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96-532: Packhorses have been used since the earliest period of domestication of the horse . They were invaluable throughout antiquity, through the Middle Ages , and into modern times where roads are nonexistent or poorly maintained. Packhorses were heavily used to transport goods and minerals in England from medieval times until the construction of the first turnpike roads and canals in the 18th century. Many routes crossed

192-549: A 1,000 pounds (450 kg) horse cannot carry more than 250 to 300 pounds (110 to 140 kg). A load carried by a packhorse also has to be balanced, with weight even on both sides to the greatest degree possible. Domestication of the horse How and when horses became domesticated has been disputed. Although horses appeared in Paleolithic cave art as early as 30,000 BC, these were wild horses and were probably hunted for meat. The clearest evidence of early use of

288-459: A Copper Age corral was discovered at Krasnyi Yar in 2006 and mats of horse-dung at two other Botai sites. Current findings continue to support the Botai as having domesticated horses. A study in 2018 revealed that the Botai horses did not contribute significantly to the genetics of modern domesticated horses, and that therefore a subsequent and separate domestication event must have been responsible for

384-519: A change in skeletal measurements detected among horse bones recovered from middens dated about 2500 BCE in eastern Hungary in Bell-Beaker sites, and in later Bronze Age sites in the Russian steppes, Spain , and Eastern Europe . Horse bones from these contexts exhibited an increase in variability, thought to reflect the survival under human care of both larger and smaller individuals than appeared in

480-641: A distinct cluster. Genetic evidence suggests that modern Przewalski's horses are descended from a distinct regional gene pool in the eastern part of the Eurasian steppes, not from the same genetic group that gave rise to modern domesticated horses. Nevertheless, evidence such as the cave paintings of Lascaux suggests that the ancient wild horses that some researchers now label the "Tarpan subtype" probably resembled Przewalski horses in their general appearance: big heads, dun coloration , thick necks, stiff upright manes , and relatively short, stout legs. The horses of

576-468: A few decades of the 19th Century, enormous pack trains carried goods on the Old Spanish Trail from Santa Fe, New Mexico , west to California . On current United States Geological Survey maps, many such trails continue to be labeled pack trail . Packhorses are used worldwide to convey many products. In feudal Japan riding in a saddle (kura) was reserved for the samurai class until the end of

672-523: A pay-grade up and a step above a breaker boy in the society of the times. As the nation expanded west, packhorses, singly or in a pack train of several animals, were used by early surveyors and explorers, most notably by fur trappers , " mountain men ", and gold prospectors who covered great distances by themselves or in small groups. Packhorses were used by Native American people when traveling from place to place, and were also used by traders to carry goods to both Indian and White settlements. During

768-766: A small stream would have steep banks in normal terrains. By the 1790s the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Company was shipping anthracite coal from Summit Hill, Pennsylvania , to cargo boats on the Lehigh River using pack trains in what may be the earliest commercial mining company in North America. Afterwards in 1818−1827 its new management built first the Lehigh Canal , then the Mauch Chunk & Summit Hill Railroad , North America's second oldest which used mule trains to return

864-484: A total area of 9.1 square miles (23.6 km ), of which 8.7 square miles (22.5 km ) is land and 0.42 square miles (1.1 km ), or 4.54%, is water. Summit Hill is located 6 miles (10 km) southwest of Jim Thorpe and 1 mile south of Lansford. Summit Hill's elevation varies from 1,520 feet (460 m) above sea level in the borough center to 1,620 feet (490 m) at the highest point on Pisgah Mountain to 1,010 feet (310 m) at Mauch Chunk Lake. As of

960-414: A train of ponies would number between 12 and 20, but sometimes up to 40. They averaged about 25 miles (40 km) a day. The train's leader commonly wore a bell to warn of its approach, since contemporary accounts emphasised the risk packhorse trains presented to others. They were particularly useful as roads were muddy and often impassable by wagon or cart, and there were no bridges over some major rivers in

1056-629: Is a borough in Carbon County, Pennsylvania , United States. It is part of Northeastern Pennsylvania . The population was 3,034 at the 2010 census. Summit Hill was the western terminus of the United States' second operational railway, the Mauch Chunk Switchback Railway . It was the site of some of the earliest coal mines developed in North America, where the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Company began mining in 1792, establishing

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1152-412: Is evidence that horses were kept as a source of meat and milk before they were trained as working animals . Attempts to date domestication by genetic study or analysis of physical remains rest on the assumption that there was a separation of the genotypes of domesticated and wild populations. Such a separation appears to have taken place, but dates based on such methods can only produce an estimate of

1248-527: Is from these horses which all domestic horses appear to have descended. These horses showed little phylogeographic structure, probably reflecting their high degree of mobility and adaptability. Therefore, the domestic horse today is classified as Equus ferus caballus . No genetic originals of native wild horses currently exist. The Przewalski diverged from the modern horse before domestication. It has 66 chromosomes , as opposed to 64 among modern domesticated horses, and their Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) forms

1344-409: Is not an ancestor to modern domesticated horses. A 2014 study compared DNA from ancient horse bones that predated domestication and compared them to DNA of modern horses, discovering 125 genes that correlated to domestication. Some were physical, affecting muscle and limb development, cardiac strength and balance. Others were linked to cognitive function and most likely were critical to the taming of

1440-414: Is not conclusive evidence against domestication because horses can be ridden and controlled without bits by using a noseband or a hackamore , but such materials do not produce significant physiological changes nor are they apt to be preserved for millennia. The regular use of a bit to control a horse can create wear facets or bevels on the anterior corners of the lower second premolars . The corners of

1536-514: Is some evidence; and warfare could have been worsened by mounted raiding; and the horse-head maces have been interpreted as indicating the introduction of domesticated horses and riding just before the collapse. However, mounted raiding is just one possible explanation for this complex event. Environmental deterioration, ecological degradation from millennia of farming, and the exhaustion of easily mined oxide copper ores also are cited as causal factors. Summit Hill, Pennsylvania Summit Hill

1632-509: Is used to determine so-called haplogroups . A haplogroup is a group of closely related haplotypes that share the same common ancestor. In horses, eighteen main haplogroups are recognized (A-R). Several haplogroups are unequally distributed around the world, indicating the addition of local wild mares to the domesticated stock. In 2018, genomic comparison of 42 ancient-horse genomes, 20 of which were from Botai, with 46 published ancient and modern-horse genomes yielded surprising results. It

1728-607: The Ice Age were hunted for meat in Europe and across the Eurasian steppes and in North America by early modern humans. Numerous kill sites exist and many cave paintings in Europe indicate what they looked like. Many of these Ice Age subspecies died out during the rapid climate changes associated with the end of the last Ice Age or were hunted out by humans, particularly in North America , where

1824-549: The Maikop culture settlements and burials of c. 3300 BC contain both horse bones and images of horses. A frieze of nineteen horses painted in black and red colors is found in one of the Maikop graves. The widespread appearance of horse bones and images in Maikop sites suggest to some observers that horseback riding began in the Maikop period. Later, images of horses, identified by their short ears, flowing manes, and tails that bushed out at

1920-669: The Pennines between Lancashire and Yorkshire, enabling salt, limestone, coal, fleeces and cloth to be transported. Some routes had self-describing names, such as Limersgate and the Long Causeway ; others were named after landmarks, such as the Reddyshore Scoutgate ("gate" is Old English for a road or way) and the Rapes Highway (after Rapes Hill). The medieval paths were marked by wayside crosses along their routes. Mount Cross, above

2016-477: The Pontic–Caspian steppe region of eastern Europe , around 2200 BC. From there, use of horses spread across Eurasia for transportation, agricultural work , and warfare . Scientists have linked the successful spread of domesticated horses to observed genetic changes. They speculate that stronger backs (GSDMC gene) and increased docility (ZFPM1 gene) may have made horses more suitable for riding. The date of

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2112-668: The Przewalski's horse , as well as what is now the modern domestic horse, belonged to a single Holarctic species. The true horse migrated from the Americas to Eurasia via Beringia , becoming broadly distributed from North America to central Europe, north and south of Pleistocene ice sheets. It became extinct in Beringia around 14,200 years ago, and in the rest of the Americas around 10,000 years ago. This clade survived in Eurasia, however, and it

2208-594: The Tarpan ( Equus ferus ferus ). The Tarpan became extinct in the late 19th century and Przewalski's horse is endangered ; it became extinct in the wild during the late 1960s, but was re-introduced in the early 1990s to two preserves in Mongolia. Although researchers such as Marija Gimbutas theorized that the horses of the Chalcolithic (Copper Age) were Przewalski's, more recent genetic studies indicate that Przewalski's horse

2304-596: The Upper Paleolithic period in places such as the caves of Lascaux , France, suggesting that wild horses lived in regions outside of the Eurasian steppes before domestication and may have even been hunted by early humans, concentration of remains suggests animals being deliberately captured and contained, an indicator of domestication, at least for food, if not necessarily use as a working animal. Around 3500–3000 BCE, horse bones began to appear more frequently in archaeological sites beyond their center of distribution in

2400-499: The census of 2000, there were 2,974 people, 1,291 households, and 844 families residing in the borough. The population density was 333.7 inhabitants per square mile (128.8/km ). There were 1,451 housing units at an average density of 162.8 per square mile (62.9/km ). The racial makeup of the borough was 98.99% White , 0.07% African American , 0.10% Native American , 0.17% Asian , 0.07% from other races , and 0.61% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.40% of

2496-567: The mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of a worldwide range of equids , from 53,000-year-old fossils to contemporary horses. Their analysis placed all equids into a single clade , or group with a single common ancestor , consisting of three genetically divergent species: the South American Hippidion , the North American New World stilt-legged horse , and Equus , the true horse. The true horse included prehistoric horses and

2592-404: The samurai era (1868); lower classes would ride on a pack saddle ( ni-gura or konida-gura ) or bareback. Pack horses ( ni-uma or konida-uma ) carried a variety of merchandise and the baggage of travelers using a pack saddle that ranged from a basic wooden frame to the elaborate pack saddles used for the semi-annual processions ( sankin kotai ) of Daimyō. Pack horses also carried

2688-564: The Balkans and the lower Danube valley, some of which had been occupied for 2000 years, were abandoned. Copper mining ceased in the Balkan copper mines, and the cultural traditions associated with the agricultural towns were terminated in the Balkans and the lower Danube valley. This collapse of "Old Europe" has been attributed to the immigration of mounted Indo-European warriors . The collapse could have been caused by intensified warfare, for which there

2784-521: The Botai culture, Botai and Kozhai 1, dated about 3500–3000 BCE. The Botai culture premolars are the earliest reported multiple examples of this dental pathology in any archaeological site, and preceded any skeletal change indicators by 1,000 years. While wear facets more than 3 mm deep were discovered on the lower second premolars of a single stallion from Dereivka in Ukraine , an Eneolithic settlement dated about 4000 BCE, dental material from one of

2880-534: The Eurasian steppes and were seen in central Europe , the middle and lower Danube valley, and the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia . Evidence of horses in these areas had been rare before, and as numbers increased, larger animals also began to appear in horse remains. This expansion in range was contemporary with the Botai culture, where there are indications that horses were corralled and ridden. This does not necessarily mean that horses were first domesticated in

2976-527: The French bat , meaning packsaddle. The packhorse, mule or donkey was a critical tool in the development of the Americas . In colonial America, Spanish, French, Dutch and English traders made use of pack horses to carry goods to remote Native Americans and to carry hides back to colonial market centers. They had little choice, the Americas had virtually no improved waterways before the 1820s and roads in times before

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3072-523: The GSDMC gene and the ZFPM1 gene. The GSDMC gene is linked to back problems in people, and scientists speculate that changes may have made horses' backs stronger. The ZFPM1 gene is related to mood regulation, and scientists speculate that this may have made horses more docile and easier to tame and manage. Strength and docility would have made horses more suitable for riding and other uses. Archaeological evidence for

3168-544: The Suvorovo graves. These agricultural cultures had not previously used polished-stone maces, and horse bones were rare or absent in their settlement sites. Probably their horse-head maces came from the Suvorovo immigrants. The Suvorovo people in turn acquired many copper ornaments from the Trypillia and Gumelnitsa towns. After this episode of contact and trade, but still during the period 4200–4000 BCE, about 600 agricultural towns in

3264-410: The ages and sexes of the horses killed by humans; the appearance of horse corrals ; equipment such as bits or other types of horse tack ; horses interred with equipment intended for use by horses, such as chariots ; and depictions of horses used for riding , driving , draught work , or symbols of human power. Few of these categories, taken alone, provide irrefutable evidence of domestication, but

3360-506: The ancient packhorse routes obsolete. Away from main routes, their use persisted into the 19th century leaving a legacy of paths across wilderness areas called packhorse routes, roads or trails and distinctive narrow, low sided stone arched packhorse bridges for example, at Marsden near Huddersfield. The Packhorse is a common public house name throughout England. During the 19th century, horses that transported officers' baggage during military campaigns were referred to as "bathorses" from

3456-679: The animal bones. Within this three percent, horses were less than 10%, with 90% or more of the equids represented by onagers ( Equus hemionus ) or another ass-like equid that later became extinct, the hydruntine or European wild ass ( Equus hydruntinus ). Onagers were the most common native wild equids of the Near East. They were hunted in Syria , Anatolia , Mesopotamia , Iran , and Central Asia; and domesticated asses ( Equus asinus ) were imported into Mesopotamia, probably from Egypt , but wild horses apparently did not live there. In Northern Caucasus ,

3552-416: The automobile were only improved locally around a municipality, and only rarely in between. This meant cities and towns were connected by roads which carts and wagons could navigate only with difficulty, for virtually every eastern hill or mountain with a shallow gradient was flanked by valleys with stream cut gullies and ravines in their bottoms, as well as Cut bank formations, including escarpments. Even

3648-408: The average family size was 2.86. In the borough the population was spread out, with 20.1% under the age of 18, 6.9% from 18 to 24, 27.6% from 25 to 44, 23.4% from 45 to 64, and 22.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.9 males. The median income for a household in the borough

3744-469: The bit striking the vertical front edge of the lower premolars, due to very strong pressure from a human handler. Modern experiments showed that even organic bits of rope or leather can create significant wear facets, and also showed that facets 3mm (.118 in) deep or more do not appear on the premolars of wild horses . However, other researchers disputed both conclusions. Wear facets of 3 mm or more were found on seven horse premolars in two sites of

3840-471: The borough is on the crest of Pisgah Mountain , but the borough limits extend north to the ridgecrest of Nesquehoning Mountain , south to the far side of Mauch Chunk Mountain , and east to cover most of Mauch Chunk Lake. Also on the northern border is the borough of Lansford , while Tamaqua in Schuylkill County is on the western border. According to the U.S. Census Bureau , Summit Hill borough has

3936-512: The cumulative evidence becomes increasingly more persuasive. The least ancient, but most persuasive, evidence of domestication comes from sites where horse leg bones and skulls, probably originally attached to hides, were interred with the remains of chariots in at least 16 graves of the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures. These were located in the steppes southeast of the Ural Mountains , between

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4032-525: The disks had protruding prongs or studs that would have pressed against the horse's lips when the reins were pulled on the opposite side. Studded cheekpieces were a new and fairly severe kind of control device that appeared simultaneously with chariots. All of the dated chariot graves contained wheel impressions, horse bones, weapons (arrow and javelin points, axes, daggers, or stone mace-heads), human skeletal remains, and cheekpieces. Because they were buried in teams of two with chariots and studded cheekpieces,

4128-765: The dock, began to appear in artistic media in Mesopotamia during the Akkadian period, 2300–2100 BCE. The word for "horse", literally translated as ass of the mountains, first appeared in Sumerian documents during the Third dynasty of Ur , about 2100–2000 BCE. The kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur apparently fed horses to lions for royal entertainment, perhaps indicating that horses were still regarded as more exotic than useful, but King Shulgi , about 2050 BCE, compared himself to "a horse of

4224-466: The domestication of the horse comes from three kinds of sources: 1) changes in the skeletons and teeth of ancient horses; 2) changes in the geographic distribution of ancient horses, particularly the introduction of horses into regions where no wild horses had existed; and 3) archaeological sites containing artifacts, images, or evidence of changes in human behavior connected with horses. Examples include horse remains interred in human graves ; changes in

4320-478: The domestication of the horse depends to some degree upon the definition of "domestication". Some zoologists define "domestication" as human control over breeding, which can be detected in ancient skeletal samples by changes in the size and variability of ancient horse populations. Other researchers look at the broader evidence, including skeletal and dental evidence of working activity; weapons, art, and spiritual artifacts; and lifestyle patterns of human cultures. There

4416-460: The earliest evidence for chariots, suggesting that both horseback riding and chariot use were factors in expansion. Genetic data may also provide clues as to why this particular domestication event had far more widespread impact than other domestication events in Botai, Iberia, SIberia and Anatolia. The genetic lineage that leads to modern domestic horses shows evidence of strong selection for locomotor and behavioural adaptations. Changes relate to

4512-558: The equipment and food for samurai warriors during military campaigns. In North America and Australia, in areas such the Bicentennial National Trail , the packhorse plays a major role in recreational pursuits, particularly to transport goods and supplies into wilderness areas and where motor vehicles are either prohibited or impracticable. They are used by mounted outfitters , hunters , campers , stockmen and cowboys to carry tools and equipment that cannot be carried with

4608-781: The evidence is extremely persuasive that these steppe horses of 2100–1700 BCE were domesticated. Shortly after the period of these burials, the expansion of the domestic horse throughout Europe was little short of explosive. In the space of possibly 500 years, there is evidence of horse-drawn chariots in Greece, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. By another 500 years, the horse-drawn chariot had spread to China. Some researchers do not consider an animal to be "domesticated" until it exhibits physical changes consistent with selective breeding , or at least having been born and raised entirely in captivity. Until that point, they classify captive animals as merely "tamed". Those who hold to this theory of domestication point to

4704-412: The five ton coal cars the four hour climb the nine miles back to the upper terminus. Mules rode the roller-coaster precursor on the down trip to the docks, stables and paddocks below. The same company, as did its many competitors made extensive use of sure footed pack mules and donkeys in coal mines, including in some cases measures to stable the animals below ground. These were often managed by 'mule boys',

4800-552: The fourth century BCE both horseback riding and mounted archery were practiced along China’s northwest frontier. In 2008, archaeologists announced the discovery of rock art in Somalia 's northern Dhambalin region, which the researchers suggest is one of the earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback. The rock art is in the Ethiopian-Arabian style, dated to 1000 to 3000 BCE. About 4200-4000 BCE, more than 500 years before

4896-621: The genetics of modern domestic horses. More than 150 scientists collaborated in gathering 264 ancient horse genomes from across Eurasia, dating from 50,000 to 200 B.C.E. In October 2021, results of the analysis were published in Nature . They indicated that domestication of the modern horse's ancestors likely occurred in the Volga-Don region of the Pontic–Caspian steppe grasslands of Western Eurasia . Both Tarpan and Przewalski’s horse were related to different ancestral populations than those underlying

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4992-635: The geographic expansion evidenced by the presence of horse bones, new kinds of graves, named after a grave at Suvorovo , appeared north of the Danube delta in the coastal steppes of Ukraine near Izmail . Suvorovo graves were similar to and probably derived from earlier funeral traditions in the steppes around the Dnieper River . Some Suvorovo graves contained polished stone mace-heads shaped like horse heads and horse tooth beads. Earlier steppe graves also had contained polished stone mace-heads, some of them carved in

5088-718: The hamlet of Shore in the Cliviger Gorge , shows signs of Viking influence. As the Vikings moved eastwards from the Irish Sea in about 950 AD, it is likely that the pack horse routes were established from that time. Most packhorses were Galloways , small, stocky horses named after the Scottish district where they were first bred. Those employed in the lime-carriage trade were known as "limegals". Each pony could carry about 240 pounds (110 kg) in weight, spread between two panniers. Typically

5184-477: The heads and hooves of a pair of horses were placed in a grave that once contained a chariot. Evidence of chariots in these graves was inferred from the impressions of two spoked wheels set in grave floors 1.2–1.6m apart; in most cases the rest of the vehicle left no trace. In addition, a pair of disk-shaped antler "cheekpieces," an ancient predecessor to a modern bit shank or bit ring , were placed in pairs beside each horse head-and-hoof sacrifice. The inner faces of

5280-447: The highway that swishes its tail", and one image from his reign showed a man apparently riding a horse at full gallop. Horses were imported into Mesopotamia and the lowland Near East in larger numbers after 2000 BCE in connection with the beginning of chariot warfare , replacing the long-established kunga (a hybrid between the now-extinct Syrian wild ass and a domestic donkey ) as the main equid for warfare. A further expansion, into

5376-589: The horse as a means of transport is from chariot burials dated c.  2000 BC . However, an increasing amount of evidence began to support the hypothesis that horses were domesticated in the Eurasian Steppes in approximately 3500 BC. Discoveries in the context of the Botai culture had suggested that Botai settlements in the Akmola Province of Kazakhstan are the location of the earliest domestication of

5472-427: The horse became completely extinct . Classification based on body types and conformation, before the availability of DNA for research, once suggested that there were roughly four basic wild prototypes, thought to have developed with adaptations to their environment before domestication. There were competing theories: some argued that the four prototypes were separate species or subspecies, while others suggested that

5568-415: The horse's mouth normally keep the bit on the "bars" of the mouth, an interdental space where there are no teeth, forward of the premolars. The bit must be manipulated by a human or the horse must move it with its tongue for it to touch the teeth. Wear can be caused by the bit abrading the front corners of the premolars if the horse grasps and releases the bit between its teeth ; other wear can be created by

5664-469: The horse, including social behavior, learning capabilities, fear response, and agreeableness. The DNA used in this study came from horse bones 16,000 to 43,000 years ago, and therefore the precise changes that occurred at the time of domestication have yet to be sequenced. The domestication of stallions and mares can be analyzed separately by looking at those portions of the DNA that are passed on exclusively along

5760-467: The horse. Warmuth et al. (2012) pointed to horses having been domesticated around 3000 BC in what is now Ukraine and Western Kazakhstan . The evidence is disputed by archaeozoologist Williams T. Taylor, who argues that domestication did not take place until around 2000 BC. Genetic evidence indicates that domestication of the modern horse's ancestors likely occurred in an area known as the Volga–Don , in

5856-638: The identified animal bones in Mesolithic and Neolithic camps in the Eurasian steppes, west of the Ural Mountains. Horse bones were rare or absent in Neolithic and Chalcolithic kitchen garbage in western Turkey , Mesopotamia , most of Iran , South and Central Asia , and much of Europe. While horse bones have been identified in Neolithic sites in central Turkey, all equids together totaled less than 3% of

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5952-458: The latest possible date for domestication without excluding the possibility of an unknown period of earlier gene flow between wild and domestic populations (which will occur naturally as long as the domesticated population is kept within the habitat of the wild population). Whether one adopts the narrower zoological definition of domestication or the broader cultural definition that rests on an array of zoological and archaeological evidence affects

6048-698: The lowland Near East and northwestern China , also happened around 2000 BCE. Although Equus bones of uncertain species are found in some Late Neolithic sites in China dated before 2000 BCE, Equus caballus or Equus ferus bones first appeared in multiple sites and in significant numbers in sites of the Qijia and Siba cultures, 2000–1600 BCE, in Gansu and the northwestern provinces of China. Skeletal evidence from sites in Shirenzigou and Xigou in eastern Xinjiang indicate that by

6144-466: The main routes were improved, often by laying stone setts parallel to the horse track, at a distance of a cartwheel. They remained difficult in poor weather, the Reddyshore Scoutgate was "notoriously difficult", and became insufficient for a developing commercial and industrial economy. In the 18th century, canals started to be built in England and, following the Turnpike Act 1773, metalled roads. They made

6240-567: The majority of the horse remains found in Botai-culture settlements indeed probably were wild. On the other hand, any domesticated riding horses were probably the same size as their wild cousins and cannot now be distinguished by bone measurements. They also note that the age structure of the horses slaughtered at Botai represents a natural demographic profile for hunted animals, not the pattern expected if they were domesticated and selected for slaughter. However, these arguments were published before

6336-434: The maternal ( mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA) or paternal line ( Y-chromosome or Y-DNA). DNA studies indicate that there may have been multiple domestication events for mares, as the number of female lines required to account for the genetic diversity of the modern horse suggests a minimum of 77 different ancestral mares , divided into 17 distinct lineages. Studies of modern horses showed very little Y chromosome diversity, which

6432-399: The mitochondrial DNA obtained from modern horses as well as from horse bones and teeth from archaeological and palaeological finds consistently shows an increased genetic diversity in the mitochondrial DNA compared to the remaining DNA, showing that a large number of mares has been included into the breeding stock of the originally domesticated horse. Variation in the mitochondrial DNA

6528-525: The modern domestic horse. Genetic evidence also connects Botai horses with Przewalski's horse in Mongolia, which has led to debates over whether Przewalski's horses should be considered a never-domesticated population or feral descendants of domesticated Botai horses. The presence of bit wear is an indicator that a horse was ridden or driven, and the earliest of such evidence from a site in Kazakhstan dates to 3500 BCE. The absence of bit wear on horse teeth

6624-549: The modern domestic horses (DOM2). In addition, researchers were able to map population changes over time as modern domestic horses expanded rapidly across Eurasia and displaced other local populations, from about 2000 BCE onwards. The genetic profile for DOM2 horses is associated with horses buried in Sintashta kurgans with early spoke-wheeled chariots, and with horses in Central Anatolia where two-wheeled vehicles were depicted. DOM2 horses also occur in some areas prior to

6720-792: The most intriguing evidence of early domestication comes from the Botai culture , found in northern Kazakhstan . The Botai culture was a culture of foragers who seem to have adopted horseback riding in order to hunt the abundant wild horses of northern Kazakhstan between 3500 and 3000 BCE. Botai sites had no cattle or sheep bones; the only domesticated animals, in addition to horses, were dogs . Botai settlements in this period contained between 50 and 150 pit houses. Garbage deposits contained tens to hundreds of thousands of discarded animal bones, 65% to 99% of which had come from horses. Also, there has been evidence found of horse milking at these sites, with horse milk fats soaked into pottery shards dating to 3500 BCE. Earlier hunter-gatherers who lived in

6816-698: The neighboring towns of Lansford, Nesquehoning and Coaldale (Coaldale is located in Schuylkill County). As of 2008, there were 23.53 miles (37.87 km) of public roads in Summit Hill, of which 9.26 miles (14.90 km) were maintained by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (PennDOT) and 14.27 miles (22.97 km) were maintained by the borough. Pennsylvania Route 902 is the only numbered highway serving Summit Hill. It follows North Street, Pine Street, Amidon Street and Laurel Drive along

6912-518: The north of England. About 1000 packhorses a day passed through Clitheroe before 1750, and "commonly 200 to 300 laden horses every day over the River Calder (at a ford) called Fennysford in the King's Highway between Clitheroe and Whalley " The importance of packhorse routes was reflected in jingles and rhymes, often aide-memoires of the routes. As the need for cross-Pennine transportation increased,

7008-564: The northeast-to-southwest-running ridgeline of Pisgah Mountain lying several hundred feet below the ridge on the north slope in an area that became the boroughs of Summit Hill and Lansford . Summit Hill High School was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2001. Summit Hill is located in western Carbon County at 40°49′39″N 75°51′57″W  /  40.82750°N 75.86583°W  / 40.82750; -75.86583 (40.827420, -75.865892). The main development of

7104-434: The overall genetic variation in the remaining genetic material. This indicates that a relatively few stallions were domesticated and that it is unlikely that many male offspring originating from unions between wild stallions and domestic mares were included in early domesticated breeding stock. Genes located in the mitochondrial DNA are passed on along the maternal line from the mother to her offspring. Multiple analyses of

7200-426: The packhorse is similar to that of a riding horse. Many but not all packhorses are also trained to be ridden. In addition, a packhorse is required to have additional skills that may not be required of a riding horse. A pack horse is required to be tolerant of close proximity to other animals in the packstring, both to the front and to the rear. The horse must also be tolerant of breeching , long ropes, noisy loads, and

7296-409: The population. There were 1,291 households, out of which 25.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.1% were married couples living together, 10.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.6% were non-families. 31.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30 and

7392-504: The prototypes were physically different manifestations of the same species. However, more recent study indicates that there was only one wild species and all different body types were entirely a result of selective breeding or landrace adaptation after domestication. Either way, the most common theories of prototypes include four base prototypes: Two "wild" groups, that were believed to be never-domesticated, survived into historic times: Przewalski's horse ( Equus ferus przewalski ), and

7488-630: The rider. They are used by guest ranches to transport materials to remote locations to set up campsites for tourists and guests. They are used by the United States Forest Service and the National Park Service to carry in supplies to maintain trails, cabins and bring in commercial goods to backcountry tourist lodges and other remote, permanent residences. Additionally, packhorses have also been used by drug trafficking organizations to transport narcotics across wilderness areas. In

7584-491: The same region had not hunted wild horses with such success, and lived for millennia in smaller, more shifting settlements, often containing less than 200 wild animal bones. Entire herds of horses were slaughtered by the Botai hunters, apparently in hunting drives. The adoption of horseback riding might explain the emergence of specialized horse-hunting techniques and larger, more permanent settlements. Domesticated horses could have been adopted from neighboring herding societies in

7680-556: The shape of animal heads. Settlements in the steppes contemporary with Suvorovo, such as Sredni Stog II and Dereivka on the Dnieper River, contained 12–52% horse bones. When Suvorovo graves appeared in the Danube delta grasslands, horse-head maces also appeared in some of the indigenous farming towns of the Trypillia and Gumelnitsa cultures in present-day Romania and Moldova , near

7776-495: The shifting of the load during transit. Patience and tolerance are crucial; for example, there are many ways to put pack horses into a pack string, but one method incorporates tying the halter lead of one animal to the tail of the animal in front of it, an act that often provokes kicking or bolting in untrained animals. Loading of a packhorse requires care. Weight carried is the first factor to consider. The average horse can carry up to approximately 30% of its body weight. Thus,

7872-564: The site of Csepel-Haros in Hungary , a settlement of the Bell Beaker culture . Use of horses spread across Eurasia for transportation, agricultural work and warfare . Horses and mules in agriculture used a breastplate type harness or a yoke more suitable for oxen , which was not as efficient at utilizing the full strength of the animals as the later-invented padded horse collar that arose several millennia later. A 2005 study analyzed

7968-511: The steppes west of the Ural Mountains, where the Khvalynsk culture had herds of cattle and sheep, and perhaps had domesticated horses, as early as 4800 BCE. Other researchers have argued that all of the Botai horses were wild, and that the horse-hunters of Botai hunted wild horses on foot. As evidence, they note that zoologists have found no skeletal changes in the Botai horses that indicate domestication. Moreover, because they were hunted for food,

8064-690: The steppes, but the horse-hunters of the steppes certainly pursued wild horses more than in any other region. European wild horses were hunted for up to 10% of the animal bones in a handful of Mesolithic and Neolithic settlements scattered across Spain , France , and the marshlands of northern Germany , but in many other parts of Europe, including Greece , the Balkans , the British Isles , and much of central Europe, horse bones do not occur or occur very rarely in Mesolithic, Neolithic or Chalcolithic sites. In contrast, wild horse bones regularly exceeded 40% of

8160-461: The third world, packhorses and donkeys to an even greater extent, still haul goods to market, carry supplies for workers, and many other of the same jobs that have been performed for millennia. In modern warfare , pack mules are used to bring supplies to areas where roads are poor and fuel supply is uncertain. For example, they are a critical part of the supply chain for all sides of the conflict in remote parts of Afghanistan. Foundation training of

8256-596: The three foundation stallions of the Thoroughbred breed. A study published in 2012 that performed genomic sampling on 300 work horses from local areas as well as a review of previous studies of archaeology, mitochondrial DNA , and Y-DNA suggested that horses were originally domesticated in the western part of the Eurasian steppe. Both domesticated stallions and mares spread out from this area, and then additional wild mares were added from local herds; wild mares were easier to handle than wild stallions. Most other parts of

8352-550: The time frame chosen for the domestication of the horse. The date of 4000 BCE is based on evidence that includes the appearance of dental pathologies associated with bitting , changes in butchering practices, changes in human economies and settlement patterns, the depiction of horses as symbols of power in artifacts , and the appearance of horse bones in human graves. On the other hand, measurable changes in size and increases in variability associated with domestication occurred later, about 2500–2000 BCE, as seen in horse remains found at

8448-477: The town initially as little more than a mining camp with stables and paddocks. Anthracite coal was discovered on the ridgeline of Sharpe Mountain (now known as Pisgah Mountain ) in 1791 by a hunter. News of the find led to the founding of the Lehigh Coal Mining Company , which in 1792 began exploring the area in earnest and buying up promising land. Coal was found in 1794 by Phillip Ginter along

8544-409: The upper Ural and upper Tobol Rivers , a region today divided between southern Russia and northern Kazakhstan . Petrovka was a little later than and probably grew out of Sintashta, and the two complexes together spanned about 2100–1700 BCE. A few of these graves contained the remains of as many as eight sacrificed horses placed in, above, and beside the grave. In all of the dated chariot graves,

8640-537: The wild; and a decrease in average size, thought to reflect penning and restriction in diet. Horse populations that showed this combination of skeletal changes probably were domesticated. Most evidence suggests that horses were increasingly controlled by humans after about 2500 BCE. However, more recently there have been skeletal remains found at a site in Kazakhstan which display the smaller, more slender limbs characteristic of corralled animals, dated to 3500 BCE. Some of

8736-459: The world were ruled out as sites for horse domestication, either due to climate unsuitable for an indigenous wild horse population or no evidence of domestication. Genes located on the Y-chromosome are inherited only from sire to its male offspring and these lines show a very reduced degree of genetic variation (aka genetic homogeneity ) in modern domestic horses, far less than expected based on

8832-694: The worn teeth later produced a radiocarbon date of 700–200 BCE, indicating that this stallion was actually deposited in a pit dug into the older Eneolithic site during the Iron Age . Soil scientists working with Sandra Olsen of the Carnegie Museum of Natural History at the Chalcolithic settlements of Botai and Krasnyi Yar in northern Kazakhstan found layers of horse dung , discarded in unused house pits in both settlements. The collection and disposal of horse dung suggests that horses were confined in corrals or stables . An actual corral, dated to 3500–3000 BCE

8928-475: Was $ 37,287, and the median income for a family was $ 44,500. Males had a median income of $ 36,627 versus $ 23,507 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $ 21,166. About 4.0% of families and 7.5% of the population were below the poverty line , including 8.4% of those under age 18 and 6.2% of those age 65 or over. Summit Hill is part of the Panther Valley School District, along with

9024-548: Was found that modern domestic horses are not closely related to the horses at Botai. Rather, Przewalski’s horses were identified as feral descendants of horses herded at Botai. Evidence suggested that "a massive genomic turnover" had occurred along with the domestication of horses and large-scale human population expansion in the Early Bronze Age. Subsequent research showed that horse lineages from Iberia and Siberia, also associated with early domestication, had little influence on

9120-423: Was identified at Krasnyi Yar by a pattern of post holes for a circular fence , with the soils inside the fence yielding ten times more phosphorus than the soils outside. The phosphorus could represent the remains of manure. The appearance of horse remains in human settlements in regions where they had not previously been present is another indicator of domestication. Although images of horses appear as early as

9216-425: Was originally interpreted as evidence of a single domestication event for a limited number of stallions combined with repeated restocking of wild females into the domesticated herds. However, more recent studies of ancient DNA show that Y chromosome diversity was significantly higher a thousand years ago. The low present diversity may be partially explained by the popularity of Arabian and Turkoman studs, especially

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