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66-572: The Pahrump Valley was crossed by the Old Spanish Trail and later the Salt Lake Road . The large block of the Spring Mountains borders Pahrump Valley on the northeast and east, with Nevada State Route 160 skirting parts of the mountain's south, and being the only due west route from Las Vegas. Route 160 turns northwest to Pahrump in the valley's center-north then meets U.S. Route 95 at

132-569: A punitive expedition against the Comanche group of Native Americans, who had been repeatedly raiding Taos during 1779. With his Ute and Apache Native American allies, and around 800 Spanish soldiers, Anza went north through the San Luis Valley , entering the Great Plains at what is now Manitou Springs, Colorado . Circling "El Capitan" (current day Pikes Peak), he surprised a small force of

198-520: A campaign against the Comanche on the eastern plains and by 1784 they were suing for peace. The last of the Comanche chiefs eventually acceded and a formal treaty was concluded on 28 February 1786 at Pecos Pueblo . This paved the way for traders and the development of the Comanchero trade. Juan Bautista de Anza remained as governor of Nuevo Mexico (New Mexico) until 1787 when he returned to Sonora . He

264-678: A cut off developed on the Old Spanish Trail that cut the distance traveled along the upper Mojave River, by cutting across what is now Victor Valley , from the Cajon Pass to a crossing just below the Lower Narrows of the river. On April 20, 1844, following the advice of his guide, John C. Frémont intercepted this route to the river, riding east southeast from Lake Elizabeth , north of the San Gabriel Mountains . Another cutoff to

330-470: A mule, which were considered hardier. California had almost no wool-processing industry and few weavers, so woven products were a welcome commodity. The trading party usually left New Mexico in early November to take advantage of winter rains to cross the deserts on the trail and would arrive in California in early February. The return party would usually leave California for New Mexico in early April to get over

396-672: A report to the governor, and this was published by the Mexican government in June 1830. After this date, traders generally used the trail for a single, annual round trip. Word spread about Armijo's successful trade expedition, and some commerce began between Santa Fe and Los Angeles. However, in 1830, due to resumed hostilities with the Navajo , the Armijo route west to the Colorado River Crossing of

462-568: A route from Santa Fe to Sonora, west of the El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro . His various local military expeditions against tribes defending their homelands were often successful, but the Quechan (Yuma) Native American tribe which he had established peace with earlier rebelled, and he fell out of favor with the military commander of the Northern Frontier, the frontier-general. In 1783 Anza led

528-462: A route he called "Cañon de San Bernardino" from the upper Mojave River west through Cajon Pass and down Crowder and Cajon canyons to the mouth of Cajon Pass, where the trail reached the coastal plain of San Bernardino Valley . This route was undoubtedly known to the vaqueros of San Bernardino Estancia. Once through the pass, they turned west along the foot of the San Gabriel Mountains for two days to San Jose Creek ; they followed it, crossing

594-776: A section of the trail in Arches National Park was placed on the National Register of Historic Places . In 2001, the section of the Trail that runs across Nevada from the Arizona border to California was placed on the National Register of Historic Places as the Old Spanish Trail/Mormon Road Historic District. Mojave National Preserve and Mojave Trails National Monument preserve sections of

660-701: A short cut route southwest to the mouth of the Mojave River. From Las Vegas Wash on the Colorado River, Armijo's expedition passed southwestward to Eldorado Dry Lake in Eldorado Valley and the spring at Goodsprings Valley , then through Wilson Pass , across Mesquite Valley and California Valley , through what became known as Emigrant Pass to Resting Springs , then along the Amargosa River from near Tecopa to Salt Spring . From Salt Spring they crossed

726-788: A southern route along the Rio Altar ( Sonora y Sinaloa , New Spain), then paralleled the present-day Mexico–California border, crossing the Colorado River at its confluence with the Gila River . This was in the domain of the Yuma tribe, with which he established good relations. Anza reached Mission San Gabriel Arcángel , near the California coast, on March 22, 1774, and Monterey, California , Alta California's future capital (Alta California split from Las Californias 1804, creating Baja and Alta), on April 19. He returned to Tubac by late May 1774. This expedition

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792-621: A two-day-long waterless stretch up Salt Creek to Laguna del Milagro ("Lake of the Miracle") (probably Silver Lake ), then to Ojito del Malpais ("little spring of the badlands") on Soda Lake . They had another waterless day beyond Soda Lake, where they reached the Mojave River , only intermittently dependable for potable water, and the Mohave Trail leading up river. By then short of food, Armijo sent some of his scouts ahead to get more food in

858-508: Is a combination of a network of trails first established by indigenous people and later used by Spanish explorers, trappers, and traders with the Ute and other indigenous tribes. The eastern parts of what became called the Old Spanish Trail, including southwest Colorado and southeast Utah , were explored by Juan Maria de Rivera in 1765. Franciscan missionaries Francisco Atanasio Domínguez and Silvestre Vélez de Escalante unsuccessfully attempted

924-520: Is a historical trade route that connected the northern New Mexico settlements of (or near) Santa Fe, New Mexico with those of Los Angeles , California and southern California. Approximately 700 mi (1,100 km) long, the trail ran through areas of high mountains, arid deserts, and deep canyons. It is considered one of the most arduous of all trade routes ever established in the United States. Explored, in part, by Spanish explorers as early as

990-1120: Is located in Riverside, California at the corner of Magnolia Ave. and 14th Street, and another statue stands in Lake Merced park, San Francisco . A 10-foot-high (3 m) portrait of de Anza by Albert Herter in 1929 hangs in the History Room of the Los Angeles Central Library. The de Anza and De Anza spellings are also the namesake of streets, schools, and buildings in his honor including: De Anza Boulevards in San Mateo and Cupertino , De Anza Park in Sunnyvale , De Anza College in Cupertino, De Anza High School in Richmond , Juan Bautista De Anza elementary school in San Jacinto, Juan De Anza K-5 in

1056-769: Is located within the village of Borrego Springs, California , which is entirely surrounded by the park. A building named the Juan de Anza House in San Juan Bautista, California is a National Historic Landmark . However, it was constructed c. 1830 with its connection unclear. The Juan Bautista de Anza Community Park is in Calabasas, California , and De Anza Park and the De Anza Community and Teen Center are in Ontario , California. A 20-foot (6.1 m) statue of Anza, sculpted in 1939,

1122-565: Is marked as the Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail . Despite DeAnza's successes, Spanish ambitions to establish a permanent overland route from Sonora to Alta California were thwarted in 1781, when a revolt of the Yumas tribe closed the trail at the Yuma Crossing of the Colorado River. The route was not reopened until the late 1820s, and the only regular travel to Alta California during

1188-460: Is the southern border of the valley. The closest community to Pahrump is Shoshone, California , 25 mi southwest, with Ash Meadows Ranch and Death Valley Junction, California slightly farther to the northwest. The Pahrump Valley Wilderness is in the southern valley, the northern Kingston Range, and the California and Mesquite Valleys . Old Spanish Trail (trade route) The Old Spanish Trail ( Spanish : Viejo Sendero Español )

1254-544: The California Current , and a difficult land route from Baja California. Colonies were established at San Diego and Monterey , with a presidio and Franciscan mission at each location. A more direct land route and further colonization were desired, especially at present-day San Francisco , which Portolá saw but was not able to colonize. By the time of Juan Bautista de Anza's expedition, three more missions had been established, including Mission San Antonio de Padua in

1320-758: The Four Corners area, and passed north of the Carrizo Mountains to Church Rock , east of present-day Kayenta . The trail ran to Marsh Pass and north through Tsegi Canyon into canyon country. At the Colorado River (then called the Rio Grande), the travelers forded at the Crossing of the Fathers above present-day Glen Canyon Dam . Continuing west to Pipe Spring and on to Virgin River above present-day St. George, Utah ,

1386-556: The Mexican–American War of 1846–1848. After 1848 numerous Mormon immigrants began settling in Utah , Nevada , and California all along the trail, affecting both trade interests and tolerance for the slavery of American Natives. Place names used in this article refer to present-day states and communities. Few (if any) settlements existed along the trail, except in the coastal plains of Alta California, before 1850, although many of

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1452-833: The Mohave villages (below modern Laughlin ) and followed the route between the springs along the Mojave Trail to Soda Lake and the Mojave River. Later caravans could alternatively follow the Armijo Route diverting southwestward from the Colorado at Las Vegas Wash, to Resting Springs and to the Mojave River where it joined the Wolfskill/Yount Route, following that river upward to and over the San Bernardino Mountains through Cajon Pass, Crowder Canyon and lower Cajon Canyon and across

1518-645: The Salinas Valley . In 1772, Anza proposed an expedition to Alta California to the Viceroy of New Spain. This was approved by the King of Spain and on January 8, 1774, with 3 padres, 20 soldiers, 11 servants, 35 mules, 65 cattle, and 140 horses, Anza set forth from Tubac Presidio , south of present-day Tucson, Arizona . Anza heard of a California Native American called Sebastian Tarabal who had fled from Mission San Gabriel to Sonora, and took him as guide. The expedition took

1584-530: The San Gabriel River at the Rancho La Puente , and reaching Mission San Gabriel Arcángel on January 30, 1830. Armijo used the same route to return to his original town, traveling from March 1 to April 25, 1830. He submitted a brief journal of his journey (itemizing the days with names of places where camps were made but not quantifying distances) to the government of New Mexico, and it was published by

1650-666: The San Gabriel Valley the trail is in the Puente Hills just north of Whittier, California . Also named for Anza is Anza-Borrego Desert State Park , located mostly in eastern San Diego County , California. The park contains a long and difficult stretch of the Anza trail, traveling west from the Imperial Valley to the coastal mountain passes northeast of San Diego . The de Anza Country Club and its 18-hole championship Golf course

1716-489: The San Juan Mountains , Mancos , and Dove Creek , entering Utah near present-day Monticello . The trail proceeded north through difficult terrain to Spanish Valley near today's Moab, Utah , where a ferry crossed the deep and wide Colorado River and then turned northwest to a ferry crossing on the similarly sized and dangerous Green River near present-day Green River, Utah . The route then passed through (or around)

1782-656: The San Rafael Swell , the northernmost reach of the Trail. Entering the Great Basin in Utah via Salina Creek Canyon , the trail turned southwest following the Sevier , Santa Clara , Virgin Rivers to the north bank of the Colorado River. There they could follow the Colorado River to Las Vegas Wash, then south through the Eldorado Valley and Piute Valley to join the Mojave Trail, west of

1848-632: The Uncompahgre Valley . The trail then followed the Gunnison River to today's Grand Junction , where the Colorado River was forded, and then on west to join the Main Northern Route just east of the Green River. The North Branch later became an interest of explorers seeking viable routes for a transcontinental railroad along the 38th parallel. In 1853 alone, three separate expeditions explored

1914-459: The Armijo route of the Old Spanish Trail had developed before 1844, where the trail forked northeastward from the Mojave River and Mohave Trail, east of what is now Yermo, California , running up Spanish Canyon over Alvord Mountain , to Bitter Spring , then through Red Pass to join the Armijo route near Salt Spring in the Silurian Valley . Frémont also used this route in 1844. The fork of

1980-597: The Comanche near present-day Colorado Springs . Pursuing them south down Fountain Creek , he crossed the Arkansas River near present-day Pueblo, Colorado . He found the main body of the Comanche on Greenhorn Creek, returning from a raid in Nuevo México, and won a decisive victory. Chief Cuerno Verde , for whom Greenhorn Creek is named, and many other leaders of the Comanche were killed. In late 1779, Anza and his party found

2046-1075: The Fathers was not practical. A new route north of the river had to be found, which used the trails of the fur traders and trappers of New Mexico through the lands of the Ute. This route ran northwest to the Colorado and Green rivers, then crossed over to the Sevier River , which it followed until crossing westward over mountains to the vicinity of Parowan, Utah . It passed southward to the Santa Clara River, linking up with Armijo's route to California. This commerce usually consisted of one mule pack train from Santa Fe with 20 to 200 members, with roughly twice as many mules, bringing New Mexican goods hand-woven by Indians, such as serapes and blankets, to California. California had many horses and mules, many growing wild, with no local market, which were readily traded for hand-woven Indian products. Usually two blankets were traded for one horse; more blankets were usually required for

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2112-659: The Mexican government in June 1830. The Main Route (also referred to as the Central Route or the Northern Route) of the Old Spanish Trail avoided territory of the Navajo , (who had returned to a state of hostilities after Armijo's trip), and the more difficult canyon country traversed by the Armijo Route around the Colorado River. First traveled in 1830 by a party led by William Wolfskill and George Yount , this route ran northwest from Santa Fe through southwestern Colorado , past

2178-489: The North Branch over Cochetopa Pass. These groups were led, in order, by Lieutenant Edward Fitzgerald Beale , Captain John Williams Gunnison , and John C. Frémont. Use of the Old Spanish Trail between 1829 and 1848 resulted in numerous variations as travelers adopted or blazed easier paths. But regardless of the route taken, the Old Spanish Trail crossed several mountain ranges, passed through dry sections with limited grass and sometimes limited water, crossed two deserts, and

2244-421: The Old Spanish Trail, with the exception of some of the paths through the Mojave Desert . The Mohave Trail was first traveled by Garcés from the Mohave villages on the Colorado River westward across the Mojave Desert, between desert springs, until he turned northwestward to the Old Tejon Pass into the San Joaquin Valley , looking for a route to Monterey. Garcés returned to the Colorado River by following

2310-534: The Wiseburn Elementary School District of Hawthorne , De Anza Middle School in Ontario , De Anza Middle School in Ventura , De Anza Elementary School in El Centro , and the De Anza School in Baldwin Park, the landmark De Anza Hotel in San Jose , and the historic De Anza Hotel in Calexico —all in California . Using just Anza in his honor are: Anza Vista Avenue within the Anza Vista neighborhood of San Francisco, Anza Street in that city's Richmond District , Lake Anza in Tilden Regional Park above Berkeley in

2376-422: The captives among them as slaves; Anza kept the fifteen female captives and their newborns as his share. In Anza's diary on March 25, 1776, he states that he "arrived at the arroyo of San Joseph Cupertino (now Stevens Creek ), which is useful only for travelers. Here we halted for the night, having come eight leagues in seven and a half hours. From this place we have seen at our right the estuary which runs from

2442-447: The coastal valleys to Mission San Gabriel and Los Angeles. The North Branch of the Old Spanish Trail was established by traders and trappers using Indian and Spanish colonial routes. It ran from Santa Fe north to Taos and on north into the San Luis Valley of Colorado. Caravans then headed west to today's Saguache , crossing over the Continental Divide at Cochetopa Pass , and then through present day Gunnison and Montrose to

2508-482: The colonists having suffered greatly from the winter weather en route. The expedition continued on to Monterey with the colonists. Having fulfilled his mission from the Viceroy, he continued north with the priest Pedro Font and a party of twelve others, following an inland route to the San Francisco Bay established in 1770 by Pedro Fages . On the way, he led a raid on Apache settlements near Presidio San Ignacio de Tubac , capturing forty Apaches. The soldiers divided

2574-441: The daughter of Spanish mine owner Francisco Pérez Serrano. They had no children. His military duties mainly consisted of hostile forays against Native Americans , such as the Apache , during the course of which he explored much of what is now Arizona . The Spanish began colonizing Alta California with the Portolá expedition of 1769–1770. The two-pronged Portolá effort involved both a long sea voyage against prevailing winds and

2640-448: The deep narrow gorge of Boulder Canyon , to the riverside oases of Callville Wash and Las Vegas Wash . Armijo waited there for his scouts to return, especially Rivera who had visited the Mohave villages downriver before. Rivera returned, having recognized the Mohave Trail that led westward to Southern California. Perhaps because the Mohave had been antagonistic to parties of mountain men in recent years, or to save time, Armijo attempted

2706-432: The dry 50 miles to the Muddy River before rejoining the Main Route on the Virgin River at Halfway Wash after crossing what later became known as Mormon Mesa . This route saved the large distances caused by the diversion of the Armijo and Main routes to follow the Colorado River, and would later become the route of the Mormon Road , the wagon road through southern Nevada between Salt Lake City and Los Angeles. In 1988,

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2772-413: The expedition followed the Virgin to the mouth of the Santa Clara River , which they followed up to the vicinity of the Shivwits Reservation . They crossed southward over the Beaver Dam Mountains , at Utah Hill Summit to the Virgin River again, which they followed for three days down to the Colorado River. They traveled west parallel to the river, over difficult terrain in the Black Mountains , to avoid

2838-445: The frontier of Nueva Navarra. He was the son of Juan Bautista de Anza I . It is traditionally thought that he may have been educated at the College of San Ildefonso in Mexico City , and later at the military academy there. In 1752 he enlisted in the army at the Presidio of Fronteras. He advanced rapidly and had become a captain by 1760. He married in 1761. His wife was Ana María Pérez Serrano (b. January 1744/45, d. date unknown),

2904-419: The geologic features along the Trail retain their Spanish designations. The Armijo Route of the Old Spanish Trail was established by an expedition led by Antonio Armijo in 1829–1830. Leaving Abiquiu on November 7, 1829 Armijo's expedition traveled a route northwest and west of Santa Fe, following the Chama River and the Puerco River . He crossed to the San Juan River basin. From the San Juan, they entered

2970-435: The intervening years was by sea. On his return from this successful expedition in 1777 he journeyed to Mexico City with the chief of the lower Colorado River area Quechan (Yuma) Native American tribe who requested the establishment of a mission. On August 24, 1777, the Viceroy of New Spain appointed Anza as the Governor of the Province of Nuevo México , the present-day U.S. state of New Mexico . Governor Anza led

3036-496: The late 16th century, the trail was extensively used by traders with pack trains from about 1830 until the mid-1850s. The area was part of Mexico from Mexican independence in 1821 to the Mexican Cession to the United States in 1848. The name of the trail comes from the publication of John C. Frémont ’s Report of his 1844 journey (which crossed into Mexico) for the U.S. Topographical Corps , guided by Kit Carson , from California to New Mexico. The name acknowledges that parts of

3102-520: The port of San Francisco." Pressing on, Anza located the sites for the Presidio of San Francisco and Mission San Francisco de Asis in present-day San Francisco, California on March 28, 1776. He did not establish the settlement; it was established later by José Joaquín Moraga . While returning to Monterey, he located the original sites for Mission Santa Clara de Asis and the town of San José de Guadalupe (present-day San Jose, California ), but again did not establish either settlement. Today this route

3168-442: The province of New Mexico . Juan Bautista de Anza Bezerra Nieto was born in Fronteras , New Navarre , New Spain (today Sonora , Mexico ) in 1736 (near Arizpe ), most probably at Cuquiarachi, Sonora, but possibly at the Presidio of Fronteras. His family was a part of the military leadership in Nueva España , as his father and maternal grandfather, Captain Antonio Bezerra Nieto, had both served Spain, their families living on

3234-432: The settlement at San Bernardino de Sena Estancia . They followed the river for six days (110 miles to its head from the mouth), having to kill a mule or horse each day to eat. Probably at Summit Valley at the top of the river east of Cajon Pass , they met vaqueros of the San Bernardino de Sena Estancia who had extra food. Armijo did not cross over the mountains by the Mohave Trail route over Monument Peak , but followed

3300-482: The states that it crossed. Portions of US 160 in Colorado and US 191 in Utah are similarly designated. Juan Bautista de Anza Juan Bautista de Anza Bezerra Nieto (July 6 or 7, 1736 – December 19, 1788) was an expeditionary leader, military officer, and politician primarily in California and New Mexico under the Spanish Empire . He is credited as one of the founding fathers of Spanish California and served as an official within New Spain as Governor of

3366-422: The trail before the water holes dried up and the melting snow raised the rivers too high. The return party often drove several hundred to a few thousand horses and mules. Low-scale emigration from New Mexico to California used parts of the trail in the late 1830s when the trapping trade began to die. New Mexicans migrated to settle in Alta California by this route: some first settled in Politana then established

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3432-421: The trail had been known and used by the Spanish since the 16th century. Frémont's report identified a trail that had already been used for about 15 years. The trail is important to New Mexico history because it established an arduous but usable trade route with California. In 2002 this trail was designated by Congress as part of the National Trails System as Old Spanish National Historic Trail . The trail

3498-512: The trail often resulted from such slave raids by unscrupulous traders and raiding Indians. John C. Frémont , "The Great Pathfinder", took the route, guided by Kit Carson , in 1844 and named it in his report published in 1845. The New Mexico-California trade continued until the mid-1850s, when a shift to the use of freight wagons and the development of wagon trails made the old pack trail route obsolete. By 1846 both New Mexico and California had been annexed as U.S. territories following its victory in

3564-407: The trail traveling through the Mojave Desert in California. The Old Spanish Trail became the fifteenth national historic trail after Congress adopted Senate Bill 1946 and President George W. Bush signed the legislation in December 2002. Although few traces of the early traders' trail remain, the Trail is now commemorated in many local street and road names, and numerous historical markers in

3630-489: The trails there on the Mojave River, later became known as Fork of the Road . One last modification to this route was that followed by John C. Frémont eastward in 1844. His expedition left the Armijo Route at Resting Spring and turned northeastward after crossing the Nopah Range through Emigrant Pass, through California Valley and across Pahrump Valley to Stump Spring and into the mountains to Mountain Springs , to Cottonwood Spring , to Las Vegas Springs . He then crossed

3696-505: The trip to California , which was just being settled, leaving Santa Fe in 1776 and making it to the Great Basin near Utah Lake before returning via the Arizona Strip . Other expeditions, under another Franciscan missionary, Francisco Garcés , and Captain Juan Bautista de Anza , explored and traded in the southern part of the region. They found shorter and less arduous routes through the mountains and deserts that connected Sonora to New Mexico and California, but these did not become part of

3762-620: The twin settlements of Agua Mansa and La Placita on the Santa Ana River the first towns in what became San Bernardino and Riverside counties. The family of Antonio Armijo moved to Alta California, where his father acquired the Rancho Tolenas . A number of Americans, most naturalized Mexican citizens in New Mexico, and formerly in the California trade over the Old Spanish Trail or in the fur trade, settled in Alta California. Several became influential residents in later years, such as Louis Rubidoux , John A. Rowland , William Workman , Benjamin Davis Wilson , and William Wolfskill . The trail

3828-431: The valley's north perimeter. Carpenter Canyon road starts near Pahrump and runs about 10 miles to Carpenter Canyon. Carpenter Canyon creek is one of the few year round fish creeks in the Spring Mountains. In California, the Nopah Range borders the valley's southwest, with the north of the adjacent Resting Spring Range merging north to form the northwest border of the Pahrump Valley. The mostly east-west Kingston Range

3894-508: The whole length of the Mohave Trail from the San Bernardino Valley , over the San Bernardino Mountains at Monument Peak , down the Mojave River and eastward to the Colorado River. This same trail was used by the first Americans to reach California by land, via the expedition led by Jedediah Smith in November 1826. The Mojave desert section of the Mohave Trail is now a 4WD trail called the Mojave Road . A route linking New Mexico to California , combining information from many explorers,

3960-416: The women and children of the Paiute , who were sold as domestic servants to Mexican ranchers and other settlers in both California and New Mexico. Mexican traders and Indian raiding parties both participated in this slave trade. The consequences of this human trafficking had a long-standing effect for those who lived along the trail, even after the trail was no longer in use. Intermittent Indian warfare along

4026-424: Was also used for illicit purposes. Some raiders attacked the California ranchos for horses and captives to sell in the extensive Indian slave trade. Mexicans, ex-trappers and Indian tribes, primarily the Utes , all participated in the horse raiding. With allies, Walkara was known to steal hundreds to thousands of horses in a single raid. Native Americans along the route were at risk of being taken captive, especially

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4092-437: Was appointed commander of the Presidio of Tucson in 1788 but died before he could depart and take office. He was 52 years old. Anza was survived by his wife. Juan Bautista de Anza died in Arizpe, in what is now the State of Sonora, Mexico, and was buried in the Church of Nuestra Señora de la Asunción de Arizpe . In 1963, with the participation of delegations from the University of California, Berkeley and San Francisco , he

4158-529: Was closely watched by Viceroy and King, and on October 2, 1774, Anza was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-colonel , and ordered to lead a group of colonists to Alta California. The Spanish were desirous of reinforcing their presence in Alta California as a buffer against Russian colonization of the Americas advancing from the north, and possibly establish a harbor that would give shelter to Spanish ships. The expedition got under way on October 23, 1775, and arrived at Mission San Gabriel Arcángel in January 1776,

4224-421: Was disinterred and reburied in a new marble memorial mausoleum at the same Church. The primary legacy is the Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail in California and Arizona, administered by the US National Park Service , for hiking and driving the route of his expedition exploring Las Californias In the San Fernando Valley the trail crosses the Upper Las Virgenes Canyon Open Space Preserve , and in

4290-533: Was often littered with the bones of horses that had died of thirst. The western portions of the Old Spanish Trail could only be used semi-reliably in winter when rains or snows deposited water in the desert. In summer, there was often no water and the oppressive heat could kill. A single round trip per year was about all that was feasible. After 1848, the western parts of the trail were used for winter access between Utah and California when other trails were closed by snow. Sometime before 1844, perhaps as early as 1830,

4356-412: Was opened in 1829-30 when Santa Fe merchant Antonio Armijo led a trade party of 60 men and a caravan of mules to Alta California. Armijo’s group blazed a trade route using a network of indigenous routes, incorporating parts of Jedediah Smith’s routes of 1826 and 1827, and Rafael Rivera’s route of 1828 to the San Gabriel Mission through the Mojave along the Mojave River . Armijo documented his route in

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