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97-456: The typical sizes of an escalope used in the food industry range from 110 to 225 g (4–8 oz). Paillard is an older French culinary term referring to a quick-cooking, thinly sliced or pounded piece of meat. In France, it has been largely replaced by the word escalope . The term escalope originated in France. It first appeared in cookery terminology late in the 17th century as

194-476: A Lenten sacrifice , in which Christians give up a personal pleasure for the duration of 40 days, is a traditional practice during Lent. During Shrovetide and especially on Shrove Tuesday , the day before the start of the Lenten season, many Christians finalize their decision with respect to what Lenten sacrifices they will make for Lent. Examples include practicing vegetarianism and teetotalism during Lent as

291-459: A Lenten sacrifice. While making a Lenten sacrifice, it is customary to pray for strength to keep it; many often wish others for doing so as well, e.g. "May God bless your Lenten sacrifice." In addition, some believers add a regular spiritual discipline, to bring them closer to God, such as reading a Lenten daily devotional . For Catholics, Lutherans, Moravians, Anglicans, United Protestants, and Lent-observing Methodists and Reformed Christians,

388-571: A Lenten spiritual discipline, such as reading a daily devotional or praying through a Lenten calendar , to draw themselves near to God . Often observed are the Stations of the Cross , a devotional commemoration of Christ's carrying the Cross and crucifixion . Many churches remove flowers from their altars and veil crucifixes , religious statues that show the triumphant Christ, and other elaborate religious symbols in violet fabrics in solemn observance of

485-730: A basket in the narthex to collect the previous year's Holy Week palm branches that were blessed and distributed during the Palm Sunday liturgies; on Shrove Tuesday, churches burn these palms to make the ashes used during the services held on the very next day, Ash Wednesday. In historically Lutheran nations, Shrovetide is known as Fastelavn . After attending the Mass on Shrove Sunday , congregants enjoy Shrovetide buns (fastelavnsboller), "round sweet buns that are covered with icing and filled with cream and/or jam." Children often dress up and collect money from people while singing. They also practice

582-586: A common banquet item, with the crust serving primarily as a container, rather than as food itself, and it was not until the very end of the Late Middle Ages that the shortcrust pie was developed. Meals often ended with an issue de table , which later changed into the modern dessert, and typically consisted of dragées (in the Middle Ages, meaning spiced lumps of hardened sugar or honey), aged cheese, and spiced wine, such as hypocras . The ingredients of

679-584: A descendant of Arabic, the term Randan is used, which is distinctive when compared to the dialects of Arabic. Despite the centuries of Catholic influences, the term remains unchanged since the Arab occupation of Malta . The pattern of fasting and praying for 40 days is seen in the Christian Bible , on which basis the liturgical season of Lent was established. In the Old Testament , the prophet Moses went into

776-408: A dialectal expression in the northeast of rural France, originally meaning a shelled nut or mollusk: veau à l'escalope ( veal cooked in the style of an escalope). In those days, an escalope was undoubtedly always veal. The term "escalope" is also applied to meat-free products such as Quorn (mycoprotein) escalopes, which have a cheese and broccoli sauce encased in bread crumbs. In Australia

873-431: A dish on one's own, now multiple cooks would prepare the different components for the dish. An example used is oeufs au plat Meyerbeer , the prior system would take up to fifteen minutes to prepare the dish, while in the new system, the eggs would be prepared by the entremettier , kidney grilled by the rôtisseur , truffle sauce made by the saucier and thus the dish could be prepared in a shorter time and served quickly in

970-655: A last opportunity for excess before Lent begins. Some of the most famous are the Carnival of Barranquilla , the Carnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife , the Carnival of Venice , Cologne Carnival , the New Orleans Mardi Gras , the Rio de Janeiro carnival , and the Trinidad and Tobago Carnival . In stark contrast to traditions of merrymaking and feasting, Oriental Orthodox Churches practice a pre-Lenten fast in preparation for Lent which

1067-454: A modern version published in 1897. A second source for recipes came from existing peasant dishes that were translated into the refined techniques of haute cuisine . Expensive ingredients would replace the common ingredients, making the dishes much less humble. The third source of recipes was Escoffier himself, who invented many new dishes, such as pêche Melba . Escoffier updated Le Guide Culinaire four times during his lifetime, noting in

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1164-516: A period of fasting before Pascha [Easter]). However it is known that the 40-day period of fasting – the season later named Lent – before Eastertide was clarified at the Nicene Council. In 363-64 AD, the Council of Laodicea prescribed the Lenten fast as "of strict necessity". The 40 days of Lent are calculated differently among the various Christian denominations that observe it, depending on how

1261-491: A period of forty days and forty nights...merited to extinguish the prolonged and severe dryness of the whole world, doing so with a stream of rain and steeping the earth's dryness with the bounty of water from heaven", in the Christian tradition, this is interpreted as being "a figure of ourselves so that we, also fasting a total of forty days, might merit the spiritual rain of baptism...[and] a shower from heaven might pour down upon

1358-464: A pontifical decree of Pope Alexander VI . Until 1741, meat and lacticinia were otherwise forbidden for the whole season of Lent, including Sundays. In that year, Pope Benedict XIV allowed for the consumption of meat and lacticinia during certain fasting days of Lent. Abstinence from alcohol during the season of Lent has traditionally been enjoined "in remembrance of the Sacred Thirst of Our Lord on

1455-440: A reference for the modern-day form of Pho. There are many dishes that are considered part of French national cuisine today. A meal often consists of three courses, hors d'œuvre or entrée (introductory course, sometimes soup), plat principal (main course), fromage (cheese course) or dessert , sometimes with a salad offered before the cheese or dessert. Lent Lent ( Latin : Quadragesima , 'Fortieth')

1552-471: A system of "parties" called the brigade system , which separated the professional kitchen into five separate stations. These five stations included the garde manger that prepared cold dishes; the entremettier prepared starches and vegetables, the rôtisseur prepared roasts, grilled and fried dishes; the saucier prepared sauces and soups; and the pâtissier prepared all pastry and desserts items. This system meant that instead of one person preparing

1649-476: A third course to the meal. Ragout , a stew still central to French cookery, makes its first appearance as a single dish in this edition as well; prior to that, it was listed as a garnish. Shortly before the French Revolution, dishes like bouchées à la Reine gained prominence. Essentially royal cuisine produced by the royal household, this is a chicken-based recipe served on vol-au-vent created under

1746-497: A version based on the Latin term referring to the 40 days (see above), also has a "great fast" version: postul mare . Dutch has three options, one of which means fasting period , and the other two referring to the 40-day period indicated in the Latin term: vastentijd , veertigdagentijd and quadragesima , respectively. In India, it is called चरम चालीसा ( Charam Chalisa - meaning, "climax forty"). In Maltese , despite being

1843-610: Is a period of grief that necessarily ends with a great celebration of Easter . Thus, it is known in Eastern Orthodox circles as the season of "bright sadness" ( Greek : χαρμολύπη , romanized :  charmolypê ). The purpose of Lent is the preparation of the believer for Easter through prayer , mortifying the flesh , repentance of sins, almsgiving , simple living , and self-denial . In Lent, many Christians commit to fasting , as well as giving up certain luxuries in imitation of Christ 's sacrifice during his journey into

1940-598: Is also related. According to the Oxford English Dictionary , 'the shorter form (? Old Germanic type * laŋgito - , * laŋgiton -) seems to be a derivative of * laŋgo - long […] and may possibly have reference to the lengthening of the days as characterizing the season of spring'. The origin of the - en element is less clear: it may simply be a suffix , or lencten may originally have been a compound of * laŋgo - 'long' and an otherwise little-attested word *- tino , meaning "day". In languages spoken where Christianity

2037-586: Is broken only after the Paschal (Easter) Divine Liturgy. The Eastern Orthodox Church maintains the traditional Church's teaching on fasting. The rules for lenten fasting are the monastic rules. Fasting in the Orthodox Church is more than simply abstaining from certain foods. During the Great Lent Orthodox Faithful intensify their prayers and spiritual exercises, go to church services more often, study

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2134-424: Is celebrated. On the final day of the season, Shrove Tuesday or Mardi Gras , many traditional Christians, such as Catholics , Lutherans , Anglicans , and Methodists "make a special point of self-examination, of considering what wrongs they need to repent, and what amendments of life or areas of spiritual growth they especially need to ask God's help in dealing with." During Shrovetide, many churches place

2231-818: Is commemorated on Good Friday, and at the beginning of the next week the joyful celebration of Easter, the start of the Easter season , which recalls the Resurrection of Jesus . In some Christian denominations, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday form the Easter Triduum . The English word Lent is a shortened form of the Old English word lencten , meaning " spring season ", as its Dutch language cognate lente ( Old Dutch lentin ) still does today. A dated term in German , Lenz ( Old High German lenzo ),

2328-511: Is described as lasting for a total duration of 40 days, the number of days Jesus, as well as Moses and Elijah , went without food in their respective fasts. In Lent-observing Western Christian denominations, Lent begins on Ash Wednesday and ends approximately six weeks later; depending on the Christian denomination and local custom, Lent concludes either on the evening of Maundy Thursday (Holy Thursday), or at sundown on Holy Saturday , when

2425-529: Is immediately followed by the fast of Great Lent without interruption. There are traditionally 40 days in Lent; these are marked by fasting, both from foods and festivities, and by other acts of penance . Fasting is maintained for all 40 days of Lent (regardless of how they are enumerated; see above ). Historically, fasting and abstinence has been maintained continuously for the weekdays of the whole Lenten season, with Sundays being days of abstinence only. The making of

2522-513: Is no earlier incarnation. Second, that it is based on an Egyptian Christian post- theophany fast. Third, a combination of origins syncretized around the Council of Nicea. There are early references to periods of fasting prior to baptism . For instance, the Didache , a 1st or 2nd-century Christian text, commends "the baptizer, the one to be baptized, and any others that are able" to fast to prepare for

2619-737: Is the Monday after Ash Wednesday. The special Ash Wednesday fast is transferred to the first Friday of the Ambrosian Lent. Until this rite was revised by Saint Charles Borromeo , the liturgy of the First Sunday of Lent was festive, celebrated in white vestments with chanting of the Gloria in Excelsis and Alleluia , in line with the recommendation in Matthew 6:16, "When you fast, do not look gloomy." During Lent,

2716-673: Is the same as the traditional 40-day calculation.) In the Byzantine Rite , i.e., the Eastern Orthodox Great Lent (Greek: Μεγάλη Τεσσαρακοστή or Μεγάλη Νηστεία, meaning "Great 40 Days" and "Great Fast" respectively) is the most important fasting season in the church year. The 40 days of Great Lent include Sundays, and begin on Clean Monday . The 40 days are immediately followed by what are considered distinct periods of fasting, Lazarus Saturday and Palm Sunday , which in turn are followed straightway by Holy Week . Great Lent

2813-978: Is the solemn Christian religious observance in the liturgical year commemorating the 40 days Jesus spent fasting in the desert and enduring temptation by Satan , according to the Gospels of Matthew , Mark and Luke , before beginning his public ministry . Lent is usually observed in the Catholic , Lutheran , Moravian , Anglican , United Protestant and Orthodox Christian traditions, among others. Some Anabaptist , Baptist , Methodist , Reformed (including certain Continental Reformed , Presbyterian and Congregationalist churches), and nondenominational Christian churches also observe Lent, although many churches in these traditions do not. Which days are enumerated as being part of Lent differs between denominations (see below ), although in all of them Lent

2910-631: The Guide Michelin helped to acquaint commoners with the cuisine bourgeoise of the urban elites and the peasant cuisine of the French countryside starting in the 20th century. Many dishes that were once regional have proliferated in variations across the country. Knowledge of French cooking has contributed significantly to Western cuisines. Its criteria are used widely in Western cookery school boards and culinary education . In November 2010, French gastronomy

3007-843: The Alexandrian Rite , i.e. , the Coptic Orthodox , Coptic Catholic , Ethiopian Orthodox , Ethiopian Catholic , Eritrean Orthodox , and Eritrean Catholic Churches, observe eight continuous weeks of fasting constituting three distinct consecutive fasting periods: As in the Eastern Orthodox Churches, the date of Easter is typically reckoned according to the Julian calendar , and usually occurs later than Easter according to Gregorian calendar used by Catholic and Protestant Churches. In Ethiopian Orthodoxy, fasting ( tsome ) lasts for 55 continuous days before Easter ( Fasika ), although

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3104-486: The Daniel Fast during the season of Lent, in which one abstains from "meat, fish, egg, dairy products, chocolates, ice creams, sugar, sweets, wine or any alcoholic beverages" (cf. Daniel 10:3 ). After attending a worship service (often on Wednesday and Friday evenings), it is common for Christians of various denominations to conclude that day's Lenten fast together through a communal Lenten supper , which may be held in

3201-544: The Easter Vigil is celebrated, though in either case, Lenten fasting observances are maintained until the evening of Holy Saturday. Sundays may or may not be excluded, depending on the denomination. In Eastern Christianity – including Eastern Orthodox , Eastern Catholics , Eastern Lutherans , and Oriental Orthodox – Great Lent is observed continuously without interruption for 40 days starting on Clean Monday and ending on Lazarus Saturday before Holy Week . Lent

3298-687: The Roman Rite Lent starts on Ash Wednesday and ends on the evening of Holy Thursday with the Mass of the Lord's Supper . This comprises a period of 44 days. Historically, the fasting and abstinence were enjoined during the weekdays of Lent and with Sundays being days of abstinence; the obligations of the Lenten fast continue through Good Friday and Holy Saturday, totaling 40 days (with the Eucharistic Fast applying as well). Although Lent formally ends on Holy Thursday, Lenten fasting practices continue until

3395-606: The Romance language group are: Catalan quaresma , French carême , Galician coresma , Italian quaresima , Occitan quaresma , Portuguese quaresma , Romanian păresimi , Sardinian caresima , Spanish cuaresma , and Walloon cwareme . Examples in non-Latin-based languages are: Albanian kreshma , Basque garizuma , Croatian korizma , Irish and Scottish Gaelic carghas , Swahili kwaresima , Filipino kuwaresma , and Welsh c(a)rawys . In other languages,

3492-543: The date of Easter is calculated, but also on which days Lent is understood to begin and end, and on whether all the days of Lent are counted consecutively. Additionally, the date of Lent may depend on the calendar used by the particular church, such as the ( revised ) Julian or Gregorian calendars typically used by Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant churches, or the Ethiopian and Coptic calendars traditionally used by some Oriental Orthodox churches. Since 1970, in

3589-634: The guild hierarchy, but it was necessary to find them a parallel appointment based on their skills after leaving the service of the royal kitchens. This was not uncommon as the Paris cooks' Guild regulations allowed for this movement. During the 16th and 17th centuries, French cuisine assimilated many new food items from the New World . Although they were slow to be adopted, records of banquets show Catherine de' Medici (1519–1589?) serving sixty-six turkeys at one dinner. The dish called cassoulet has its roots in

3686-580: The "orthodoxy" of Escoffier 's cuisine. Some of the chefs were students of Fernand Point at the Pyramide in Vienne , and had left to open their own restaurants. Gault and Millau "discovered the formula" contained in ten characteristics of this new style of cooking. The characteristics that emerged during this period were: 1. A rejection of excessive complication in cooking. 2. The cooking times for most fish, seafood, game birds, veal, green vegetables and pâtés

3783-438: The 17th century, chefs François Pierre La Varenne and Marie-Antoine Carême spearheaded movements that shifted French cooking away from its foreign influences and developed France's own indigenous style. Cheese and wine are a major part of the cuisine. They play different roles regionally and nationally, with many variations and appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC) (regulated appellation) laws. Culinary tourism and

3880-438: The 1860s. Escoffier's largest contribution was the publication of Le Guide Culinaire in 1903, which established the fundamentals of French cookery. The book was a collaboration with Philéas Gilbert, E. Fetu, A. Suzanne, B. Reboul, Ch. Dietrich, A. Caillat and others. The significance of this is to illustrate the universal acceptance by multiple high-profile chefs to this new style of cooking. Le Guide Culinaire deemphasized

3977-587: The Church discourages marriages, but couples may marry if they forgo the special blessings of the Nuptial Mass and limit social celebrations. The period of Lent observed in the Eastern Catholic Churches corresponds to that in other churches of Eastern Christianity that have similar traditions. In Protestant and Western Orthodox Churches that celebrate it, the season of Lent lasts from Ash Wednesday to

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4074-782: The Easter Vigil and additionally, the celebration of Easter is preceded by the Paschal fast. In the Ambrosian Rite , Lent begins on the Sunday that follows what is celebrated as Ash Wednesday in the rest of the Latin Catholic Church , and ends as in the Roman Rite, thus being of 40 days, counting the Sundays but not Holy Thursday. The day for beginning the Lenten fast in the Ambrosian Rite

4171-572: The Episcopal Church, the main U.S. branch of the Anglican Communion, the 1979 Book of Common Prayer identifies Holy Week--comprising Palm/Passion Sunday through Holy Saturday--as a separate season after Lent; but the Days of Special Devotion, to be observed by special acts of discipline and self-denial, include the weekdays of, but not the Sundays in, both Lent and Holy Week, so the practical effect

4268-431: The French royalty. They were not subject to the regulation of the guilds; therefore, they could cater weddings and banquets without restriction. His book is the first to list recipes alphabetically, perhaps a forerunner of the first culinary dictionary. It is in this book that a marinade is first seen in print, with one type for poultry and feathered game, while a second is for fish and shellfish. No quantities are listed in

4365-469: The Lenten fast in a positive tone, not as renunciation but as contributing to causes such as environmental stewardship and improvement of health. Even some atheists find value in the Christian tradition and observe Lent. Historically, using the early Christian form known as the Black Fast , the observant does not consume food for a whole day until the evening, and at sunset, Christians traditionally break

4462-486: The Lenten fast of that day with a vegetarian supper (no food or drink is consumed in a day apart from that in the Lenten supper ). In India and Pakistan , many Christians continue this practice of fasting until sunset on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday , with many fasting in this manner throughout the whole season of Lent. Christians of various traditions, including Catholics and Methodists, have voluntarily undertaken

4559-405: The Lenten fast was a 40-day fast that "the entire world" observed. Saint Augustine of Hippo (AD 354–AD 430) wrote that: "Our fast at any other time is voluntary; but during Lent, we sin if we do not fast." Three main prevailing theories exist on the finalization of Lent as a 40-day fast prior to the arrival of Easter Sunday: First, that it was created at the Council of Nicea in 325 and there

4656-576: The Lenten penitential season ends after the Easter Vigil Mass or Sunrise service . Orthodox Christians also break their fast after the Paschal Vigil , a service which starts around 11:00 pm on Holy Saturday, and which includes the Paschal celebration of the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom . At the end of the service, the priest blesses cheese, eggs, flesh meats, and other items that

4753-548: The New World discovery of haricot beans , which are central to the dish's creation, but had not existed outside of the Americas until the arrival of Europeans. Haute cuisine ( pronounced [ot kɥizin] , "high cuisine") has foundations during the 17th century with a chef named La Varenne . As an author of works such as Le Cuisinier françois , he is credited with publishing the first true French cookbook. His book includes

4850-645: The Scriptures and the works of the Church Fathers in depth, limit their entertainment and spendings and focus on charity and good works. Some other churches that follow the Byzantine Rite , including certain Eastern Catholic and Eastern Lutheran denominations have similar practices as those of Eastern Orthodoxy. Among the Oriental Orthodox , there are various local traditions regarding Lent. Those using

4947-610: The affluent) or honey. A common form of food preparation was to thoroughly cook, pound, and strain mixtures into fine pastes and mushes, something believed to be beneficial to make use of nutrients. Visual display was prized. Brilliant colors were obtained by the addition of, for example, juices from spinach and the green part of leeks . Yellow came from saffron or egg yolk, while red came from sunflower , and purple came from Crozophora tinctoria or Heliotropium europaeum . Gold and silver leaf were placed on food surfaces and brushed with egg whites. Elaborate and showy dishes were

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5044-535: The central figure to the modernization of haute cuisine and organizing what would become the national cuisine of France. His influence began with the rise of some of the great hotels in Europe and America during the 1880s-1890s. The Savoy Hotel managed by César Ritz was an early hotel in which Escoffier worked, but much of his influence came during his management of the kitchens in the Carlton from 1898 until 1921. He created

5141-404: The church's parish hall . Lenten suppers ordinarily take place in the home setting during the 40 days of Lent during which a family (or individual) concludes that day's fast after a mealtime prayer . Fasting has historically included abstinence from alcohol, meat, lacticinia (dairy products), and other edible produce derived from animals (such as eggs), which has been enjoined continuously for

5238-581: The consumption of alcohol. Quartodeciman Christians end the fast of Lent on the Paschal full moon of the Hebrew calendar , in order to celebrate the Feast of Unleavened Bread beginning on the 14th of Nisan , whence the name derives. For this practice, they were excommunicated in the Easter controversy of the 2nd century A.D. Three traditional practices to be taken up with renewed vigour during Lent; these are known as

5335-572: The cooked, minced and seasoned flesh of tastier birds, like goose or chicken. The most well-known French chef of the Middle Ages was Guillaume Tirel , also known as Taillevent. Taillevent worked in numerous royal kitchens during the 14th century. His first position was as a kitchen boy in 1326. He was chef to Philip VI , then the Dauphin who was son of John II . The Dauphin became King Charles V of France in 1364, with Taillevent as his chief cook. His career spanned sixty-six years, and upon his death, he

5432-442: The day before Lent is known as Shrove Tuesday, which is derived from the word shrive , meaning "to administer the sacrament of confession to; to absolve." In these countries, pancakes are associated with Shrove Tuesday because they are a way to use up rich foods such as eggs, milk, and sugar – rich foods which are not eaten during the season. The Carnival celebrations which in many cultures traditionally precede Lent are seen as

5529-477: The desert for 40 days; this is known as one's Lenten sacrifice . Prior to the 6th century, Lent was normatively observed through the practice of the Black Fast , which enjoins fasting from food and liquids, with the allowance of one vegetarian meal after sunset. This form of fasting continues in certain denominations, such as the Coptic Orthodox Church . Many Lent-observing Christians also add

5626-466: The distribution of food. Those that gave French produce its characteristic identity were regulated by the guild system, which developed in the Middle Ages . In Paris, the guilds were regulated by city government as well as by the French crown. A guild restricted those in a given branch of the culinary industry to operate only within that field. There were two groups of guilds—first, those that supplied

5723-532: The dry earth of the whole world, and the abundant waters of the saving bath might saturate the lengthy drought of the Gentiles." In the New Testament , Jesus went into the desert to fast and pray for 40 days and 40 nights; it was during this time that Satan tried to tempt him (cf. Matthew 4:1–3 ). The 40-day and night fasts of Moses, Elijah, and Jesus prepared them for their work. Early Christianity records

5820-510: The earliest known reference to roux using pork fat. The book contained two sections, one for meat days, and one for fasting . His recipes marked a change from the style of cookery known in the Middle Ages to new techniques aimed at creating somewhat lighter dishes, and more modest presentations of pies as individual pastries and turnovers. La Varenne also published a book on pastry in 1667 entitled Le Parfait confitvrier (republished as Le Confiturier françois ) which similarly updated and codified

5917-417: The emerging haute cuisine standards for desserts and pastries. Chef François Massialot wrote Le Cuisinier roïal et bourgeois in 1691, during the reign of Louis XIV . The book contains menus served to the royal courts in 1690. Massialot worked mostly as a freelance cook, and was not employed by any particular household. Massialot and many other royal cooks received special privileges by association with

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6014-578: The evening of Holy Saturday . This calculation makes Lent last 46 days if the 6 Sundays are included, but only 40 days if they are excluded. This definition is still that of the Moravian Church , Lutheran Church , Anglican Church , Methodist Church , Western Rite Orthodox Church , United Protestant Churches , and those of the Reformed Churches (i.e., Continental Reformed , Presbyterian , and Congregationalist ) that observe Lent. (In

6111-412: The event. The custom of veiling is typically practiced the last two weeks, beginning on the fifth Sunday of Lent (known as Judica Sunday or Passion Sunday ) until Good Friday , when the cross is unveiled solemnly in the liturgy. In most Lent-observing denominations, the last week of Lent coincides with Holy Week , starting with Palm Sunday . Following the New Testament narrative, Jesus' crucifixion

6208-407: The faithful have been abstaining from for the duration of Great Lent. Lenten traditions and liturgical practices are less common, less binding, and sometimes non-existent among some liberal and progressive Christians . A greater emphasis on anticipation of Easter Sunday is often encouraged more than the penitence of Lent or Holy Week. Some Christians as well as secular groups also interpret

6305-591: The fast is divided into three separate periods: Tsome Hirkal, the eight-day Fast of Heraclius , commemorating the fast requested by the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius before he reputedly set out to fight the Sassanian Empire and recover the True Cross which had been seized and taken from Jerusalem; Tsome Arba, 40 days of Lent; and Tsome Himamat, seven days commemorating Holy Week . Fasting involves abstention from animal products (meat, dairy, and eggs), and refraining from eating or drinking before 3:00 pm. Ethiopian devotees may also abstain from sexual activity and

6402-399: The first time. Although many of his preparations today seem extravagant, he simplified and codified an even more complex cuisine that existed beforehand. Central to his codification of the cuisine were Le Maître d'hôtel français (1822), Le Cuisinier parisien (1828) and L'Art de la cuisine française au dix-neuvième siècle (1833–5). Georges Auguste Escoffier is commonly acknowledged as

6499-400: The foreword to the book's first edition that even with its 5,000 recipes, the book should not be considered an "exhaustive" text, and that even if it were at the point when he wrote the book, "it would no longer be so tomorrow, because progress marches on each day." This period is also marked by the appearance of the nouvelle cuisine . The term "nouvelle cuisine" has been used many times in

6596-412: The guild system. This meant anyone could now produce and sell any culinary item they wished. Bread was a significant food source among peasants and the working class in the late 18th century, with many of the nation's people being dependent on it. In French provinces, bread was often consumed three times a day by the people of France. According to Brace, bread was referred to as the basic dietary item for

6693-510: The history of French cuisine which emphasized the freshness, lightness and clarity of flavor and inspired by new movements in world cuisine. In the 1740s, Menon first used the term, but the cooking of Vincent La Chapelle and François Marin was also considered modern. In the 1960s, Henri Gault and Christian Millau revived it to describe the cooking of Paul Bocuse , Jean and Pierre Troisgros , Michel Guérard , Roger Vergé and Raymond Oliver . These chefs were working toward rebelling against

6790-422: The influence of Queen Marie Leszczyńska , the Polish-born wife of Louis XV . This recipe is still popular today, as are other recipes from Queen Marie Leszczyńska like consommé à la Reine and filet d'aloyau braisé à la royale . Queen Marie is also credited with introducing Polonaise garnishing to the French diet. The French Revolution was integral to the expansion of French cuisine, because it abolished

6887-503: The masses, and it was also used as a foundation for soup. In fact, bread was so important that harvest, interruption of commerce by wars, heavy flour exploration, and prices and supply were all watched and controlled by the French Government. Among the underprivileged, constant fear of famine was always prevalent. From 1725 to 1789, there were fourteen years of bad yields to blame for the low grain supply. In Bordeaux, during 1708–1789, thirty-three bad harvests occurred. Marie-Antoine Carême

6984-520: The mountains for 40 days and 40 nights to pray and fast "without eating bread or drinking water" before receiving the Ten Commandments (cf. Exodus 34:28 ). Likewise, the prophet Elijah went into the mountains for 40 days and nights to fast and pray "until he reached Horeb, the mountain of God" when "the word of the Lord came to him" (cf. 1 Kings 19:8–9 ). The early Christian bishop Maximus of Turin wrote that as Elijah by "fasting continuously for

7081-613: The name used refers to the activity associated with the season. Thus it is called "fasting period" in Czech ( postní doba ), German ( Fastenzeit ), and Norwegian ( fasten / fastetid ), and it is called "The Great Fast" in Arabic ( الصوم الكبير – al-ṣawm al-kabīr ), Syriac ( ܨܘܡܐ ܪܒܐ ṣawmā rabbā ), Polish ( wielki post ), Russian ( великий пост – vieliki post ), Ukrainian ( великий піст – velyky pist ), and Hungarian ( nagyböjt ). Romanian , apart from

7178-465: The popular restaurants. Escoffier also simplified and organized the modern menu and structure of the meal. He published a series of articles in professional journals which outlined the sequence, and he finally published his Livre des menus in 1912. This type of service embraced the service à la russe (serving meals in separate courses on individual plates), which Félix Urbain Dubois had made popular in

7275-473: The raw materials: butchers, fishmongers, grain merchants, and gardeners. The second group were those that supplied prepared foods: bakers, pastry cooks , sauce makers, poulterers, and caterers . Some guilds offered both raw materials and prepared food, such as the charcutiers and rôtisseurs (purveyors of roasted meat dishes). They would supply cooked meat pies and dishes as well as raw meat and poultry. This caused issues with butchers and poulterers, who sold

7372-562: The recipes, which suggests that Massialot was writing for trained cooks. The successive updates of Le Cuisinier roïal et bourgeois include important refinements such as adding a glass of wine to fish stock . Definitions were also added to the 1703 edition. The 1712 edition, retitled Le Nouveau cuisinier royal et bourgeois , was increased to two volumes, and was written in a more elaborate style with extensive explanations of technique. Additional smaller preparations are included in this edition as well, leading to lighter preparations, and adding

7469-406: The result, such as tourte parmerienne which was a pastry dish made to look like a castle with chicken-drumstick turrets coated with gold leaf . One of the grandest showpieces of the time was a roast swan or peacock sewn back into its skin with feathers intact, the feet and beak being gilded . Since both birds are stringy, and taste unpleasant, the skin and feathers could be kept and filled with

7566-426: The sacrament. For centuries it has been common practice for baptisms to take place on Easter, and so such references were formerly taken to be references to a pre-Easter fast. Tertullian , in his 3rd-century work On Baptism , indicates that Easter was a "most solemn day for baptism." However, he is one of only a handful of writers in the ante-Nicene period who indicates this preference, and even he says that Easter

7663-403: The same raw materials. The guilds served as a training ground for those within the industry. The degrees of assistant cook, full-fledged cook and master chef were conferred. Those who reached the level of master chef were of considerable rank in their individual industry, and enjoyed a high level of income as well as economic and job security. At times, those in the royal kitchens did fall under

7760-430: The style of cuisine had reached exhaustion and many chefs began returning to the haute cuisine style of cooking, although much of the lighter presentations and new techniques remained. When the French colonized Vietnam , one of the most famous and popular dishes, pot-au-feu , was subsequently introduced to the local people. While it did not directly create the widely recognizable Vietnamese dish, Pho , it served as

7857-434: The term escalope is also applied to potatoes that have been thinly sliced. Potatoes that are thinly sliced, battered, then fried are often called "scallops". Cuisine of France French cuisine is the cooking traditions and practices from France . In the 14th century, Guillaume Tirel , a court chef known as "Taillevent", wrote Le Viandier , one of the earliest recipe collections of medieval France . In

7954-518: The three pillars of Lent: Self-reflection, simplicity, and sincerity (honesty) are emphasised during the Lenten season. During pre-Lent , it is customary for Christians to ponder what Lenten sacrifices they will make for Lent. The pre-Lenten period concludes with the opportunity for a last round of merrymaking, known as Carnival , Shrovetide , or Fastelavn , before the start of the sombre Lenten season. The traditions of carrying Shrovetide rods and consuming Shrovetide buns after attending church

8051-414: The time varied greatly according to the seasons and the church calendar, and many items were preserved with salt, spices, honey, and other preservatives. Late spring, summer, and autumn afforded abundance, while winter meals were more sparse. Livestock were slaughtered at the beginning of winter. Beef was often salted, while pork was salted and smoked. Bacon and sausages would be smoked in the chimney, while

8148-444: The tongue and hams were brined and dried. Cucumbers were brined as well, while greens would be packed in jars with salt. Fruits, nuts and root vegetables would be boiled in honey for preservation. Whale, dolphin and porpoise were considered fish, so during Lent , the salted meats of these sea mammals were eaten. Artificial freshwater ponds (often called stews ) held carp , pike , tench , bream , eel , and other fish. Poultry

8245-452: The tradition of fasting before Easter. The Apostolic Constitutions permit the consumption of "bread, vegetables, salt and water, in Lent" with "flesh and wine being forbidden." The Canons of Hippolytus authorize only bread and salt to be consumed during Holy Week . The practice of fasting and abstaining from alcohol, meat and lacticinia during Lent thus became established in the Church. In AD 339, Athanasius of Alexandria wrote that

8342-458: The tradition of hitting a barrel, which represents fighting Satan; after doing this, children enjoy the sweets inside the barrel. Lutheran Christians in these nations carry Shrovetide rods (fastelavnsris), which "branches decorated with sweets, little presents, etc., that are used to decorate the home or give to children." In English-speaking countries such as the United Kingdom and Canada ,

8439-484: The use of heavy sauces and leaned toward lighter fumets , which are the essence of flavor taken from fish, meat and vegetables. This style of cooking looked to create garnishes and sauces whose function is to add to the flavor of the dish, rather than mask flavors like the heavy sauces and ornate garnishes of the past. Escoffier took inspiration for his work from personal recipes in addition to recipes from Carême, Dubois and ideas from Taillevent's Le Viandier , which had

8536-572: The whole duration of the season including Sundays. Throughout Christendom , some adherents continue to mark the season with a traditional abstention from the consumption of meat ( vegetarianism ), most notably among Catholics, Lutherans, and Anglicans. The form of abstention may vary depending on what is customary; some abstain from meat for 40 days, some do so only on Fridays, or some only on Good Friday itself. In Catholicism, lacticinia may be consumed by penitents in Spain and its colonised territories, per

8633-529: Was added by the UNESCO to its lists of the world's "intangible cultural heritage" . In French medieval cuisine , banquets were common among the aristocracy . Multiple courses would be prepared, but served in a style called service en confusion , or all at once. Food was generally eaten by hand, meats being sliced off in large pieces held between the thumb and two fingers. The sauces were highly seasoned and thick, and heavily flavored mustards were used. Pies were

8730-477: Was born in 1784, five years before the Revolution . He spent his younger years working at a pâtisserie until he was discovered by Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord ; he would later cook for Napoleon Bonaparte . Prior to his employment with Talleyrand, Carême had become known for his pièces montées , which were extravagant constructions of pastry and sugar architecture. More important to Carême's career

8827-456: Was buried in grand style between his two wives. His tombstone represents him in armor, holding a shield with three cooking pots, marmites , on it. Paris was the central hub of culture and economic activity, and as such, the most highly skilled culinary craftsmen were to be found there. Markets in Paris such as Les Halles , la Mégisserie , those found along Rue Mouffetard , and similar smaller versions in other cities were very important to

8924-425: Was by no means the only favored day for baptisms in his locale. Since the 20th century, scholars have acknowledged that Easter was not the standard day for baptisms in the early church, and references to pre-baptismal periods of fasting were not necessarily connected with Easter. There were shorter periods of fasting observed in the pre-Nicene church ( Athanasius noted that the 4th-century Alexandrian church observed

9021-531: Was earlier established, such as Greek and Latin , the term signifies the period dating from the 40th weekday before Easter. In modern Greek the term is Σαρακοστή ( Sarakostí ), derived from the earlier Τεσσαρακοστή ( Tessarakostí ), meaning "fortieth". The corresponding word in Latin , quadragesima ("fortieth"), is the origin of the terms used in Latin-derived languages and in some others. Examples in

9118-652: Was greatly reduced in an attempt to preserve the natural flavors. Steaming was an important trend from this characteristic. 3. The cuisine was made with the freshest possible ingredients. 4. Large menus were abandoned in favor of shorter menus. 5. Strong marinades for meat and game ceased to be used. 6. They stopped using heavy sauces such as espagnole and béchamel thickened with flour based " roux " in favor of seasoning their dishes with fresh herbs, quality butter, lemon juice, and vinegar. 7. They used regional dishes for inspiration instead of haute cuisine dishes. 8. New techniques were embraced and modern equipment

9215-487: Was his contribution to the refinement of French cuisine. The basis for his style of cooking was his sauces, which he named mother sauces . Often referred to as fonds , meaning "foundations", these base sauces, espagnole , velouté , and béchamel , are still known today. Each of these sauces was made in large quantities in his kitchen, then formed the basis of multiple derivatives. Carême had over one hundred sauces in his repertoire. In his writings, soufflés appear for

9312-697: Was kept in special yards, with pigeon and squab being reserved for the elite. Game was highly prized, but very rare, and included venison , boar , hare , rabbit, and fowl . Kitchen gardens provided herbs, including some, such as tansy , rue , pennyroyal , and hyssop , which are rarely used today. Spices were treasured and very expensive at that time—they included pepper, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, and mace . Some spices used then, but no longer today in French cuisine are cubebs , long pepper (both from vines similar to black pepper), grains of paradise , and galengale . Sweet-sour flavors were commonly added to dishes with vinegar and verjus combined with sugar (for

9409-486: Was often used; Bocuse even used microwave ovens. 9. The chefs paid close attention to the dietary needs of their guests through their dishes. 10. And finally, the chefs were extremely inventive and created new combinations and pairings. Some have speculated that a contributor to nouvelle cuisine was World War II when animal protein was in short supply during the German occupation. By the mid-1980s food writers stated that

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