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155-660: Paasikivi is remembered as a main architect of Finland's foreign policy after the Second World War; for example, the Paasikivi Society ( Paasikivi-seura ), founded in 1958 under the leadership of Jan-Magnus Jansson, sought to nurture Paasikivi's political legacy, especially during the Cold War , by promoting 'fact-based foreign policy thinking' in Finland and making Finland's policy of neutrality internationally known. Paasikivi

310-598: A provisional government was announced by the Provisional Committee of the State Duma . The Provisional Government published its manifesto declaring itself the governing body of the Russian Empire that same day. The manifesto proposed a plan of civic and political rights and the installation of a democratically elected Russian Constituent Assembly , but did not touch on many of the topics that were driving forces in

465-465: A strike to demonstrate against the government. Strikes continued on the following days. Due to heavy snowstorms, tens of thousands of freight cars were stuck on the rails, with food and coal. On 22 February O.S. (7 March N.S.) the Tsar left for the front. On 23 February O.S. (8 March N.S.), Putilov protesters were joined in the uprising by those celebrating International Woman's Day and protesting against

620-609: A German Prince, as king, intending to ensure German support for Finland against Bolshevist Russia. However, as Germany lost the World War, the monarchy had to be scrapped for a republic more in the taste of the victorious Entente . Paasikivi's Senate resigned, and he returned to the KOP bank. Paasikivi's Senate was in power during the existence of the prison camps following the Civil War in Finland, where 12,000 prisoners died in total. Starvation

775-533: A US loan made in the aftermath of World War I. Finland is bordered on the east by Russia and, as one of the former Soviet Union's neighbours, has been of particular interest and importance to the US both during the Cold War and in its aftermath. Before the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, longstanding US policy was to support Finnish neutrality and to maintain and reinforce Finland's historic, cultural, and economic ties with

930-622: A base for further actions, and thus finally both countries often agree on such issues. If there has ever been any dissonance between the two countries those were the Åland question in the early 1920s and the Swedish declaration of non-belligerent status during the Winter War . Finland and Sweden are members of the European Union and the Schengen agreement , freeing international travel and trade between

1085-551: A cabinet with Social Democrats as Ministers. This didn't improve Paasikivi's reputation among the Swedish Social Democrats dominating the government, who were sufficiently suspicious due to his association with Finland's Monarchist orientation in 1918, and the failed Lapua coup in 1932. Things actually improved, partly due to Paasikivi's efforts, partly due to President Kallio being elected. As president, Kallio approved of parliamentarism and appointed Social Democrats to

1240-589: A conservative, "state-minded" party. At the same time that the Provisional Government was put into place, the Soviet Executive Committee also formed. The soviets were made up of workers and soldiers directly, being a democratic institution, allowing for cooperative decision making, while the Provisional Government was formed from the Duma delegates. The soviets, being formed democratically, ended up with

1395-595: A cooperative model state, and Finland did not oppose proposals for a common EU defence policy. This was reversed in the 2000s, when Tarja Halonen and Erkki Tuomioja made Finland's official policy to resist other EU members' plans for common defense. However, Halonen allowed Finland to join European Union Battlegroups in 2006 and the NATO Response Force in 2008. Relations with Russia are cordial and common issues include bureaucracy (particularly at

1550-488: A course of studies that proved useful in later life. The following winter, Paasikivi changed his major to law, earning a Master of Laws degree and eventually, in 1902, his Doctor of Law . During his schooling, Paasikivi supported himself by working variously as a teacher, lecturer, court bailiff, and lawyer in private practice in Lahti . It was also during his university studies, around 1894, that Paasikivi first became involved in

1705-529: A free-market economy and conducted bilateral trade with the Soviet Union. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Finland unilaterally abrogated the last restrictions imposed on it by the Paris peace treaties of 1947 and the Finno-Soviet Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance . The government filed an application for membership in the European Union (EU) three months after

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1860-843: A full member of the EU in January 1995, at the same time acquiring observer status in the EU's defence arm, the Western European Union . In 2003, Anneli Jäätteenmäki of the Centre Party won the elections after she had accused her rival Paavo Lipponen , who was prime minister at the time, of allying neutral Finland with the United States in the war in Iraq during a meeting with President George W. Bush , and thus associated Finland with what many Finns considered an illegal war of aggression . Lipponen denied

2015-530: A great majority of politicians asked him to do so. He appeared as a dark horse presidential candidate on the second ballot of the electoral college on 15 February 1956, but was eliminated as the least popular candidate. His last-minute candidacy was based on a misunderstood message from some conservatives which made him believe that enough Agrarians and Social Democrats would support him. After his unsuccessful last-minute presidential candidacy, Paasikivi felt betrayed by those politicians who asked him to participate in

2170-540: A lot of goods and basic necessities, such as fuel, and the two nations are agreeing on issues more than disagreeing on them. Finland was a part of the Russian Empire for 108 years, after being annexed from the Swedish empire. Discontent with Russian rule, Finnish national identity, and World War I eventually caused Finland to break away from Russia, taking advantage of the fact that Russia was withdrawing from World War I and

2325-422: A message of greeting to the young people of the world as they prepare for the fifteenth Olympic Games which are, once again, to be celebrated in a spirit worthy of the ideals of Baron de Coubertin . This happy cooperation between young people of all countries will serve the great call of concord and peace among the nations of the world. I am particularly pleased to be sending you this advance greeting because, as

2480-463: A minister with the "confidence of the country" be instated immediately. Delay, he wrote, would be "tantamount to death". On the home front, a famine loomed and commodities became scarce due to the overstretched railroad network. Meanwhile, refugees from German-occupied Russia came in their millions. The Russian economy , which had just seen one of the highest growth rates in Europe, was blocked from

2635-542: A moderate-left majority, while the government was mostly made of the liberals and did not properly fulfill the demands of most of the country for peace and bread. When these two powers existed at the same time, "dual power" was created. The Provisional Government was granted formal authority, but the Soviet Executive Committee had the support of the people resulting in political unrest until the Bolshevik takeover in October. During

2790-507: A month. Meanwhile, the wartime alliance of industry, the Duma (lower house of parliament) and the Stavka (Military High Command) started to work outside the Tsar's control. In an attempt to boost morale and repair his reputation as a leader, Tsar Nicholas announced in the summer of 1915 that he would take personal command of the army, in defiance of almost universal advice to the contrary. The result

2945-539: A revolution was starting in earnest. Following the Finnish Civil War and October Revolution , Russians were virtually equated with Communists and due to official hostility to Communism , Finno-Soviet relations in the period between the world wars remained tense. Voluntary activists arranged expeditions to Karelia ( heimosodat ), which ended when Finland and the Soviet Union signed the Treaty of Tartu in 1920. However,

3100-679: A similar ideology based on democracy, human rights and a lasting peace. It's because of this that Colombia has decided to open an embassy in Helsinki . Colombia also defines Finland as a key player on Colombia's accession into the OECD and the ratification of the Colombia-European Union Trade Agreement. Mexico recognized the independence of Finland in July 1920. 5-25-1988 President Reagan meeting with President Mauno Henrik Koivisto during

3255-598: A staunch supporter of NATO, was sworn in as Finland's new president. On 7 March 2024, Stubb made his first foreign trip as Finland's new president to Nato's Nordic Response military exercise in northern Norway. List of countries which Finland maintains diplomatic relations with: Comoros is represented in Finland by its embassy in Paris , France . Ethiopia is represented in Finland through its embassy in Stockholm , Sweden. Finland has an embassy in Addis Ababa . Ethiopia

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3410-518: A system gathered the educated public, workers, and soldiers to facilitate order and food systems, democratic elections, and the removal of tsarist officials. In a short amount of time, 3,000 deputies were elected to the Petrograd Soviet. The Soviet quickly became the representative body responsible for fighting for workers and soldiers hopes for "bread, peace, and land". In the spring of 1917, 700 soviets were established across Russia, equalling about

3565-432: A third of the population, representing the proletariat and their interests. The soviets spent their time pushing for a constituent assembly rather than swaying the public to believe they were a more morally sound means of governing. After the abdication of the throne by the Tsar, the Provisional Government declared itself the new form of authority. The Provisional Government shared Kadet views. The Kadets were now seen as

3720-543: A trip to Finland at the Helsinki airport in Vantaa Relations between the United States and Finland are warm. Some 200,000 US citizens visit Finland annually, and about 3,000 US citizens are resident there. The US has an educational exchange program in Finland that is comparatively large for a Western European country of Finland's size. It is financed in part from a trust fund established in 1976 from Finland's final repayment of

3875-479: A violent coup, especially not without Soviet support. Later in the spring when the Finnish parliament passed a no-confidence motion against Communist Interior Minister Leino because of controversy over Leino's treatment of some mostly White Russian emigrant prisoners whom he had ordered deported to the Soviet Union, Paasikivi had to dismiss Leino when he refused to resign at once. After the 1948 parliamentary elections, when

4030-420: A young man, I was myself an enthusiastic gymnast and athlete. And I have retained throughout my life a deep interest in athletics and sports of all kinds. I am convinced that the Finnish people, loving sport as they do, will spare no effort to make the 1952 Olympic Games a complete success. By the end of Paasikivi's six-year second term, Finland had rid itself of the most urgent political problems resulting from

4185-883: Is accredited to Finland from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden. During World War II South Africa declared war on Finland. Finland was a strong supporter of the dismantling of Apartheid in South Africa. South African exports to Finland include fresh and dried fruits, wine, pulp, paper, iron, steel, and coal. South Africa imports telecommunication equipment, paper, board products, and machinery from Finland. Chile recognised Finland's independence on June 17, 1919. Diplomatic relations between them were established in 1931 and have been continuously maintained, despite pressures at times to discontinue them. The two countries maintain resident ambassadors in both capitals. The relations between Colombia and Finland are harmonious as both countries share

4340-440: Is in a state of anarchy. The Government is paralyzed. Transport service and the supply of food and fuel have become completely disrupted. General discontent is growing ... There must be no delay. Any procrastination is tantamount to death. Golitsyn received by telegraph a decree from the Tsar dissolving the Duma once again. Golitsyn used a (signed, but not yet dated) ukaze declaring that his Majesty had decided to interrupt

4495-642: Is one of Finland's long-term development partners and in the water and education sectors. On April 29, 2009, the Ministry of Finance and Economic Development announced that the Finnish government had made a grant of 11.4 million euros to enable the Benishangul-Gumuz Region to upgrade its capacity to plan and manage its rural water supply and sanitation program to achieve universal access for all Ethiopians. Finland recognised Namibia on March 21, 1990. Both countries established diplomatic relations on

4650-619: The Kansallis-Osake-Pankki (KOP) bank, retaining that position until 1934. Paasikivi also served as a member of the City Council of Helsinki 1915–1918. After the 1917 February Revolution in Russia , Paasikivi was appointed to the committee that began formulating new legislation for a modernized Grand Duchy. Initially he supported increased autonomy within the Russian state, in opposition to

4805-619: The Admiralty , but moved that night to the Winter Palace . Nicholas's response on 27 February O.S (12 March N.S), perhaps based on the Empress's earlier letter to him that the concern about Petrograd was an over-reaction, was one of irritation that "again, this fat Rodzianko has written me lots of nonsense, to which I shall not even deign to reply". Meanwhile, events unfolded in Petrograd. The bulk of

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4960-541: The Allied powers in Petrograd; unofficially they sought to clarify the internal situation in Russia. On 8 February, at the wish of the Tsar, Nikolay Maklakov , together with Alexander Protopopov ..., drafted the text of the manifesto on the dissolution of the Duma (before it was opened on 14 February 1917). The Duma was dissolved and Protopopov was proclaimed dictator . By 1917, the majority of Petersburgers had lost faith in

5115-589: The April Crisis (1917) Ivan Ilyin agreed with the Kadet Minister of Foreign Affairs Pavel Milyukov who staunchly opposed Petrograd Soviet demands for peace at any cost. Vladimir Lenin , exiled in neutral Switzerland, arrived in Petrograd from Zürich on 16 April O.S (29 April N.S). He immediately began to undermine the provisional government, issuing his April Theses the next month. These theses were in favor of " Revolutionary defeatism ", which argues that

5270-639: The Asian Development Bank , the Inter-American Development Bank , the Council of Europe , and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development . Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Finland has moved steadily towards integration into Western institutions and abandoned its formal policy of neutrality, which has been recast as a policy of military nonalliance coupled with

5425-510: The Continuation War began, Paasikivi took up writing his memoirs. By 1943 he had concluded that Germany was going to lose the war and that Finland was in great danger as well. However, his initial opposition to the pro-German politics of 1940–1941 was too well known, and his first initiatives for peace negotiations were met with little support from either Field Marshal Mannerheim or Risto Ryti , who now had become President. Immediately after

5580-726: The February Bourgeois Democratic Revolution and sometimes as the March Revolution or February Coup was the first of two revolutions which took place in Russia in 1917. The main events of the revolution took place in and near Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg ), the then-capital of Russia, where long-standing discontent with the monarchy erupted into mass protests against food rationing on 23 February Old Style (8 March New Style ). Revolutionary activity lasted about eight days, involving mass demonstrations and violent armed clashes with police and gendarmes ,

5735-552: The Fennoman movement , assuming leadership roles in its student organization. On 1 June 1897 Paasikivi married Swedish-born Anna Matilda Forsman (1869–1931). Together they had four children, Annikki (1898–1950), Wellamo (1900–1966), Juhani (1901–1942), and Varma (1903–1941). Upon earning his doctorate in law in 1901, Paasikivi took on an associate professorship of Administrative Law at Helsinki University from 1902 to 1903. Paasikivi left this post to become Director-in-Chief of Treasury of

5890-582: The Grand Duchy of Finland , a position he retained until 1914. For practically all of his adult life, Paasikivi moved in the inner circles of Finland's politics. He supported greater autonomy and an independent Cabinet ( Senate ) for Finland, and resisted Russia's panslavic intentions to make Russian the only official language everywhere in the Russian Empire. He belonged, however, to the more complying Finnish Party , opposing radical and potentially counter-productive steps which could be perceived as aggressive by

6045-599: The July Days , approximately half a million soldiers, sailors, and workers, some of them armed, came out onto the streets of Petrograd in protest. The protesters seized automobiles, fought with people of authority, and often fired their guns into the air. The crowd was so uncontrollable that the Soviet leadership sent the Socialist Revolutionary Victor Chernov , a widely liked politician, to the streets to calm

6200-535: The Petrograd Soviet . After the July Days , in which the government killed hundreds of protesters, Alexander Kerensky became the head of the government. He was unable to resolve Russia's immediate problems, including food shortages and mass unemployment, as he attempted to keep Russia involved in the ever more unpopular world war . The failures of the Provisional Government led to the October Revolution by

6355-584: The Tsarist regime . Government corruption was unrestrained, and Tsar Nicholas II had frequently disregarded the Imperial Duma . Thousands of workers flooded the streets of Petrograd (modern St. Petersburg) to show their dissatisfaction. The first major protest of the February Revolution occurred on 18 February O.S. (3 March N.S) as workers of Putilov Factory , Petrograd's largest industrial plant, announced

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6510-638: The UN civil service in proportion to its population and belongs to several of its specialised and related agencies. Finnish troops have participated in United Nations peacekeeping activities since 1956, and the Finns continue to be one of the largest per capita contributors of peacekeepers in the world. Finland is an active participant in the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and in early 1995 assumed

6665-453: The Vaalimaa border crossing), airspace violations, development aid Finland gives to Russia (especially in environmental problems that affect Finland), and Finland's energy dependency on Russian gas and electricity. Behind the scenes, the administration witnessed a resurrection of Soviet-era tactics as recently as 2017. The Finnish Security Intelligence Service , the nation's security agency, says

6820-660: The Winter Battle in Masuria in February 1915 and the loss of Russian Poland during May to August 1915. Nearly six million casualties —dead, wounded, and missing— had been accrued by January 1917. Mutinies sprang up more often (most due to simple war-weariness ), morale was at its lowest, and the newly called-up officers and commanders were at times very incompetent. Like all major armies, Russia's armed forces had inadequate supply. The pre-revolution desertion rate ran at around 34,000

6975-748: The Winter war and the Continuation war , Denmark took 4,200 Finnish war children . Exports to Denmark value at 1.380 billion euros, and imports from Denmark value at 1.453 billion, making Denmark Finland's 10th largest import-trading partner. The Nordic Culture Fund and the Finnish-Danish Cultural Fund support projects of artists in both countries. Many tourists from Finland visit Denmark, 206,000 in 2017, and vice versa: 113,000 Danish tourists visited Finland in 2017. In 1918 Mannerheim visited Copenhagen , asking if Prince Aage would have wanted to become

7130-645: The government . Implicitly the government is responsible for internal policy and decision making in the European Union. Within the government, preparative discussions are conducted in the government committee of foreign and security policy ( ulko- ja turvallisuuspoliittinen ministerivaliokunta ), which includes the Prime Minister and at least the Minister of Foreign Affairs and the Minister of Defence, and at most four other ministers as necessary. The committee meets with

7285-590: The "diarchy" became obvious, and ultimately the regime and the dual power formed between the Petrograd Soviet and the Provisional Government, instigated by the February Revolution, was overthrown by the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution . When discussing the historiography of the February Revolution there are three historical interpretations which are relevant: Communist, Liberal, and Revisionist. These three different approaches exist separately from one another because of their respective beliefs of what ultimately caused

7440-482: The 19th and early 20th century, to modernise its archaic social, economic, and political structures while maintaining the stability of ubiquitous devotion to an autocratic monarch . As historian Richard Pipes writes, "the incompatibility of capitalism and autocracy struck all who gave thought to the matter". The first major event of the Russian Revolution was the February Revolution, a chaotic affair caused by

7595-406: The Army, General Lavr Kornilov , directed an army under Aleksandr Krymov to march toward Petrograd with Kerensky's agreement. Although the details remain sketchy, Kerensky appeared to become frightened by the possibility of a coup, and the order was countermanded. (Historian Richard Pipes is adamant that the episode was engineered by Kerensky). On 27 August O.S (9 September N.S), feeling betrayed by

7750-440: The Bloc (led by Maklakov) at the session of the Council of Ministers in the Mariinsky Palace . The Bloc spoke for the resignation of the government. During the late afternoon of 26 February O.S (11 March N.S) the Fourth Company of the Pavlovsky Reserve Regiment broke out of their barracks upon learning that another detachment of the regiment had clashed with demonstrators near the Kazan Cathedral . After firing at mounted police

7905-413: The Bolshevik party were arrested. Lvov was replaced by the Socialist Revolutionary minister Alexander Kerensky as head of the Provisional Government. Kerensky declared freedom of speech, ended capital punishment, released thousands of political prisoners, and tried to maintain Russian involvement in World War I. He faced many challenges related to the war: there were still very heavy military losses on

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8060-489: The Communist revolution, resulted in the official ban on Communism, and strengthening relations with Western countries. Overt alliance with Germany was not possible due to the result of the First World War, but in general the period of 1918 to 1939 was characterised by economic growth and increasing integration to the Western world economy. Relations with Soviet Russia from 1918 to 1939 were icy; voluntary expeditions to Russia called heimosodat ended only in 1922, four years after

8215-443: The Duma until April, leaving it with no legal authority to act. On the next day (27 February O.S, 12 March N.S), 25,000 soldiers occupied the Duma (according to Zinaida Hippius ) which remained obedient, and "did not attempt to hold an official sitting". Then some delegates decided to form a Provisional Committee of the State Duma , led by Rodzianko and backed by major Moscow manufacturers and St. Petersburg bankers. Vasily Maklakov

8370-481: The Emperor dismissed his Prime Minister , Alexander Trepov . On 11 January 1917 [ O.S. 29 December 1916] a hesitant Nikolai Golitsyn became the successor of Trepov. Golitsyn begged the Emperor to cancel his appointment, citing his lack of preparation for the role of Prime Minister. On 16 January  [ O.S. 3 January]  1917 Mikhail Belyaev succeeded Dmitry Shuvayev (who did not speak any foreign language) as Minister of War , likely at

8525-438: The Empress "exerts an adverse influence on all appointments, including even those in the army." On 11 January O.S. (24 January N.S.) the Duma opening was postponed to the 25th (7 February N.S.). On 14 January O.S. (27 January N.S.) Georgy Lvov proposed to Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich that he (the Grand Duke) should take control of the country. At the end of January/beginning of February major negotiations took place between

8680-472: The February Revolution was a "Bourgeois revolution" about bringing capitalist development to Russia instead of socialism. The center-left was well represented, and the government was initially chaired by a liberal aristocrat, Prince Georgy Yevgenyevich Lvov , a man with no connections to any official party. The Provisional government included 9 Duma deputies and 6 from the Kadet party in ministerial positional, representing professional and business interests,

8835-411: The Finland-China Trade Association and the China Council for Promotion of International Trade (CCPIT). One of the fastest growing areas of trade between the two countries is in environmental protection . and information technology. Nokia is the largest Finnish investor in China. Photograph of the Shah and the Shahbanu during their visit to Tapiola residencial area in Espoo, Finland. To their right,

8990-477: The Finnish president Urho Kekkonen. See Finland–Kazakhstan relations Denmark and Finland share a long history, where Danish Vikings settled in Finland and made crusades. Both countries were also part of the Kalmar Union . Denmark was the first country along with Sweden to recognize Finland's Independence. There are 3,000 Finns living in Denmark, and 1,235 Danes living in Finland. During Winter War , over 1,000 Danish volunteers came to help Finland. During

9145-476: The Finnish representative in the negotiations in Moscow. Seeing that Joseph Stalin did not intend to change his policies, Paasikivi supported compliance with some of the demands. When the war broke out, Paasikivi was asked to enter Risto Ryti ’s cabinet as a minister without portfolio—in practice in the role of a distinguished political advisor. He ended up in the cabinet's leading triumvirate together with Risto Ryti and Foreign Minister Väinö Tanner (chairman of

9300-478: The Grand Duke's decision on 3 March O.S (16 March N.S). On 8 March O.S (22 March N.S) the former Tsar, addressed with contempt by the sentries as "Nicholas Romanov", was reunited with his family at the Alexander Palace at Tsarskoye Selo . He and his family and loyal retainers were placed under protective custody by the Provisional Government in the palace. The February Revolution immediately caused widespread excitement in Petrograd. On 3 March O.S (16 March N.S),

9455-410: The Imperial Family. On 28 February Nikolay Maklakov was arrested having tried to prevent a revolution together with Alexander Protopopov (on 8 February). The Army Chief Nikolai Ruzsky , and the Duma deputies Vasily Shulgin and Alexander Guchkov who had come to advise the Tsar, suggested that he abdicate the throne. He did so on behalf of himself and his son, Tsarevich Alexei . At 3 o'clock in

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9610-475: The Kerensky government, who had previously agreed with his views on how to restore order to Russia, Kornilov pushed on towards Petrograd. With few troops to spare on the front, Kerensky turned to the Petrograd Soviet for help. Bolsheviks , Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries confronted the army and convinced them to stand down. Right-wingers felt betrayed, and the left-wingers were resurgent. On 1 September O.S. (14 September N.S.) Kerensky formally abolished

9765-445: The King of Finland. Finland's main language, Finnish , is related to Estonian , and there is and has been a certain feeling of kinship. 76% of Finns have visited Estonia and in 2004, 1.8 million Finns reported visiting Estonia. Finnish and Swedish investors are the largest foreign investors in Estonia. Finland and Estonia are members of the European Union and the Schengen agreement , freeing international travel and trade between

9920-419: The President as necessary. Laws concerning foreign relations are discussed in the parliamentary committee of foreign relations ( ulkoasiainvaliokunta, utrikesutskottet ). The Ministry of Foreign Affairs implements the foreign policy. During the Cold War, Finland's foreign policy was based on official neutrality between the Western powers and the Soviet Union , while simultaneously stressing Nordic cooperation in

10075-410: The Russian people. The inevitable result was revolution. When Rasputin was assassinated on 30 December 1916, and the assassins went unchallenged, this was interpreted as an indication of the truth of the accusation Nicholas' wife relied on Rasputin (a Siberian starets .) The authority of the tsar, who now stood as a moral weakling, sank further. On 9 January 1917 [ O.S. 27 December 1916]

10230-445: The Russians. Paasikivi served as a Finnish Party member of Parliament 1907–1909 and 1910–1913. He served as a member of the Senate 1908–1909, as head of the finance division. During the First World War Paasikivi began to doubt the Finnish Party's obedient line. In 1914, after resigning his position at the Treasury, and also standing down as a member of Parliament, Paasikivi left public life and office. He became Chief General Manager of

10385-506: The Social Democrats and when necessary, even with the Communists, as long as they acted democratically. As president, he only once accepted his party, the Conservatives, into the government; and even that government lasted only about six months and was considered more a caretaker or civil-servant government than a regular parliamentary government. Paasikivi even appointed a communist, People's Democrat Mauno Pekkala, as prime minister in 1946. Paasikivi's political flexibility had its limits; this

10540-469: The Social Democrats in the coalition-Senate , who in vain strove for more far-reaching autonomy ; but after the 1917 Bolshevik October Revolution , Paasikivi championed full independence—in the form of constitutional monarchy . During the Civil War in Finland Paasikivi stood firmly on the side of the White government. As prime minister from May until November 1918, he strove for a continued constitutional monarchy with Frederick Charles of Hesse ,

10695-435: The Social Democrats). Paasikivi also led the negotiations for an armistice and peace, and continued his mission in Moscow as Envoy . In Moscow he was necessarily isolated from the most secret thoughts in Helsinki; and when he found out that these thoughts ran in the direction of revanche, of retaking, with Germany's aid, territory lost in the Winter War, he resigned. Paasikivi retired for the second time. In summer 1941, when

10850-499: The Soviet Union did not abide by the treaty when they blockaded Finnish naval ships. Finland was attacked by the Soviet Union in 1939. Finland fought the Winter War and the Continuation War against the Soviets in World War II. During the wars, the Finns suffered 90,000 casualties and inflicted severe casualties on the Russians (120,000 dead in the Winter War and 200,000 in the Continuation War). Contemporary issues include problems with border controls causing persistent truck queues at

11005-508: The Soviet Union to avoid a worse fate. Thus he managed to stabilize Finland's position. This " Paasikivi doctrine " was adhered to for decades, and was named Finlandization in the 1970s. Paasikivi's ability to speak some Russian helped his relations with the Soviet leaders; he did not have to use interpreters all the time, as his successor Kekkonen did. Having studied in Russia as a young man, Paasikivi also knew classic Russian literature and Russian culture. Paasikivi stood for re-election in

11160-440: The Soviet Union were "heedlessly Russophobic", and that the Soviet attack was legitimate, strategic, and even "defensive" rather than ideological or expansionist. Consequently, he ensured that negative references to the Soviet Union were expunged from school textbooks and that books containing "hostile" representations of the Soviet Union were removed from public libraries. Paasikivi had to comply with many Soviet demands, including

11315-561: The Soviet Union's second-largest city. The peace settlement in 1944 with the Soviet Union led to the Lapland War in 1945, where Finland fought Germans in northern Finland. From the end of the Continuation War with the Soviet Union in 1944 until 1991, the policy was to avoid superpower conflicts and to build mutual confidence with the Western powers and the Soviet Union. Although the country

11470-465: The Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies. Order No. 1 ensured that the Dual Authority developed on the Soviet's conditions. The Provisional Government was not a publicly elected body (having been self-proclaimed by committee members of the old Duma) and it lacked the political legitimacy to question this arrangement and instead arranged for elections to be held later. The Provisional Government had

11625-561: The Soviet represented the proletariat, the provisional government represented the bourgeoisie. The Soviet had stronger practical power because it controlled the workers and the soldiers, but it did not want to become involved in administration and bureaucracy; the Provisional Government lacked support from the population. Since the Provisional Government did not have the support of the majority and, in an effort to keep their claim to democratic mandate, they welcomed socialist parties to join in order to gain more support and Dvoyevlastiye (dual power)

11780-583: The United Nations in 1955 and the European Union in 1995. As noted, the country also is a member of NATO 's Partnership for Peace as well as an observer in the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council . The military has been prepared to be more compatible with NATO, as co-operation with NATO in peacekeeping is needed, but military alliance does not have popular support. Political scientist Teija Tiilikainen has attributed tensions like this one to

11935-703: The West. The US has welcomed Finland's increased participation since 1991 in Western economic and political structures. Economic and trade relations between Finland and the United States are active and were bolstered by the F-18 purchase. US-Finland trade totals almost $ 5 billion annually. The US receives about 7% of Finland's exports – mainly wood pulp and paper, ships, machinery, electronics and instruments and refined petroleum products – and provides about 7% of its imports – principally computers, semiconductors , aircraft, and machinery. The two international trade organisations are

12090-470: The advice. Historian Edward Acton argues that "by stubbornly refusing to reach any modus vivendi with the Progressive Bloc of the Duma... Nicholas undermined the loyalty of even those closest to the throne [and] opened an unbridgeable breach between himself and the public opinion." In short, the Tsar no longer had the support of the military, the nobility or the Duma (collectively the élites ), or

12245-669: The afternoon of Thursday, 2 March O.S (15 March N.S), Nicholas nominated his brother, the Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich , to succeed him. The next day the Grand Duke realised that he would have little support as ruler, so he declined the crown, stating that he would take it only if that was the consensus of democratic action by the Russian Constituent Assembly , which shall define the form of government for Russia. The 300-year-old Romanov dynasty ended with

12400-662: The border, airspace violations, pollution of the Baltic Sea , and Russian duties on exported wood to Finland's pulp and paper industry. Russia also considered large swathes of land near the Finnish border as special security area where foreign land ownership is forbidden. A similarly extensive restriction does not apply to Russian citizens. The Finnish Defence Forces and Finnish Security Intelligence Service have suspected that Russians have made targeted land purchases near military and other sensitive installations for intelligence or special operations purposes. Right-wing commentators accuse

12555-505: The bourgeoisie. As the left moved further left in Russia over the course of 1917, the Kadets became the main conservative party. Despite this, the provisional government strove to implement further left-leaning policies with the repeal of the death penalty, amnesty for political prisoners, and freedom of the press.    Dual Power was not prevalent outside of the capital and political systems varied from province to province. One example of

12710-473: The cabinet. But the suspicions between Finland and Sweden were too strong: During the Winter War Sweden's support for Finland was considerable, but short of one critical feature: Sweden neither declared war on the Soviet Union nor sent regular troops to Finland's defense. This made many Finns, including Paasikivi himself, judge his mission in Stockholm a failure. Prior to the Winter War , Paasikivi became

12865-582: The claims and declared that "We support the UN and the UN Secretary-General." Jäätteenmäki resigned as prime minister after 63 days in office amid accusations that she had lied about the leak of the documents about the meeting between Bush and Lipponen. This series of events was considered scandalous and it is named Iraq leak or Iraq-gate. Generally, Finland has abided by the principle of neutrality and has good relations with nearly all countries, as evidenced by

13020-650: The co-chairmanship of the OSCE's Minsk Group on the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. Cooperation with the other Scandinavian countries also is important to Finland, and it has been a member of the Nordic Council since 1955. Under the council's auspices, the Nordic countries have created a common labor market and have abolished immigration controls among themselves. The council also serves to coordinate social and cultural policies of

13175-577: The communist Bolsheviks later that year. The February Revolution had weakened the country; the October Revolution broke it, resulting in the Russian Civil War and the eventual formation of the Soviet Union . The revolution appeared to have broken out without any real leadership or formal planning. Russia had been suffering from a number of economic and social problems, which compounded after

13330-454: The communists dropped from the largest to the third largest party, Paasikivi refused to let them into the government; and the communists remained in opposition until 1966. As President, Paasikivi kept the foreign relations of Finland in the foreground, trying to ensure a stable peace and wider freedom of action for Finland. Paasikivi concluded that, all the fine rhetoric aside, Finland had to adapt to superpower politics and sign treaties with

13485-556: The conclusion of the Finnish Civil War. However, attempts to establish military alliances were unsuccessful. Thus, when the Winter War broke out, Finland was left alone to resist the Soviet attack. Later, during the Continuation War , Finland declared "co-belligerency" with Nazi Germany, and allowed Northern Finland to be used as a German attack base. For 872 days, the German army, aided indirectly by Finnish forces, besieged Leningrad ,

13640-430: The continent's markets by the war. Though industry did not collapse, it was considerably strained and when inflation soared, wages could not keep up. The Duma, which was composed of liberal deputies, warned Tsar Nicholas II of the impending danger and counselled him to form a new constitutional government, like the one he had dissolved after some short-term attempts in the aftermath of the 1905 Revolution . The Tsar ignored

13795-793: The countries rose in late 2008 when a news program on Finland's national broadcasting company station YLE accused Finnish weapons manufacturer Patria of bribing Slovenian officials to secure an arms deal. Slovenian Prime Minister Janez Janša formally complained to the Finnish ambassador in Ljubljana . This controversy became known as the Patria case . Finland and Sweden have always had very close relations, resulting from shared history, numerous commonalities in society and politics, and close trade relations. A newly appointed Foreign Minister makes his or her first state visit to Sweden. Finnish politicians often consider Sweden's reaction to international affairs first as

13950-652: The countries. Finland's government recognised Estonia's independence in 1920. In response to the Soviet invasion, diplomatic missions were de facto removed. However, when Estonia declared independence, this "temporary obstruction" was resolved. Both countries restored diplomatic relations on August 29, 1991. Finland contributed and continues to contribute military aid to Estonia, e.g., training of officers, provision of equipment. Finland recognised Kosovo March 7, 2008. Finland maintains an embassy in Pristina . Relations with Russia are peaceful and friendly. Finland imports

14105-631: The countries. Furthermore, both participate in the Nordic Council , which grants Swedish nationals slightly more extensive rights than the EU/Schengen treaties alone. Diplomatic relations were established on May 31, 1949. February Revolution Revolutionary victory: [REDACTED] Government : [REDACTED] Monarchists : [REDACTED] Liberals : [REDACTED] Socialists : The February Revolution ( Russian : Февральская революция ), known in Soviet historiography as

14260-476: The crowd. The demonstrators, lacking leadership, disbanded and the government survived. Leaders of the Soviet placed the blame of the July Days on the Bolsheviks, as did the Provisional Government who issued arrest warrants for prominent Bolsheviks. Historians debated from early on whether this was a planned Bolshevik attempt to seize power or a strategy to plan a future coup. Lenin fled to Finland and other members of

14415-445: The culmination of over a century of civil and military unrest between the common people and the Tsar and aristocratic landowners. The causes can be summarized as the ongoing cruel treatment of peasants by the bourgeoisie, poor working conditions of industrial workers, and the spreading of western democratic ideas by political activists, leading to a growing political and social awareness in the lower classes. Dissatisfaction of proletarians

14570-508: The dissolution of the Soviet Union and became a member in 1995. Finland did not attempt to join NATO, even though post-Soviet countries on the Baltic Sea and elsewhere joined. Nevertheless, defence policymakers quietly converted to NATO equipment and contributed troops. President Martti Ahtisaari and the coalition governments led Finland closer to the core EU in the late 1990s. Finland was considered

14725-458: The election. He even denied giving his consent to the presidential candidacy in a public statement. He died in December, having not yet finished his memoirs. Paasikivi, who had a strong background in banking, has featured on various Finnish banknotes. He is one of three Finnish presidents whose portrait has appeared on markka -denominated banknotes of Finland. The others were Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg ,

14880-531: The end of World War I had led to Parliamentarism in Sweden, increased Swedish democracy, and a dominant role for the Swedish Social Democrats. In Finland, however, the result had been a disastrous Civil War and a total defeat for Socialism . At the same time that Paasikivi arrived in Stockholm, it became known that Finnish President Svinhufvud retained his aversion to parliamentarism; and (after pressure from Paasikivi's National Coalition Party) had declined to appoint

15035-473: The eve of the Summer Olympics, it was only appropriate for the cultured statesman to hold a speech in a world language, English. However, English was not Paasikivi’s strong language, as French had long been the predominant language of diplomacy. Still, Paasikivi wanted to extend his greetings to foreign guests arriving in Helsinki. The President's speech was as follows: It gives me great pleasure to address

15190-524: The evening the text "Grand Manifesto" was signed by the Grand Dukes Paul Alexandrovich, Kirill Vladimirovich and Dmitry Konstantinovich . But the Empress refused to sign the draft. "I'm not a ruler – said the Empress – and have no rights to take the initiative in the absence of the Emperor. Moreover, this paper may not be only illegal, but useless." On 28 February O.S (13 March N.S), at five in

15345-558: The event. Despite occurring in March of the Gregorian calendar , the event is most commonly known as the "February Revolution" because at the time Russia still used the Julian calendar . The event is sometimes known as the "March Revolution", after the Soviet Union modernized its calendar . A number of factors contributed to the February Revolution, both short and long-term. Historians disagree on

15500-465: The first president of Finland, and Urho Kekkonen , Paasikivi's successor as president. In the 2019 Finnish television series Shadow Lines  [ fi ] ( Nyrkki ), Paasikivi appears as a character with Urho Kekkonen. In the series Paasikivi is played by Sulevi Peltola . Foreign relations of Finland The foreign relations of Finland are the responsibility of the president of Finland , who leads foreign policy in cooperation with

15655-441: The formal authority in Russia but the Soviet Executive Committee and the soviets had the support of the majority of the population. The Soviet held the real power to effect change. The Provisional Government represented an alliance between liberals and socialists who wanted political reform. The initial soviet executive chairmen were Menshevik Nikolay Chkheidze , Matvey Skobelev and Alexander Kerensky . The chairmen believed that

15810-549: The framework of the Nordic Council and cautious economic integration with the West as promoted by the Bretton-Woods Agreement and the free trade treaty with the European Economic Community . Finland shares this history with close neighbour Sweden , which Finland was a part of until the split of the Swedish empire in 1809. Finland did not join the Soviet Union's economic sphere ( Comecon ) but remained

15965-569: The freedom of travel that a Finnish passport gives; though relations with Russia remain strained and are often tense due to past historical grievances, including Russian threats and past invasion. After almost 30 years of close partnership with NATO, Finland joined the Alliance on 4 April 2023. Finland's partnership with NATO was historically based on its policy of military non-alignment, which changed following Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022. On 1 March 2024, Alexander Stubb ,

16120-446: The front; dissatisfied soldiers deserted in larger numbers than before; other political groups did their utmost to undermine him; there was a strong movement in favor of withdrawing Russia from the war, which was seen to be draining the country, and many who had initially supported it now wanted out; and there was a great shortage of food and supplies, which was very difficult to remedy in wartime conditions. All of these were highlighted by

16275-673: The garrison mutinied, starting with the Volinsky Regiment . Soldiers of this regiment brought the Semyonovsky , Preobrazhensky , and Moskovsky Regiments out on the street to join the rebellion, resulting in the hunting down of police and the gathering of 40,000 rifles (at the Peter and Paul Fortress ) which were dispersed among the workers. Even the Cossack units that the government had come to use for crowd control showed signs that they supported

16430-612: The government of continuing the policy of Finlandisation . Recently, Finland-Russia relations have been under pressure with annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation , which Finland considers illegal. Together with the rest of the European Union, Finland enforces sanctions against Russia that followed. Still, economic relations have not entirely deteriorated: 11.2% of imports to Finland are from Russia, and 5.7% of exports from Finland are to Russia, and cooperation between Finnish and Russian authorities continues. Tensions between

16585-411: The government's food rationing. As the Russian government began rationing flour and bread, rumors of food shortages circulated and bread riots erupted across the city of Petrograd. Women, in particular, were passionate in showing their dissatisfaction with the rationing system, and the female workers marched to nearby factories to recruit over 50,000 workers for the strikes. Both men and women flooded

16740-460: The importance that Finland's political identity places on sovereignty and the (sometimes competing) stress it places on international cooperation. In the European Union, Finland is a member of the Eurozone , and in addition, the Schengen treaty abolishing passport controls. 60% of foreign trade is to the EU. Other large trade partners are Russia and the United States. Finland is well represented in

16895-447: The known number of Russian agents from Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR) and GRU now exceeds Cold War levels and there are unknown numbers of others. Russian Foreign Ministry spokeswoman Maria Zakharova said in March 2022 that her government would have to respond if Finland became a NATO member. As of March 2011 Finland maintains diplomatic relations with all UN member states. All NATO countries approved Finland's accession to

17050-428: The last loyal forces of the Russian monarchy. On 27 February O.S. (12 March N.S.), the forces of the capital's garrison sided with the revolutionaries. Three days later, Nicholas II abdicated , ending Romanov dynastic rule. The Russian Provisional Government under Georgy Lvov replaced the Council of Ministers of Russia . The Provisional Government proved deeply unpopular and was forced to share dual power with

17205-409: The main factors that contributed to this. Liberal historians emphasise the turmoil created by the war, whereas Marxists emphasise the inevitability of change. Alexander Rabinowitch summarises the main long-term and short-term causes: Despite its occurrence at the height of World War I, the roots of the February Revolution dated further back. Chief among these was Imperial Russia's failure, throughout

17360-485: The maintenance of a credible, independent defence. Finland's 1994 decision to buy 64 F-18 Hornet fighter planes from the United States signalled the abandonment of the country's policy of balanced arms purchases from Communist countries and Western countries. In 1994, Finland joined NATO's Partnership for Peace; the country is also an observer in the North Atlantic Cooperation Council. Finland became

17515-400: The military alliance by April 1, 2023, and it officially joined on April 4. The move was the final process in Finland's transition from conducting a foreign policy of neutrality to clearly standing as an official part of the Western bloc. After Finland declared its full independence in 1917, the Finnish Civil War , including interventions by Imperial Germany and Soviet Russia, and failure of

17670-514: The monarchy and proclaimed the creation of the Russian Republic . On October 24, Kerensky accused the Bolsheviks of treason. After the Bolshevik walkout, some of the remaining delegates continued to stress that ending the war as soon as possible was beneficial to the nation. Pressure from the Allies to continue the war against Germany put the government under increasing strain. The conflict between

17825-656: The morning, the Tsar left Mogilev , (and also directed Nikolai Ivanov to go to Tsarskoye Selo) but was unable to reach Petrograd as revolutionaries controlled railway stations around the capital. Around midnight the train was stopped at Malaya Vishera , turned, and in the evening of 1 March O.S (14 March N.S) Nicholas arrived in Pskov . In the meantime, the units guarding the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoe Selo either "declared their neutrality" or left for Petrograd and thus abandoned

17980-614: The next day. On 28 February, Rodzianko invited the Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich and Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich to put their signatures to the drafting of the Manifesto, in which Emperor Nicholas II was recommended to introduce the constitutional system in Russia. Rodzianko said that the Emperor will be asked to sign this Manifesto on 1 March at the Tsarskoye Selo railway station immediately after his return. Late in

18135-810: The participating countries and has promoted increased cooperation in many fields. In addition to the organisations already mentioned, Finland is a member of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development , the International Monetary Fund , the World Trade Organization , the International Finance Corporation , the International Development Association , the Bank for International Settlements ,

18290-450: The people. Although few actively joined the rioting, many officers were either shot or went into hiding; the ability of the garrison to hold back the protests was all but nullified. Symbols of the Tsarist regime were rapidly torn down around the city and governmental authority in the capital collapsed – not helped by the fact that Nicholas had earlier that day suspended a session in the Duma that

18445-638: The position of Envoy to Sweden, at the time regarded as Finland's most important foreign embassy post. The threats from totalitarian regimes that had seized power in Germany and the Soviet Union made Finland increasingly isolated. With the gradual weakening of the League of Nations , and France's and the United Kingdom's apparent lack of interest in supporting Finland, Sweden was the only notable power left that could possibly provide Finland any support at all. Since around

18600-465: The powers of the government. In a cohabitation situation as with Matti Vanhanen 's recent second government right-wing government and left-wing President Tarja Halonen , there can be friction between government ministers and the president. The arrangement has been criticised by Risto E. J. Penttilä for not providing a simple answer of who's in charge. Finnish foreign policy emphasises its participation in multilateral organisations. Finland joined

18755-438: The presidential election of 1950, and he won 171 out of the 300 electoral college votes. The priorities of his second term were centred largely on domestic politics, in contrast to his first term. Joseph Stalin 's death made Paasikivi's job easier. As a lover of sports, and a former athlete and gymnast, Paasikivi had the great pleasure, during his second term of office, of opening the 1952 Summer Olympics held in Helsinki . On

18910-431: The protests of February 1917. The historiographical reasons for the revolution have varied. Russian historians writing during the time of the Soviet Union cited the anger of the proletariat against the bourgeois boiling over as the cause. Russian liberals cited World War I. Revisionists tracked it back to land disputes after the serf era . Modern historians cite a combination of these factors and criticize mythologization of

19065-515: The radical right. In 1934 he became chairman of the conservative National Coalition Party , as a champion of democracy , and successfully rehabilitated the party after its suspicious closeness to the Lapua movement and the failed coup d'état, the Mäntsälä Rebellion . Widowed in 1931, he married Allina (Alli) Valve (1879–1960) in 1934 and resigned from politics. However, he was persuaded to accept

19220-438: The real enemy is those who send the proletariat into war, as opposed to the " imperialist war" (whose "link to Capital " must be demonstrated to the masses) and the " social-chauvinists " (such as Georgi Plekhanov , the grandfather of Russian socialism), who supported the war. The theses were read by Lenin to a meeting of only Bolsheviks and again to a meeting of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks , both being extreme leftist parties, and

19375-472: The request of the Empress. "In the seventeen months of the 'Tsarina's rule', from September 1915 to February 1917, Russia had four Prime Ministers , five Ministers of the Interior , three Foreign Ministers , three War Ministers , three Ministers of Transport and four Ministers of Agriculture. This "ministerial leapfrog", as it came to be known, not only removed competent men from power, but also disorganized

19530-508: The revolution such as participation in World War I and land. At the same time, the Petrograd Soviet (or workers' council) began organizing and was officially formed on 27 February. The Petrograd Soviet and the Provisional Government shared dual power over Russia. The term dual power came about as the driving forces in the fall of the monarchy, opposition to the human and widespread political movement, became politically institutionalized. While

19685-508: The riots on 25 February O.S (10 March N.S) by wiring garrison commander General Khabalov , an inexperienced and extremely indecisive commander of the Petrograd military district , to disperse the crowds with rifle fire and to suppress the "impermissible" rioting by force. On 26 February O.S (11 March N.S) the centre of the city was cordoned off on decree by Khabalov; schools and parks closed. Nikolai Pokrovsky reported about his negotiations with

19840-674: The same day. Namibia is represented in Finland through its embassy in Stockholm , Sweden. Finland has an embassy in Windhoek and an honorary consulate in Walvis Bay . A South African legation was established in 1967 and relations were then upgraded to ambassadorial level in March 1991. Finland has an embassy in Pretoria , a general consulate in Johannesburg , and a consulate in Cape Town . South Africa

19995-529: The soldiers of the Fourth Company were disarmed by the Preobrazhensky Regiment . This marked the first instance of open mutiny in the Petrograd garrison. On 26 February O.S (11 March N.S) Mikhail Rodzianko , Chairman of the Duma , had sent the Tsar a report of the chaos in a telegram (exact wordings and translations differ, but each retains a similar sense ): The situation is serious. The capital

20150-453: The soldiers, urban workers, and peasants who claimed that little had been gained by the February Revolution. Kerensky was expected to deliver on his promises of jobs, land, and food, and failed to do so. In August 1917 Russian socialists assembled for a conference on defense, which resulted in a split between the Bolsheviks, who rejected the continuation of the war, and moderate socialists. The Kornilov Affair arose when Commander-in-Chief of

20305-578: The son was born on their business trip to the Lahti market. After returning home, Hellsten was officially entered in Tampere's church books. Hellsten's mother died when he was four, and his father died in debt when Hellsten was 14. Hellsten's half-sister Karolina died soon after. Upon his father's death, Hellsten's aunt, Kaisa Hagman, assumed responsibility for his raising. Hellsten Finnicized his name to Juho Kusti Paasikivi in 1885. His surname literally means " flagstone " in both languages. The young Paasikivi

20460-506: The start of World War I in 1914. Disaffected soldiers from the city's garrison joined bread rioters , primarily women in bread lines, and industrial strikers on the streets. As more and more troops of the undisciplined garrison of the capital deserted, and with loyal troops away at the Eastern Front , the city fell into chaos, leading to the Tsar's decision to abdicate under his generals' advice. In all, over 1,300 people were killed during

20615-481: The streets of Petrograd, demanding an end to Russian food shortages, the end of World War I, and the end of autocracy . By the following day 24 February O.S. (9 March N.S), nearly 200,000 protesters filled the streets, demanding the replacement of the Tsar with a more progressive political leader. They called for the war to end and for the Russian monarchy to be overthrown. By 25 February O.S (10 March N.S), nearly all industrial enterprises in Petrograd were shut down by

20770-483: The strictly self-defensive doctrine remains. In the 2000 constitution, where diverse constitutional laws were unified into one statute, the leading role of the President was slightly moderated. However, because the constitution still stipulates only that the President leads foreign policy and the government internal policy, the responsibility over European Union affairs is not explicitly resolved. Implicitly this belongs to

20925-471: The thumb of her confidant – Grigori Rasputin , himself so unpopular that he was assassinated by members of the nobility in December 1916. The Tsarina proved an ineffective ruler in a time of war, announcing a rapid succession of different Prime Ministers and angering the Duma. The lack of strong leadership is illustrated by a telegram from Octobrist politician Mikhail Rodzianko to the Tsar on 26 February O.S. (11 March N.S) 1917, in which Rodzianko begged for

21080-468: The time of the failed Lapua coup, Paasikivi and Mannerheim had belonged to a close circle of conservative Finns discussing how Sweden's support could be obtained. In Stockholm Paasikivi strove for Swedish defence guarantees, alternatively a defensive alliance or a defensive union between Finland and Sweden. Since the Civil War, relations between the Swedes and Finns had been frosty. The revolutionary turmoil at

21235-603: The uprising. Although all gatherings on the streets were absolutely forbidden some 250,000 people were on strike. The president of the Imperial Duma Rodzianko asked the chairman of the Council of Ministers Golitsyn to resign; the minister of Foreign Affairs Nikolai Pokrovsky proposed the resignation of the whole government. There were disturbances on the Nevsky Prospect during the day. The Tsar took action to address

21390-485: The war crimes trial. His main effort was to prove that Finland would present no threat to the Soviet Union, and that both countries would gain from confident peaceful relations. When Mannerheim resigned, Parliament selected Paasikivi to succeed him as President of the Republic. Paasikivi was then age 75. Paasikivi had thus come a long way from his earlier classical conservatism. He now was willing to co-operate regularly with

21545-401: The war, Mannerheim appointed Paasikivi prime minister. For the first time in Finland a Communist, Yrjö Leino , was included in the cabinet. Paasikivi's policies were those of a intended to be "realistic" radically different from those of the previous 25 years. Paasikivi sought to understand why Moscow had ordered the invasion of Finland in 1939. He concluded that interwar Finnish portrayals of

21700-453: The war. The Karelian refugees had been resettled, the war reparations had been paid, rationing had ended, and in January 1956 the Soviet Union removed its troops from the Porkkala naval base near Helsinki. Paasikivi did not actively seek re-election from his second term ending 1 March 1956, when he was age 85. However, Paasikivi was willing to serve as president for about two more years if

21855-414: The work of government since no one remained long enough in office to master their responsibilities." The Duma President Mikhail Rodzianko , Grand Duchess Marie Pavlovna and British ambassador Buchanan joined calls for Alexandra to be removed from influence, but Nicholas still refused to take their advice. Many people came to the conclusion that the problem was not Rasputin . According to Rodzianko

22010-555: Was also published. He believed that the most effective way to overthrow the government was to be a minority party and to give no support to the Provisional Government. Lenin also tried to take control of the Bolshevik movement and attempted to win proletariat support by the use of slogans such as "Peace, bread and land", "End the war without annexations or indemnities", "All power to the Soviet" and "All land to those who work it". Initially, Lenin and his ideas did not have widespread support, even among Bolsheviks . In what became known as

22165-621: Was an enthusiastic athlete and gymnast. His father had recognized his son's academic talent and enrolled him at a top elementary school in Hämeenlinna following brief attendance at Hollola . Paasikivi exhibited an early appetite for reading, and was the best pupil in his class. He entered the University of Helsinki in 1890, graduating in May 1892 with a Bachelor's degree in Russian language and literature ,

22320-573: Was appointed as one of the 24 commissars of the Provisional Committee of the State Duma. Its first meeting was on the same evening and ordered the arrest of all the ex-ministers and senior officials. The Duma refused to head the revolutionary movement. At the same time, socialists also formed the Petrograd Soviet . In the Mariinsky Palace the Council of Ministers of Russia , assisted by Mikhail Rodzianko , held its last meeting. Protopopov

22475-629: Was born Johan Gustaf Hellsten ( Finland Swedish pronunciation: [ˈjuhɑn ˈgʉstɑːf ˈhelːsteːn] ) in 1870 at the smoke sauna of the Kulma-Seppälä house in the Huljala village of Koski Hl (today Hämeenkoski) in Päijänne Tavastia in Southern Finland , to Tamperean travelling merchant August Hellsten and his wife, Karolina Wilhelmina, née Selin. Hellsten's parents lived in Tampere, but

22630-404: Was compounded by food shortages and military failures. In 1905, Russia experienced humiliating losses in its war with Japan , then during Bloody Sunday and the Revolution of 1905 , Tsarist troops fired upon a peaceful, unarmed crowd. These events further divided Nicholas II from his people. Widespread strikes, riots, and the famous mutiny on the Battleship Potemkin ensued. The revolution

22785-418: Was culturally, socially, and politically Western, Finns realised they had to live in peace with the Soviets and so could take no action that might be interpreted as a security threat. The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 opened up dramatic new possibilities for Finland and has resulted in the Finns actively seeking greater participation in Western political and economic structures. The popular support for

22940-418: Was disastrous on three grounds. Firstly, it associated the monarchy with the unpopular war; secondly, Nicholas proved to be a poor leader of men on the front, often irritating his own commanders with his interference; and thirdly, being at the front made him unavailable to govern. This left the reins of power to his wife, the German Tsarina Alexandra, who was unpopular and accused of being a German spy, and under

23095-402: Was established. However, the Soviet asserted de facto supremacy as early as 1 March O.S (14 March N.S) (before the creation of the Provisional Government), by issuing Order No. 1 : The orders of the Military Commission of the State Duma [part of the organisation which became the Provisional Government] shall be executed only in such cases as do not conflict with the orders and resolution of

23250-422: Was intended to discuss the issue further, leaving it with no legal authority to act. Attempts were made by high-ranking military leaders to persuade the Tsar to resign power to the Duma. The response of the Duma, urged on by the Progressive Bloc , was to establish a Provisional Committee to restore law and order; the Provisional Committee declared itself the governing body of the Russian Empire. Chief among them

23405-493: Was provoked by Russian military failures during the First World War . In August 1914, all classes supported and virtually all political deputies voted in favour of the war. The declaration of war was followed by a revival of nationalism across Russian society, which temporarily reduced internal strife. The army achieved some early victories (such as in Galicia in 1915 and with the Brusilov Offensive in 1916) but also suffered major defeats, notably Tannenberg in August 1914,

23560-562: Was seen as a principal cause of mortality in the camps which housed men and women who had fought on the side of the Reds. Paasikivi, as a political conservative , was a firm opponent of Social Democrats in the cabinet, or communists in the Parliament. Tentatively he supported the semi- fascist Lapua movement , which requested radical measures against the political Left. But eventually the Lapua movement radicalized further, even assaulting Ståhlberg , liberal former president of Finland; and Paasikivi like many other supporters, turned away from

23715-399: Was shown at the time of the communists' alleged coup attempt or coup plans in spring 1948. He ordered some units of the army and navy to Helsinki to defend the capital against a possible communist attack. Any attempted takeover failed before it had even started, and the communists were defeated in the next parliamentary elections. Most modern Finnish historians deny that most communists wanted

23870-445: Was the desire to bring the war to a successful conclusion in conjunction with the Allies, and the very cause of their opposition was the ever-deepening conviction that this was unattainable under the present government and under the present regime. Meanwhile, the socialist parties re-established the Petrograd Soviet , first created during the 1905 revolution, to represent workers and soldiers. The remaining loyal units switched allegiance

24025-458: Was told to resign and offered to commit suicide. By nightfall, General Khabalov and his forces faced a capital controlled by revolutionaries. The protesters of Petrograd burned and sacked the premises of the district court, the headquarters of the secret police, and many police stations. They also occupied the Ministry of Transport, seized the arsenal, and released prisoners into the city. Army officers retreated into hiding and many took refuge in

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