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50-495: The text refers to the Shaka year 427, which corresponds to 505 CE. Indian writers on astrology and astronomy generally chose an epoch year close to the date of composition of their texts, in order to facilitate correct astronomical calculations. Thus, 505 CE was most probably the year in which Varāhamihira composed Pancha-Siddhantaka or began planning it. The writings of both Varāhamihira and his commentator Utpala suggest that

100-448: A dinar of about 8 gm, roughly similar to a Roman aureus , and a quarter dinar of about 2 gm. (about the size of an obol ). The Buddha is represented wearing the monastic robe, the antaravasaka , the uttarasanga , and the overcoat sanghati . The ears are extremely large and long, a symbolic exaggeration possibly rendered necessary by the small size of the coins, but otherwise visible in some later Gandharan statues of

150-508: A date in an era which is now thought to be the Yavana era , starting in 186 to 175 BCE. The " Kanishka casket " or "Kanishka reliquary", dated to the first year of Kanishka's reign in 127 CE, was discovered in a deposit chamber under Kanishka stupa , during the archaeological excavations in 1908–1909 in Shah-Ji-Ki-Dheri, just outside the present-day Ganj Gate of the old city of Peshawar. It

200-468: A few Buddhist divinities were used as well: Only a few Hindu divinities were used as well: In Buddhist tradition Kanishka is regarded as of utmost importance. Although he never converted to Buddhism, he encouraged its teachings and provided royal sponsorship. Notably, he administered the 4th Buddhist Council in Kashmir as the head of the council. It was presided by Vasumitra and Ashwaghosha. Images of

250-504: A lance. He is frequently seen to be making a sacrifice on a small altar. The lower half of a lifesize limestone relief of Kanishka similarly attired, with a stiff embroidered surplice beneath his coat and spurs attached to his boots under the light gathered folds of his trousers, survived in the Kabul Museum until it was destroyed by the Taliban. A few coins at the beginning of his reign have

300-491: A late date: "The servant Agisalaos, the superintendent of works at the vihara of Kanishka in the monastery of Mahasena" ("dasa agisala nava-karmi ana*kaniskasa vihara mahasenasa sangharame"). The lid of the casket shows the Buddha on a lotus pedestal, and worshipped by Brahma and Indra . The edge of the lid is decorated by a frieze of flying geese. The body of the casket represents a Kushan monarch, probably Kanishka in person, with

350-560: A legend in the Greek language and script: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΚΑΝΗϷΚΟΥ , basileus basileon kaneshkou "[coin] of Kanishka, king of kings." Greek deities, with Greek names are represented on these early coins: The inscriptions in Greek are full of spelling and syntactical errors. Following the transition to the Bactrian language on coins, Iranian and Indic divinities replace the Greek ones: Only

400-407: A legend in the Bactrian language – were written in a modified Greek script that had one additional glyph (Ϸ) to represent /š/ ( sh ), as in the word 'Ku sh an' and 'Kani sh ka'. On his coins, the king is typically depicted as a bearded man in a long coat and trousers gathered at the ankle, with flames emanating from his shoulders. He wears large rounded boots, and is armed with a long sword as well as

450-447: A mustache is apparent. The palm of his right hand bears the Chakra mark, and his brow bear the urna . An aureola , formed by one, two or three lines, surrounds him. The full gown worn by the Buddha on the coins, covering both shoulders, suggests a Gandharan model rather than a Mathuran one. The Shakyamuni Buddha (with the legend "Sakamano Boudo", i.e. Shakamuni Buddha, another name for

500-511: A wider range of topics that appear in the texts belonging to the karana genre. Notable mathematical concepts in the Pancha-siddhantika include: Like Brahma-gupta, Varāhamihira rejects Aryabhata's view (now universally accepted) that the earth revolves around the sun. Utpala suggests that Varāhamihira wrote an abridged version of the Pancha-siddhantika , but that work is now lost . Shatananda based his Bhasvati-karana (c. 1098 CE) on

550-751: Is called Saka Era of 78 CE , or simply Saka Era , a system that is common in epigraphic evidence from southern India. A parallel northern India system is the Vikrama Era , which is used by the Vikrami calendar linked to Vikramaditya. The beginning of the Shaka era is now widely equated to the ascension of Indo-Scythian king Chashtana in 78 CE. His inscriptions, dated to the years 11 and 52, have been found at Andhau in Kutch region. These years are interpreted as Shaka years 11 (89 CE) and 52 (130 CE). A previously more common view

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600-490: Is described in the Rabatak inscription as Kanishka makes the list of the kings who ruled up to his time: Kujula Kadphises as his great-grandfather, Vima Taktu as his grandfather, Vima Kadphises as his father, and himself Kanishka: "for King Kujula Kadphises (his) great grandfather, and for King Vima Taktu (his) grandfather, and for King Vima Kadphises (his) father, and *also for himself, King Kanishka". Kanishka's empire

650-569: Is that Kanishka was originally king of Kashmir before becoming suzerain of the dynasty as a whole. He cites the above-mentioned Khalatse epigraph, which may allude to Kushan power reaching the northeast corner of Kashmir, and also the Rajatarangini , in which the list of Kushan kings of Kashmir gave Kanishka's name as the third of a sequence, along with the names of Hushka and Jushka . Finally, testimony of Kanishka's activity in Kashmir in favor of

700-658: Is today at the Peshawar Museum, and a copy is in the British Museum . It is said to have contained three bone fragments of the Buddha, which are now housed in Mandalay , Burma. The casket is dedicated in Kharoshthi . The inscription reads: The text is signed by the maker, a Greek artist named Agesilas , who oversaw work at Kanishka's stupas (caitya), confirming the direct involvement of Greeks with Buddhist realisations at such

750-448: The antaravasaka and the uttarasanga . Also, his gown is folded over the left arm (rather than being held in the left hand as above), a feature only otherwise known in the Bimaran casket and suggestive of a scarf-like uttariya . He has an abundant topknot covering the ushnisha , and a simple or double halo , sometimes radiating, surrounds his head. The Bodhisattva Maitreya (with

800-701: The Buddha based on 32 physical signs were made during his time. He encouraged both the Gandhara school of Greco-Buddhist Art and the Mathura school of art (an inescapable religious syncretism pervades Kushana rule). Kanishka personally seems to have embraced both Buddhism and the Persian attributes but he favored Buddhism, proven by his devotion to Buddhist teachings and prayer styles depicted in various books related to kushan empire. His greatest contribution to Buddhist architecture

850-531: The Government of India , it is referred as the Shalivahana Era (IAST: Śālivāhana ). The origin of the Shaka era is highly controversial. There are two Shaka era systems in scholarly use, one is called Old Shaka Era , whose epoch is uncertain, probably sometime in the 1st millennium BCE because ancient Buddhist and Jaina inscriptions and texts use it, but this is a subject of dispute among scholars. The other

900-589: The Surya Siddhanta section of the Pancha-siddhantika . Printed editions of the text include: Shaka era Traditional The Shaka era ( IAST : Śaka, Śāka ) is a historical Hindu calendar era (year numbering), the epoch (its year zero) of which corresponds to Julian year 78. The era has been widely used in different regions of the Indian subcontinent as well as in Southeast Asia . According to

950-551: The Western Satraps , the Shaka ( Indo-Scythian ) rulers of Ujjain . From the reign of Rudrasimha I (178–197), they recorded the date of minting of their coins in the Shaka era, usually written on the obverse behind the king's head in Brahmi numerals . The use of the calendar era survived into the Gupta period and became part of Hindu tradition following the decline of Buddhism in

1000-449: The Buddha typically dated to the 3rd–4th century CE ( illustration, left ). He has an abundant topknot covering the usnisha , often highly stylised in a curly or often globular manner, also visible on later Buddha statues of Gandhara. In general, the representation of the Buddha on these coins is already highly symbolic, and quite distinct from the more naturalistic and Hellenistic images seen in early Gandhara sculptures. On several designs

1050-663: The Buddha's Successors . Kanishka's coins portray images of Indian , Greek , Iranian and even Sumero - Elamite divinities, demonstrating the religious syncretism in his beliefs. Kanishka's coins from the beginning of his reign bear legends in Greek language and script and depict Greek divinities. Later coins bear legends in Bactrian , the Iranian language that the Kushans evidently spoke, and Greek divinities were replaced by corresponding Iranian ones. All of Kanishka's coins – even ones with

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1100-571: The Buddhist faith suggests that he favored the region above others and that he founded Peshawar as his capital to be close to Kashmir. He was of Yuezhi ethnicity and his native language was probably Tocharian . Kanishka was the successor of Vima Kadphises , as demonstrated by an impressive genealogy of the Kushan kings, known as the Rabatak inscription . The connection of Kanishka with other Kushan rulers

1150-486: The Buddhist scholar Ashvaghosha , who became his religious advisor in his later years. The Buddhist coins of Kanishka are comparatively rare (well under one percent of all known coins of Kanishka). Several show Kanishka on the obverse and the Buddha standing on the reverse. A few also show the Shakyamuni Buddha and Maitreya . Like all coins of Kanishka, the design is rather rough and proportions tend to be imprecise;

1200-564: The Great , was an emperor of the Kushan dynasty , under whose reign ( c.  127 –150 CE) the empire reached its zenith. He is famous for his military, political, and spiritual achievements. A descendant of Kujula Kadphises , founder of the Kushan empire , Kanishka came to rule an empire extending from Central Asia and Gandhara to Pataliputra on the Gangetic plain . The main capital of his empire

1250-619: The Indian subcontinent . It was in widespread use by the 6th to 7th centuries, e.g. in the works of Varāhamihira and Brahmagupta , and by the 7th century also appears in epigraphy in Hindu Southeast Asia . The calendar era remained in use in India and Southeast Asia throughout the medieval period, the main alternative era in traditional Hindu timekeeping being the Vikram Samvat era (56 BC). It

1300-484: The Iranian sun and moon gods on his side. On the sides are two images of a seated Buddha, worshiped by royal figures, can be assumed as Kanishka. A garland, supported by cherubs goes around the scene in typical Hellenistic style. The attribution of the casket to Kanishka has been recently disputed, essentially on stylistic ground (for example the ruler shown on the casket is not bearded, to the contrary of Kanishka). Instead,

1350-544: The Kushans to retreat by use of a scorched-earth policy. The territories of Kashgar , Khotan and Yarkand were Chinese dependencies in the Tarim Basin , modern Xinjiang . Several coins of Kanishka have been found in the Tarim Basin . Kanishka possibly fought off an invasion by the Parthian Empire in his reign. The war is attested in a single source, a Chinese translation of a lost Sanskrit original, A History of

1400-451: The Shakas in 78 CE, and the Shaka era marks the day of this conquest. This legend has been mentioned in the writings of Brahmagupta (7th century CE), Al-Biruni (973–1048 CE), and others. However, it is an obvious fabrication. Over time, the word "Shaka" became generic, and came to be mean "an era"; the era thus came to be known as "Shalivahana Shaka". The earliest known users of the era are

1450-444: The arrival of Kanishka was reportedly foretold or was predicted by the Buddha, as well as the construction of his stupa: The same story is repeated in a Khotanese scroll found at Dunhuang , which first described how Kanishka would arrive 400 years after the death of the Buddha. The account also describes how Kanishka came to raise his stupa: Chinese pilgrims to India, such as Xuanzang , who travelled there around 630 CE also relays

1500-527: The base of a large stupa. The Buddhist text Śrīdharmapiṭakanidānasūtra —known via a Chinese translation made in AD 472—refers to the conquest of Pataliputra by Kanishka. Knowledge of his hold over Central Asia is less well established. The Hou Hanshu , states that general Ban Chao fought battles near Khotan with a Kushan army of 70,000 men led by an otherwise unknown Kushan viceroy named Xie ( Chinese : 謝 ) in 90 AD. Ban Chao claimed to be victorious, forcing

1550-479: The casket is often attributed to Kanishka's successor Huvishka . In Buddhist tradition, Kanishka is often described as an aggressive, hot tempered, rigid, strict, and a bit harsh kind of King before he got converted to Buddhism of which he was very fond, and after his conversion to Buddhism, he became an openhearted, benevolent, and faithful ruler. As in the Sri-dharma-pitaka-nidana sutra: Additionally,

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1600-489: The contents of the astronomical treatises of these schools: these treatises, at least in their original form, are now lost. For example, the surviving version of the Surya Siddhanta can be dated to 1000 CE, although its original version may have been composed around 400 CE. Similarly, the Paitamaha Siddhanta referred to by Varāhamihira was probably composed in the early 5th century (distinct from an even earlier work of

1650-488: The historic Buddha Siddharta Gautama ), standing to front, with left hand on hip and forming the abhaya mudra with the right hand. All these coins are in copper only, and usually rather worn. The gown of the Shakyamuni Buddha is quite light compared to that on the coins in the name of Buddha, clearly showing the outline of the body, in a nearly transparent way. These are probably the first two layers of monastic clothing

1700-520: The historically inaccurate notion of "Shalivahana era" appears to be based on the victory of the Satavahana ruler Gautamiputra Satakarni over some Shaka ( Western Kshatrapa ) kings. Sircar also suggested that the association of the northern king Vikramaditya with Vikrama era might have led the southern scholars to fabricate a similar legend. Another similar account claims that the emperor Shalivahana , grandson of legendary emperor Vikramaditya defeated

1750-493: The image of the Buddha is often slightly overdone, with oversize ears and feet spread apart in the same fashion as the Kushan king. Three types of Kanishka's Buddhist coins are known: Only six Kushan coins of the Buddha are known in gold (the sixth one is the centerpiece of an ancient piece of jewellery, consisting of a Kanishka Buddha coin decorated with a ring of heart-shaped ruby stones). All these coins were minted in gold under Kanishka I, and are in two different denominations:

1800-452: The legend "Metrago Boudo") cross-legged on a throne, holding a water pot, and also forming the Abhaya mudra. These coins are only known in copper and are quite worn out . On the clearest coins, Maitreya seems to be wearing the armbands of an Indian prince, a feature often seen on the statuary of Maitreya. The throne is decorated with small columns, suggesting that the coin representation of Maitreya

1850-457: The official language of administration in the empire. Earlier scholars believed that Kanishka ascended the Kushan throne in 78 CE, and that this date was used as the beginning of the Saka calendar era . However, historians no longer regard this date as that of Kanishka's accession. Falk estimates that Kanishka came to the throne in 127 CE. There are two theories about Kanisha's origins, both based on

1900-515: The region of Gandhara played a key role in the development and the transmission of Buddhist ideas in the direction of northern Asia from the middle of the 2nd century CE. The Kushan monk, Lokaksema ( c.  178 CE ), became the first translator of Mahayana Buddhist scriptures into Chinese and established a translation bureau at the Chinese capital Loyang . Central Asian and East Asian Buddhist monks appear to have maintained strong exchanges for

1950-409: The same name), but the present-day text is a later work that survives as part of a Purana text. Thus, Varāhamihira's text is the only source about these ancient treatises. Varāhamihira mentions several rules from these texts, but sometimes, it is not clear which rule is from which text. Varāhamihira refers to his Pancha-siddhantika as Karana (a concise exposition of astronomy), but the text covers

2000-490: The standing and seated Buddhas in statuary. Both representations of the Buddha and Shakyamuni have both shoulders covered by their monastic gown, indicating that the statues used as models were from the Gandhara school of art, rather than Mathura . Several Buddhist statues are directly connected to the reign of Kanishka, such as several Bodhisattva statues from the Art of Mathura , while a few other from Gandhara are inscribed with

2050-425: The story: King Kanishka because of his deeds was highly respected, regarded, honored by all the people he ruled and governed and was regarded the greatest king who ever lived because of his kindness, humbleness and sense of equality and self-righteousness among all aspects. Thus such great deeds and character of the king Kanishka made his name immortal and thus he was regarded "THE KING OF KINGS" Buddhist monks from

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2100-439: The supposition of a separate Kanishka dynasty. The earlier Sten Konow 's is that Kanishka came from Khotan , having been summoned as an ethnic ally at the time of troubles after Vima 's reign. Konow supports this theory by citing a Tibetan tradition that a Khotanese expedition to India of about A.D. 120 was commanded by a King Vijayakirti along with a King Kanika and the king of Guzan . Roman Ghirshman 's similar theory

2150-437: The text was Varāhamihira's first work. However, some scholars believe that 505 CE was the year of Varāhamihira's birth or of another important event in his life. This is because according to Amaraja, the author of a commentary on Brahmagupta 's Khanda-khadyaka , Varāhamihira died in 587 CE (Shaka year 509). If Varāhamihira wrote Pancha-siddhantika in 505 CE even at the young age of 25, he must have been over 105 years old at

2200-435: The time of his death, which seems exceptionally high to these scholars. Consequently, these scholars date Varāhamihira's lifespan to 505-587 CE. Other scholars doubt the accuracy of Amaraja's statement, since he lived a thousand years after Varāhamihira. The text discusses five contemporary astronomical schools and their treatises, listed in order of importance, the last two regarded as inferior: Varāhamihira's text summarizes

2250-546: Was certainly vast. It extended from southern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan , north of the Amu Darya ( Oxus ) in the north west to Northern India, as far as Mathura in the south east (the Rabatak inscription even claims he held Pataliputra and Sri Champa), and his territory also included Kashmir , where there was a town Kanishkapur (modern day Kanispora), named after him not far from the Baramulla Pass and which still contains

2300-597: Was directly copied from pre-existing statuary with such well-known features. The qualification of "Buddha" for Maitreya is inaccurate, as he is instead a Bodhisattva (he is the Buddha of the future). The iconography of these three types is very different from that of the other deities depicted in Kanishka's coinage. Whether Kanishka's deities are all shown from the side, the Buddhas only are shown frontally, indicating that they were copied from contemporary frontal representations of

2350-675: Was located at Puruṣapura ( Peshawar ) in Gandhara, with another major capital at Mathura . Coins of Kanishka were found in Tripuri (present-day Jabalpur ). Although he never converted to the religion, his conquests and patronage of Buddhism played an important role in the development of the Silk Road , and in the transmission of Mahayana Buddhism from Gandhara across the Karakoram range to China . Around 127 CE, he replaced Greek with Bactrian as

2400-408: Was that the beginning of the Shaka era corresponds to the ascension of Kanishka I in 78 CE. However, the latest research by Henry Falk indicated that Kanishka ascended the throne in 127 CE. Moreover, Kanishka was not a Shaka, but a Kushana ruler. Other historical candidates have included rulers such as Vima Kadphises , Vonones , and Nahapana . According to historian Dineshchandra Sircar ,

2450-477: Was the Kanishka stupa at Purushapura, modern day Peshawar . Archaeologists who rediscovered the base of it in 1908–1909 estimated that this stupa had a diameter of 286 feet (87 metres). Reports of Chinese pilgrims such as Xuanzang indicate that its height was 600 to 700 (Chinese) "feet" (= roughly 180–210 metres or 591–689 ft.) and it was covered with jewels. Kanishka is said to have been particularly close to

2500-932: Was used by Javanese courts until 1633, when it was replaced by Anno Javanico , a hybrid Javanese-Islamic system. It continues to be used in the Balinese saka calendar . It was adopted as the era of the Indian national calendar (also known as "Śaka calendar") in 1957. The Shaka epoch is the vernal equinox of the year AD 78. The year of the official Shaka Calendar is tied to the Gregorian date of 22 March every year, except in Gregorian leap years when it starts on 21 March. The Lunisolar Shalivaahana Saka continues to be used widely in Southern and Western India for many religious and some secular purposes such as sowing and agriculture. <3 Kanishka I Kanishka I , also known as Kanishka

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