, while

13221-540: Was released, soon followed by others. In 2007, Klunkerz: A Film About Mountain Bikes was released, documenting mountain bike history during the formative period in Northern California. Additionally, a group of mountain bikers called the Laguna Rads formed a club during the mid eighties and began a weekly ride, exploring the uncharted coastal hillsides of Laguna Beach, California. Industry insiders suggest that this

13338-425: Was stationed at Nogales, Arizona , on August 27, 1918, when at about 4:10 p.m., a gun battle erupted unintentionally when a Mexican civilian attempted to pass through the border, back to Mexico, without being interrogated at the U.S. Customs house. After the initial shooting, reinforcements from both sides rushed to the border. On the Mexican side, the majority of the belligerents were angry civilians upset with

13455-682: Was the Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) on the Western Front . While earlier a champion of the African-American soldier, at this time he did not defend their full participation on the battlefield, but bowed to the racist policies of President Woodrow Wilson , Secretary of War Newton D. Baker , and the Southern Democratic Party with its "separate but equal" philosophy. Baker

13572-434: Was the birth of the freeride movement, as they were cycling up and down hills and mountains where no cycling specific trail network prexisted. The Laguna Rads have also held the longest running downhill race once a year since 1986. At the time, the bicycle industry was not impressed with the mountain bike, regarding mountain biking to be short-term fad. In particular, large manufacturers such as Schwinn and Fuji failed to see

13689-473: Was transferred to Fort Concho , Texas. Companies actually arrived at Fort Concho in May 1873. The 9th Cavalry was headquartered at Fort Union from 1875 to 1881. At various times from 1873 through 1885, Fort Concho housed 9th Cavalry companies A–F, K, and M, 10th Cavalry companies A, D–G, I, L, and M, 24th Infantry companies D–G, and K, and 25th Infantry companies G and K. From 1879 to 1881, portions of all four of

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