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117-580: In the post-war era, aerospace factories in Poland were initially run under the name WSK (Transport Equipment Manufacturing Plant), but returned to adopt PZL acronym in late 1950s. This was used as a common aircraft brand and later as a part of names of several Polish state-owned aerospace manufacturers referring to PZL traditions, and belonging to the Zjednoczenie Przemysłu Lotniczego i Silnikowego PZL - PZL Aircraft and Engine Industry Union. Among

234-506: A Vice-chairman of the Soviet Union as evidence that he intended Trotsky to be his successor as head of government. In his biography of Trotsky, British historian Isaac Deutscher writes that, faced with the evidence, "only the blind and the deaf could be unaware of the contrast between Stalinism and Leninism." Similarly, historian Moshe Lewin writes, "The Soviet regime underwent a long period of 'Stalinism,' which in its basic features

351-465: A cult of personality he thought might later be used against him by the same people who praised him excessively, one of those being Khrushchev—a prominent user of the term during Stalin's life who was later responsible for de-Stalinization and the beginning of the Khrushchev Thaw era. Some historians view Stalinism as a reflection of the ideologies of Leninism and Marxism , but some argue that it

468-462: A reformist social democracy rather than a form of revolutionary communism. Sheng Shicai , a Chinese warlord with Communist leanings, invited Soviet intervention and allowed Stalinist rule to extend to Xinjiang province in the 1930s. In 1937, Sheng conducted a purge similar to the Great Purge , imprisoning, torturing, and killing about 100,000 people, many of them Uyghurs . Cybernetics :

585-572: A Polish copy of the Viper engine, designated as the WSK HO-10 . The flight test program that the three prototypes were subjected to had both demonstrated the capabilities of the new aircraft and its suitability for satisfying the Polish Air Force's stated requirements for a trainer jet; as such, it was soon accepted by the Polish Air Force. During 1963, the first production model of the type, designated as

702-551: A favour of manufacturing Soviet-licensed aircraft. No own designs were produced for a decade, and only in late 1950s, after the stalinist period (1956), did the PZL brand return to designing new aircraft. The ZPLiS PZL - Zjednoczenie Przemysłu Lotniczego i Silnikowego PZL - PZL Aircraft and Engine Industry Union, which grouped all state-owned aerospace industry factories, was created in following years, but it only enjoyed some economic autonomy from 1973 onwards. It consisted of 19 factories,

819-512: A key factor in the Soviet famine of 1930–1933 ; some scholars believe that Holodomor , which started near the end of 1932, was when the famine turned into an instrument of genocide; the Ukrainian government now recognizes it as such. Some scholars dispute the intentionality of the famine. The Stalinist era was largely regressive on social issues. Despite a brief period of decriminalization under Lenin,

936-423: A more critical and ambivalent attitude towards his cult of personality. The cult of personality served to legitimate Stalin's authority, establish continuity with Lenin as his "discipline, student and mentee" in the view of his wider followers. His successor, Nikita Khrushchev , would later denounce the cult of personality around Stalin as contradictory to Leninist principles and party discourse. Stalin blamed

1053-399: A reactionary pseudoscience that appeared in the U.S.A. after World War II and also spread through other capitalist countries. Cybernetics clearly reflects one of the basic features of the bourgeois worldview—its inhumanity, striving to transform workers into an extension of the machine, into a tool of production, and an instrument of war. At the same time, for cybernetics an imperialistic utopia

1170-599: A research institute, and the Pezetel Foreign Trade Center - CHZ Pezetel, which represented all the Polish aerospace industry abroad ( Pezetel being the pronunciation of an abbreviation PZL in Polish). Consequently, in the 1970s some WSK factories also introduced the PZL abbreviation to their names. After the fall of communism in Poland in 1989, all manufacturers became separate companies, initially state-owned, still sharing

1287-572: A result of this decision, Poland became the only Warsaw Pact member to adopt the Iskra while most others adopting the rival Delfin instead. During 1975, an initial batch of 50 Iskra bis D trainer aircraft were exported to India , the type's sole export customer; during the 1990s, a further 26 aircraft were delivered to the Indian Air Force . During its Indian service, a total of seven aircraft were reportedly lost, killing four crew. During December 2004,

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1404-617: A series of high-wing, all-metal modern fighters: PZL P.1 , P.6 , P.7 and P.11 . The latter two types were used as basic fighters in the Polish Air Force from 1933 onwards. The last variant, PZL P.24 , developed after Puławski's death in an air crash, was exported to four countries. PZL also mass-produced a light bomber, PZL.23 Karaś , and a modern medium bomber, PZL.37 Łoś , as well as building small numbers of sport aircraft ( PZL.5 , PZL.19 , PZL.26 ), and liaison aircraft ( PZL Ł.2 ); and developing prototypes of passenger aircraft. In

1521-491: A theory standing in sharp contrast to Trotsky's permanent revolution and all earlier socialistic theses. The revolution did not spread outside Russia as Lenin had assumed it soon would. The revolution had not succeeded even within other former territories of the Russian Empire ―such as Poland , Finland , Lithuania , Latvia , and Estonia . On the contrary, these countries had returned to capitalist bourgeois rule. He

1638-550: A third national aerospace factory, WSK-Świdnik , was built in Świdnik , and in 1957 it was renamed to WSK "PZL-Świdnik" . Since 1956 it has become one of the world's major helicopter manufacturers, producing helicopters under Soviet licences, starting from the SM-1 ( Mil Mi-1 ). Świdnik was the main producer of the Mi-1 and the exclusive producer of the Mil Mi-2 , which was widely used throughout

1755-417: A total of four underwing hardpoints that were compatible with a variety of different weapons, including bombs and rockets . Most models of the aircraft lack a radar set; however, the specialised TS-11R reconnaissance variant is provided with such equipment. The TS-11 can also be outfitted with various cameras for the purpose of performing aerial photography missions. Poland is currently developing

1872-503: Is accommodated within the main fuselage, its exhaust is located beneath the boom-mounted tail fin, which provides the aircraft with a fairly unusual silhouette. Both of the crew, typically being the student in the front and instructor in the back, are provided with ejector seats for emergency egress. Some models of the TS-11 can be armed; armaments have consisted of a single nose-mounted Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 cannon with 80 rounds, along with

1989-470: Is an unprincipled intriguer, who subordinates everything to the preservation of his own power. He changes his theory according to whom he needs to get rid of. Bukharin on Stalin's theoretical position, 1928. Despite this, by the autumn of 1924, Stalin's notion of socialism in Soviet Russia was initially considered next to blasphemy by other Politburo members , including Zinoviev and Kamenev to

2106-503: Is characteristic—replacing living, thinking man, fighting for his interests, by a machine, both in industry and in war. The instigators of a new world war use cybernetics in their dirty, practical affairs. "Cybernetics" in the Short Philosophical Dictionary , 1954 Under Stalin, repression was extended to academic scholarship, the natural sciences, and literary fields. In particular, Einstein's theory of relativity

2223-588: Is separate from the socialist ideals it stemmed from. After a political struggle that culminated in the defeat of the Bukharinists (the "Party's Right Tendency "), Stalinism was free to shape policy without opposition, ushering in an era of harsh totalitarianism that worked toward rapid industrialization regardless of the human cost. From 1917 to 1924, though often appearing united, Stalin, Vladimir Lenin , and Leon Trotsky had discernible ideological differences. In his dispute with Trotsky, Stalin de-emphasized

2340-496: Is that from 1930 to 1953, around 1.5 to 1.7 million perished in the gulag system. In February 1956, Nikita Khrushchev condemned the deportations as a violation of Leninism and reversed most of them, although it was not until 1991 that the Tatars, Meskhetians , and Volga Germans were allowed to return en masse to their homelands. At the start of the 1930s, Stalin launched a wave of radical economic policies that completely overhauled

2457-471: Is the totalitarian means of governing and Marxist–Leninist policies implemented in the Soviet Union (USSR) from 1924 to 1953 by dictator Joseph Stalin and in Soviet satellite states between 1944 and 1953. Stalin had previously made a career as a gangster and robber , working to fund revolutionary activities, before eventually becoming General Secretary of the Soviet Union . Stalinism included

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2574-542: Is the 1938 publication, History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks) , in which the history of the governing party was significantly altered and revised including the importance of the leading figures during the Bolshevik revolution. Retrospectively, Lenin's primary associates such as Zinoviev, Trotsky, Radek and Bukharin were presented as "vacillating", "opportunists" and "foreign spies" whereas Stalin

2691-545: Is used to describe the period during which Joseph Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union while serving as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1922 to his death on 5 March 1953. It was a development of Leninism , and while Stalin avoided using the term "Marxism-Leninism-Stalinism", he allowed others to do so. Following Lenin's death, Stalin contributed to

2808-467: The Communist Party of Palestine , spent twenty five years in Stalin's prisons and concentrations camps after the purges in 1937. Shortly before, during, and immediately after World War II , Stalin conducted a series of deportations that profoundly affected the ethnic map of the Soviet Union. Separatism , resistance to Soviet rule, and collaboration with the invading Germans were the official reasons for

2925-566: The LWD ). No engines nor suitable production facilities were available at first. The post-war communist government of Poland wanted to break all connections with pre-war Poland: from the late 1940s the name PZL ceased to be used, and new aerospace factories were named WSK ( Wytwórnia Sprzętu Komunikacyjnego - Transport Equipment Manufacturing Plant). Under the Soviet-influenced, centrally planned economy , all indigenous projects were abandoned, in

3042-551: The PZL M-28 Skytruck/Bryza light transport aircraft. In 1998 the state factory WSK PZL-Mielec went bankrupt and was changed into the state-owned Polskie Zakłady Lotnicze Sp.z o.o. (Polish Aviation Works) ( PZL Mielec ). On March 16, 2007, PZL Mielec was purchased by the Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation , a unit of United Technologies Corporation (UTX). It still produces M-18 and M-28 aircraft. In 1951

3159-518: The Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , Stalin consolidated nearly absolute power in the 1930s with a Great Purge of the party that claimed to expel "opportunists" and "counter-revolutionary infiltrators". Those targeted by the purge were often expelled from the party; more severe measures ranged from banishment to the Gulag labor camps to execution after trials held by NKVD troikas . In

3276-564: The TS-11 Iskra bis A , commenced delivery to the service. From about 1966, new-build aircraft were furnished with a newer Polish-designed turbojet engine, designated as the WSK SO-1 , which was capable of producing up to 9.80 kN (2,200 lb f ) of thrust and reportedly gave the TS-11 a top speed of 497 mph. From 1969 onwards, the improved WSK SO-3 engine became available, offering considerably longer times between overhauls; this engine

3393-540: The bourgeois state ) must become stronger before it can wither away. In Stalin's view, counter-revolutionary elements will attempt to derail the transition to full communism , and the state must be powerful enough to defeat them. For this reason, communist regimes influenced by Stalin are totalitarian . Other leftists, such as anarcho-communists , have criticized the party-state of the Stalin-era Soviet Union, accusing it of being bureaucratic and calling it

3510-478: The bourgeoisie , better-off peasants (" kulaks "), and those of the working class who demonstrated " counter-revolutionary " sympathies. This resulted in mass repression of such people and their families , including mass arrests, show trials , executions, and imprisonment in forced labor camps known as gulags . The most notorious examples were the Great Purge and the Dekulakization campaign. Stalinism

3627-491: The death penalty was extended to adolescents as young as 12 years old in 1935. After that, several trials, known as the Moscow Trials , were held, but the procedures were replicated throughout the country. Article 58 of the legal code, which listed prohibited anti-Soviet activities as a counter-revolutionary crime, was applied most broadly. Many alleged anti-Soviet pretexts were used to brand individuals as "enemies of

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3744-477: The kulaks for inciting reactionary violence against the people during the implementation of agricultural collectivization . In response, the state, under Stalin's leadership, initiated a violent campaign against them. This kind of campaign was later known as classicide , though several international legislatures have passed resolutions declaring the campaign a genocide. Some historians dispute that these social-class actions constitute genocide. As head of

3861-620: The 1920s but these groups were later rigorously repressed during the Stalinist era. Socialist realism was imposed in artistic production and other creative industries such as music , film along with sports were subject to extreme levels of political control. Historical falsification of political events such as the October Revolution and the Brest-Litovsk Treaty became a distinctive element of Stalin's regime. A notable example

3978-617: The 1930s and 1940s, the Soviet leadership sent NKVD squads into other countries to murder defectors and opponents of the Soviet regime. Victims of such plots included Trotsky, Yevhen Konovalets , Ignace Poretsky , Rudolf Klement, Alexander Kutepov , Evgeny Miller , and the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification ( POUM ) leadership in Catalonia (e.g., Andréu Nin Pérez ). Joseph Berger-Barzilai , co-founder of

4095-434: The 1930s, Stalin became increasingly worried about Leningrad party head Sergei Kirov 's growing popularity. At the 1934 Party Congress , where the vote for the new Central Committee was held, Kirov received only three negative votes (the fewest of any candidate), while Stalin received over 100. After Kirov's assassination, which Stalin may have orchestrated, Stalin invented a detailed scheme to implicate opposition leaders in

4212-466: The 1934 Criminal Code re-criminalized homosexuality. Abortion was made illegal again in 1936 after controversial debate among citizens, and women's issues were largely ignored. Stalin considered the political and economic system under his rule to be Marxism–Leninism , which he considered the only legitimate successor of Marxism and Leninism . The historiography of Stalin is diverse, with many different aspects of continuity and discontinuity between

4329-831: The 9 December 2020 the last Polish Air Force training sortie of the TS-11 Iskra serial number 2001 took place [1] after which the jet training of the Polish Air Force passed to the Alenia Aermacchi M-346 Master of which Poland has 12 in service as of December 2020. The only Polish Air Force TS-11 left flying in Poland after 9 December 2020 were the display team TS-11 from Team Iskry, who performed their final display on 22 August 2021. Data from Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1976-77 General characteristics Performance Armament Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Stalinism Stalinism ( Russian : Сталинизм , Stalinizm )

4446-463: The Central Asian republics. By some estimates, up to 43% of the resettled population died of diseases and malnutrition. According to official Soviet estimates, more than 14 million people passed through the gulags from 1929 to 1953, with a further 7 to 8 million deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union (including entire nationalities in several cases). The emergent scholarly consensus

4563-524: The Communist Party to remove Stalin from his post as its General Secretary .Trotsky also argued that he and Lenin had intended to lift the ban on the opposition parties such as the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries as soon as the economic and social conditions of Soviet Russia had improved. Lenin's Testament , the document containing this order, was suppressed after Lenin's death. Various historians have cited Lenin's proposal to appoint Trotsky as

4680-503: The Indian Air Force officially withdrew the last of its Iskra trainers. By 1987, a total of 424 aircraft had reportedly been constructed, after which point production of the type was terminated due to a lack of demand. During 2002, the Polish Air Force reportedly still operated a fleet of 110 TS-11s, including 5 TS-11R reconnaissance aircraft. The Iskra became the first and so far the only Polish jet trainer to reach serial production –

4797-593: The Lenin–Stalin relationship (during the Khrushchev Thaw and later) was that the overly autocratic Stalin had distorted the Leninism of the wise dedushka Lenin. But Volkogonov also lamented that this view eventually dissolved for those like him who had the scales fall from their eyes immediately before and after the dissolution of the Soviet Union . After researching the biographies in the Soviet archives, he came to

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4914-581: The PZL brand, starting with the PZL-101 Gawron . The factory developed mainly light sports, trainer and utility aircraft. An attempt of producing and airliner PZL MD-12 was unsuccessful. The best-known designs are the PZL-104 Wilga utility aircraft, which was produced in larger numbers than any other Polish-designed aircraft; and the PZL-106 Kruk agricultural aircraft. During the 1970s the factory adopted

5031-508: The PZL brand. Państwowe Zakłady Lotnicze was established in Warsaw in 1928 as a state-owned company, and was based on the earlier Centralne Warsztaty Lotnicze - Central Aviation Workshops. First to be produced was a licensed version of a French fighter, the Wibault 70 , but from then on the company produced exclusively its own designs. In the next decade a talented designer Zygmunt Puławski designed

5148-707: The PZL name. The main factory PZL WP-1 in Warsaw was destroyed during World War II, mostly during the German evacuation in 1944. In 1946, the CSS construction bureau ( Centralne Studium Samolotów - Central Aircraft Study) was set up there. As the factory was rebuilt, it was renamed in 1950 as the WSK Nr.4, and in 1956 as the WSK-Okęcie . It first produced licensed versions of Soviet types and aircraft developed by other Polish companies. From 1958 onwards it started to produce its own designs under

5265-422: The Polish Air Force's aerobatics display team, which was initially called Rombik and is currently named Biało-Czerwone Iskry (Translates to English as White-and-Red Sparks ). Unusually for an Eastern European aircraft of the era, the TS-11 never received a NATO reporting name (for jet trainers, a two-syllable word starting with letter M) for the type. During the 1960s, the Iskra competed to be selected as

5382-465: The Polish Air Force. During the 1960s, the Iskra competed to be selected as the standard jet trainer throughout the Warsaw Pact . However, it was not selected to fulfil this significant role, the rival Czechoslovakian Aero L-29 Delfín having been chosen instead, which went on to be built in greater numbers for a wide number of export customers. Production of the TS-11 came to an end during 1987, however

5499-656: The Polish-designed TS-8 Bies piston trainer and TS-11 Iskra jet trainer, and the PZL M-15 Belphegor the world's only jet agricultural aircraft . Large numbers of aircraft were exported abroad, mostly to the USSR. From the 1970s onward it produced mostly its own developments of licensed civil aircraft, the best known are the PZL M-18 Dromader agricultural aircraft, which was exported to numerous countries, and

5616-594: The Politburo, was in itself a crucial factor in Stalin's rise to power". Cinematic productions served to foster the cult of personality around Stalin with adherents to the party line receiving Stalin prizes . Although, film directors and their assistants were still liable to mass arrests during the Great Terror. Censorship of films contributed to a mythologizing of history as seen with the films First Cavalry Army (1941) and Defence of Tsaritsyn (1942) in which Stalin

5733-418: The Soviet Union, transforming a peasant society into an industrial state with a literate population and a remarkable scientific superstructure." Robert Conquest disputes that conclusion, writing, "Russia had already been fourth to fifth among industrial economies before World War I", and that Russian industrial advances could have been achieved without collectivization, famine, or terror. According to Conquest,

5850-515: The Stalin era. Soviet scientists were forced to denounce any work that contradicted Lysenko. Over 3,000 biologists were imprisoned, fired, or executed for attempting to oppose Lysenkoism and genetic research was effectively destroyed until the death of Stalin in 1953. Due to the ideological influence of Lysenkoism , crop yields in the USSR declined. Orthodoxy was enforced in the cultural sphere . Prior to Stalin's rule, literary, religious and national representatives had some level of autonomy in

5967-420: The TS-11. By 2013, Poland was stated to have a total of 30 (total number of school aircraft: TS-11, PZL-130) operational Iskras still in service. During 2016, Poland took delivery of its first few Alenia Aermacchi M-346 Masters , a modern trainer aircraft which, in conjunction with ground-based training equipment such as flight simulators , shall progressively take on the Polish Air Force's training needs. On

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6084-568: The United States, pragmatically setting up joint-venture contracts with major American private enterprises such as the Ford Motor Company , which, under state supervision, assisted in developing the basis of the industry of the Soviet economy from the late 1920s to the 1930s. After the American private enterprises had completed their tasks, Soviet state enterprises took over. Stalinism

6201-597: The West, and Stalin and the majority of the Communist Party felt the NEP not only to be compromising communist ideals but also not delivering satisfactory economic performance or creating the envisaged socialist society. According to historian Sheila Fitzpatrick , the scholarly consensus was that Stalin appropriated the position of the Left Opposition on such matters as industrialisation and collectivisation . Trotsky maintained that

6318-526: The advanced certification process. The system will also be available as an assembly kit for retrofitting of existing SZD-55s. The engine division WS-2 of the PZL was built in Rzeszów in 1937-1939. After the war it still bore a name PZL ( Państwowe Zakłady Lotnicze ) until 1951, when it was renamed WSK-Rzeszów. From 1949 it manufactured Soviet-licensed M-11 engines, later, among others, ASh-62IR , turboshaft engines GTD-350 and Polish jet engines SO-1 . The factory

6435-978: The archives, contends that, before the collapse of the Soviet Union and the opening of the archives for historical research, "our understanding of the scale and the nature of Soviet repression has been extremely poor" and that some specialists who wish to maintain earlier high estimates of the Stalinist death toll are "finding it difficult to adapt to the new circumstances when the archives are open and when there are plenty of irrefutable data" and instead "hang on to their old Sovietological methods with round-about calculations based on odd statements from emigres and other informants who are supposed to have superior knowledge." Stalin personally signed 357 proscription lists in 1937 and 1938 that condemned 40,000 people to execution, about 90% of whom are confirmed to have been shot. While reviewing one such list, he reportedly muttered to no one in particular: "Who's going to remember all this riff-raff in ten or twenty years? No one. Who remembers

6552-816: The autocratic system in the Communist Party . They also note that Lenin put a ban on factions within the Russian Communist Party and introduced the one-party state in 1921—a move that enabled Stalin to get rid of his rivals easily after Lenin's death and cite Felix Dzerzhinsky , who, during the Bolshevik struggle against opponents in the Russian Civil War , exclaimed: "We stand for organized terror—this should be frankly stated." Opponents of this view include revisionist historians and many post–Cold War and otherwise dissident Soviet historians, including Roy Medvedev , who argues that although "one could list

6669-528: The better-known products during this period is the PZL TS-11 Iskra jet trainer and PZL-104 Wilga STOL utility aircraft. After the fall of communism in Poland in 1989, these manufacturers became separate companies, still sharing the PZL name. In the case of PZL Mielec , the abbreviation was later developed as Polskie Zakłady Lotnicze - Polish Aviation Works. Over time, the now-separate divisions were purchased by foreign concerns but many continue to use

6786-448: The creation of a one man totalitarian police state , rapid industrialization , the theory of socialism in one country (until 1939), forced collectivization of agriculture , intensification of class conflict , a cult of personality , and subordination of the interests of foreign communist parties to those of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , which Stalinism deemed the leading vanguard party of communist revolution at

6903-572: The deportations. Individual circumstances of those spending time in German-occupied territories were not examined. After the brief Nazi occupation of the Caucasus , the entire population of five of the small highland peoples and the Crimean Tatars —more than a million people in total—were deported without notice or any opportunity to take their possessions. As a result of Stalin's lack of trust in

7020-413: The design work on the program was transferred to aircraft manufacturer PZL-Mielec at an early stage in order that IL could resume its primary mission of scientific and technological research. Much of the design work on the program was produced in response to the specified needs of a requirement issued by the Polish Air Force for a capable jet-propelled trainer aircraft, which was seeking a replacement for

7137-633: The disproportions and imbalances which became characteristic of Stalinist planning in the 1930s such as the underdeveloped consumer base along with the priority focus on heavy industry were due to a number of avoidable problems. He argued that the industrial drive had been enacted under more severe circumstances, several years later and in a less rational manner than originally conceived by the Left Opposition. Fredric Jameson has said that "Stalinism was…a success and fulfilled its historic mission, socially as well as economically" given that it "modernized

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7254-449: The end of World War II , Poland was politically dominated by the neighbouring Soviet Union ; as a consequence, the Polish aviation industry underwent vast changes at the behest of the Soviets. According to aviation author Jerzy K. Cynk, the immediate post-war decade was a period of frustrated efforts and disappointments, by early 1951, all of the nation's design offices had been dissolved and

7371-539: The entirety of indigenous projects were terminated. Instead, Poland's aircraft factories were assigned to produce mainly Russian -sourced military-orientated equipment to meet the requirements of the Soviet war machine, such as the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 fighter aircraft. Shortly following the death of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin , military orders were drastically cut, leading to Polish aircraft plants falling idle and some being permanently closing down. While

7488-535: The factory was acquired by AgustaWestland . Glider manufacturer SZD ( Szybowcowy Zakład Doświadczalny - Glider Experimental Works) was created in Bielsko-Biała in 1948. The company grew and had production plants in additional locations, during this process it was renamed several times until it got its name PZL-Bielsko in the 1990s. It was one of the biggest sailplane factories and exported its gliders world-wide. In 2002 Allstar PZL Glider Sp. z o.o. acquired

7605-536: The first four SZD-glider models. Allstar PZL Glider is also producing and distributing spare parts for all six types mentioned above. On the occasion of the air show “Aero” 2019 in Friedrichshafen Allstar PZL Glider has presented its proof-of-concept of a new electric propulsion system for the SZD-55 Nexus. The electric sustainer, developed by the company and named “Allstar-e-motion”, is right now in

7722-404: The first prototype conducted its maiden flight , powered by an imported Viper 8 engine, capable of producing up to 7.80 kN (1,750 lb f ) of thrust. On 11 September 1960, the aircraft's existence was publicly revealed during an aerial display held over Łódź . The next pair of prototypes, which performed their first flights during March and July 1961 respectively, were instead powered by

7839-485: The high-profile executions in this period. Many military leaders were convicted of treason, and a large-scale purge of Red Army officers followed. The repression of many formerly high-ranking revolutionaries and party members led Trotsky to claim that a "river of blood" separated Stalin's regime from Lenin's. In August 1940, Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico, where he had lived in exile since January 1937. This eliminated

7956-474: The idea of " permanent revolution "—by presenting the latter as a defeatist with little faith in Russian workers' abilities to construct socialism. The term Stalinism came into prominence during the mid-1930s when Lazar Kaganovich , a Soviet politician and associate of Stalin, reportedly declared: "Let's replace Long Live Leninism with Long Live Stalinism!" Stalin dismissed this as excessive and contributing to

8073-519: The industrial and agricultural face of the Soviet Union. This became known as the Great Turn as Russia turned away from the mixed-economic type New Economic Policy (NEP) and adopted a planned economy . Lenin implemented the NEP to ensure the survival of the socialist state following seven years of war ( World War I , 1914–1917, and the subsequent Civil War , 1917–1921) and rebuilt Soviet production to its 1913 levels. But Russia still lagged far behind

8190-714: The industrial successes were far less than claimed, and the Soviet-style industrialization was "an anti-innovative dead-end." Stephen Kotkin said those who argue collectivization was necessary are "dead wrong", writing that it "only seemed necessary within the straitjacket of Communist ideology and its repudiation of capitalism. And economically, collectivization failed to deliver." Kotkin further claimed that it decreased harvests instead of increasing them, as peasants tended to resist heavy taxes by producing fewer goods, caring only about their own subsistence. According to several Western historians, Stalinist agricultural policies were

8307-600: The intellectual left; Rykov , Bukharin , and Tomsky to the pragmatic right; and the powerful Trotsky, who belonged to no side but his own. None would even consider Stalin's concept a potential addition to communist ideology. Stalin's socialism in one country doctrine could not be imposed until he had come close to being the Soviet Union's autocratic ruler around 1929. Bukharin and the Right Opposition expressed their support for imposing Stalin's ideas, as Trotsky had been exiled, and Zinoviev and Kamenev had been expelled from

8424-593: The last of Stalin's opponents among the former Party leadership. Mass operations of the NKVD also targeted "national contingents" (foreign ethnicities) such as Poles , ethnic Germans , and Koreans . A total of 350,000 (144,000 of them Poles) were arrested and 247,157 (110,000 Poles) were executed. Many Americans who had emigrated to the Soviet Union during the worst of the Great Depression were executed, while others were sent to prison camps or gulags. Concurrent with

8541-544: The late 1930s the company also developed several prototypes of more modern fighters and bombers — and a passenger airliner, the PZL.44 Wicher . However, World War II prevented these aircraft from entering production. PZL was the largest Polish pre-war aircraft manufacturer. In 1934, the main factory in Warsaw was named PZL WP-1 ( Wytwórnia Płatowców 1 - Airframe Works 1) in the Okęcie district of Warsaw . A new division PZL WP-2

8658-591: The latter imagery having gained ascendency during the Great Patrotic War and Cold War . Some scholars have argued that Stalin took an active involvement with the construction of the cult of personality with writers such as Isaac Deutscher and Erik van Ree noting that Stalin had absorbed elements from the cult of Tsars, Orthodox Christianity and highlighting specific acts such as Lenin's embalming . Yet, other scholars have drawn on primary accounts from Stalin's associates such as Molotov which suggested he took

8775-495: The loyalty of particular ethnicities, groups such as the Soviet Koreans , Volga Germans , Crimean Tatars, Chechens , and many Poles, were forcibly moved out of strategic areas and relocated to places in the central Soviet Union, especially Kazakhstan . By some estimates, hundreds of thousands of deportees may have died en route. It is estimated that between 1941 and 1949, nearly 3.3 million people were deported to Siberia and

8892-452: The murder, including Trotsky, Lev Kamenev , and Grigory Zinoviev . Thereafter, the investigations and trials expanded. Stalin passed a new law on "terrorist organizations and terrorist acts" that were to be investigated for no more than ten days, with no prosecution, defense attorneys, or appeals, followed by a sentence to be imposed "quickly." Stalin's Politburo also issued directives on quotas for mass arrests and executions. Under Stalin,

9009-549: The name WSK "PZL Warszawa-Okęcie" , which after the fall of the communist system was changed in 1989 to PZL Warszawa-Okęcie . In 2001 the factory was bought by the Spanish company EADS CASA (now part of Airbus Defence and Space ) and since then has been known as EADS PZL Warszawa-Okęcie SA . The PZL WP2 factory in Mielec became a part of Heinkel during the German occupation of Poland, and manufactured parts for German aircraft. After

9126-612: The names now of the boyars Ivan the Terrible got rid of? No one." In addition, Stalin dispatched a contingent of NKVD operatives to Mongolia , established a Mongolian version of the NKVD troika , and unleashed a bloody purge in which tens of thousands were executed as "Japanese spies", as Mongolian ruler Khorloogiin Choibalsan closely followed Stalin's lead. Stalin had ordered for 100,000 Buddhist lamas in Mongolia to be liquidated but

9243-412: The nation's design offices had been liquidated, some former members had joined Poland's Aviation Institute (1L) and performed some limited work on various original projects, even though such efforts were initially officially discouraged. As such, it was at IL that the effort to design would become the first jet aircraft to be developed in Poland originated; however, during the late 1950s, responsibility for

9360-589: The need for industrialization in the Soviet Union was emphasized because the Soviet Union had previously fallen behind economically compared to Western countries and also because socialist society needed industry to face the challenges posed by internal and external enemies of communism. Rapid industrialization was accompanied by mass collectivization of agriculture and rapid urbanization , which converted many small villages into industrial cities . To accelerate industrialization's development, Stalin imported materials, ideas, expertise, and workers from western Europe and

9477-418: The neighbouring Soviet Union , during the 1950s, Polish engineers at the Poland's Aviation Institute (IL) commenced early work upon the design of what would become the first jet aircraft to be developed in Poland. Following the death of Joseph Stalin , work on the initiative could be performed more openly and government officials became supportive of such a venture. The fledgling design was heavily influenced by

9594-410: The new TS-11S Iskra (Spark) as a future jet trainer. It will be equipped with new avionics, strengthened structures and a more powerful engine. During 1964, the TS-11 prototype broke four separate world records in its class, including a speed record, having been recorded as having attained a top speed of 839 km/h (524 mph) during one flight. From 1969 onwards, various TS-11s have been used by

9711-425: The party. In a 1936 interview with journalist Roy W. Howard , Stalin articulated his rejection of world revolution and said, "We never had such plans and intentions" and "The export of revolution is nonsense". Traditional communist thought holds that the state will gradually " wither away " as the implementation of socialism reduces class distinction. But Stalin argued that the proletarian state (as opposed to

9828-407: The people", starting the cycle of public persecution, often proceeding to interrogation, torture, and deportation, if not death. The Russian word troika thereby gained a new meaning: a quick, simplified trial by a committee of three subordinated to the NKVD troika—with sentencing carried out within 24 hours. Stalin's hand-picked executioner Vasili Blokhin was entrusted with carrying out some of

9945-422: The piston-engined PZL TS-8 Bies at the time. Polish government officials came to openly regard the project as being of considerable importance to the nation's aviation industry, thus vigorous efforts were made to support the development of the TS-11. The main designer was Polish aeronautical engineer Tadeusz Sołtyk ; his initials was the source for part of the type's official designation TS-11 . Early on, it

10062-693: The political leader Peljidiin Genden resisted the order. Under Stalinist influence in the Mongolian People's Republic , an estimated 17,000 monks were killed, official figures show. Stalinist forces also oversaw purges of anti-Stalinist elements among the Spanish Republican insurgents, including the Trotskyist allied POUM faction and anarchist groups, during the Spanish Civil War . During

10179-672: The production plant in Bielsko-Biala and the Type Certificates of the following SZD sailplanes: SZD-59-1 Acro - a single-seater for aerobatics and cross-country, SZD-54-2 Perkoz – a double-seater training-glider for aerobatic and cross-country, SZD-55-1 Nexus – a single seater glider of the standard class, SZD-51-1 Junior - single seater training glider of the club class, SZD-50 Puchacz - double-seater training-glider and SZD-48-3 Jantar Standard 3 – single-seater glider of standard class. The company further manufactures and develops

10296-547: The programme intended to produce a successor, the PZL I-22 Iryda (later designated as the M-93 Iryda ), failed for several reasons and only a few were completed during the 1990s before the program was aborted. In its place, the TS-11 has been considered for upgrades to better enable its continued service; however, during 2010, the Polish Air Force issued a tender for a new advanced jet pilot training system to eventually replace

10413-575: The purges, efforts were made to rewrite the history in Soviet textbooks and other propaganda materials. Notable people executed by NKVD were removed from the texts and photographs as though they had never existed. In light of revelations from Soviet archives, historians now estimate that nearly 700,000 people (353,074 in 1937 and 328,612 in 1938) were executed in the course of the terror, the great mass of them ordinary Soviet citizens: workers, peasants, homemakers, teachers, priests, musicians, soldiers, pensioners, ballerinas, and beggars. Scholars estimate

10530-504: The regimes Stalin and Lenin proposed. Some historians, such as Richard Pipes , consider Stalinism the natural consequence of Leninism: Stalin "faithfully implemented Lenin's domestic and foreign policy programs." Robert Service writes that "institutionally and ideologically Lenin laid the foundations for a Stalin [...] but the passage from Leninism to the worse terrors of Stalinism was not smooth and inevitable." Likewise, historian and Stalin biographer Edvard Radzinsky believes that Stalin

10647-405: The requirements specified by the Polish Air Force, who had formalised a requirement for a jet-propelled aircraft for training purposes. On 5 February 1960, the first prototype conducted its maiden flight , powered by an imported British Armstrong Siddeley Viper turbojet engine. During 1963, deliveries of the first production model of the type, designated as the TS-11 Iskra bis A , commenced to

10764-411: The role of workers in advanced capitalist countries (e.g., he considered the U.S. working class "bourgeoisified" labor aristocracy ). All other October Revolution 1917 Bolshevik leaders regarded their revolution more or less as just the beginning, with Russia as the springboard on the road toward worldwide revolution. Stalin introduced the idea of socialism in one country by the autumn of 1924,

10881-455: The same conclusion as Radzinsky and Kotkin (that Lenin had built a culture of violent autocratic totalitarianism of which Stalinism was a logical extension). Proponents of continuity cite a variety of contributory factors, such as that Lenin, not Stalin, introduced the Red Terror with its hostage-taking and internment camps , and that Lenin developed the infamous Article 58 and established

10998-593: The standard jet trainer for the Warsaw Pact , the Soviet Union had given Poland a promise to support its aviation industry and to favour the procurement of suitable aircraft for this purpose from Polish manufacturers. However, the Iskra was not selected for this role, it had lost out to the Czechoslovak Aero L-29 Delfín , another newly designed jet-propelled trainer aircraft; according to aviation author John C. Fredrikson, this outcome had been highly unexpected and surprising to several observers. Largely as

11115-516: The start. Other revisionist historians such as Orlando Figes , while critical of the Soviet era, acknowledge that Lenin actively sought to counter Stalin's growing influence, allying with Trotsky in 1922–23, opposing Stalin on foreign trade , and proposing party reforms including the democratization of the Central Committee and recruitment of 50-100 ordinary workers into the party's lower organs. Critics include anti-Stalinist communists such as Trotsky, who pointed out that Lenin attempted to persuade

11232-601: The theoretical debates within the Communist Party, namely by developing the idea of " Socialism in One Country ". This concept was intricately linked to factional struggles within the party, particularly against Trotsky. He first developed the idea in December 1924 and elaborated upon in his writings of 1925–26. Stalin's doctrine held that socialism could be completed in Russia but that its final victory could not be guaranteed because of

11349-618: The threat from capitalist intervention. For this reason, he retained the Leninist view that world revolution was still a necessity to ensure the ultimate victory of socialism. Although retaining the Marxist belief that the state would wither away as socialism transformed into pure communism, he believed that the Soviet state would remain until the final defeat of international capitalism. This concept synthesised Marxist and Leninist ideas with nationalist ideals, and served to discredit Trotsky—who promoted

11466-405: The time. After Stalin's death and the Khrushchev Thaw , a period of de-Stalinization began in the 1950s and 1960s, which caused the influence of Stalin's ideology to begin to wane in the USSR. Stalin's regime forcibly purged society of what it saw as threats to itself and its brand of communism (so-called " enemies of the people "), which included political dissidents , non-Soviet nationalists,

11583-550: The total death toll for the Great Purge (1936–1938) including fatalities attributed to imprisonment to be roughly 700,000-1.2 million. Many of the executed were interred in mass graves , with some significant killing and burial sites being Bykivnia , Kurapaty , and Butovo . Some Western experts believe the evidence released from the Soviet archives is understated, incomplete or unreliable. Conversely, historian Stephen G. Wheatcroft , who spent much of his career researching

11700-455: The type remained in service with the Polish Air Force and the Indian Air Force into the 21st century. From 1969 onwards, a handful of TS-11s have been used by the Polish Air Force's Biało-Czerwone Iskry aerobatics display team, who performed their last display on 22 August 2021. It has also been used for aerial reconnaissance purposes. During the aircraft's later years of service, several examples have been sold onto private owners. Following

11817-407: The various measures carried out by Stalin that were actually a continuation of anti-democratic trends and measures implemented under Lenin…in so many ways, Stalin acted, not in line with Lenin's clear instructions, but in defiance of them." In doing so, some historians have tried to distance Stalinism from Leninism to undermine the totalitarian view that Stalin's methods were inherent in communism from

11934-427: The views of opponents through an array of employed historians alongside economists to justify policy manoeuvering and safeguarding its own set of material interests. He cited a range of historical documents such as private letters, telegrams, party speeches, meeting minutes , and suppressed texts such as Lenin's Testament . British historian Orlando Figes argued that "The urge to silence Trotsky, and all criticism of

12051-456: The war the factory was named first PZL No.1 works, then from 1949 WSK-Mielec , and later WSK "PZL-Mielec" . It became the biggest post-war Polish aircraft producer. It manufactured mostly licensed Soviet types, such as the Antonov An-2 transport biplane and early jet fighters: Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 (as Lim-1 and Lim-2) and Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 (as Lim-5 and Lim-6 ). It also produced

12168-568: The world. Since the late 1980s, Świdnik has been producing a Polish-designed medium helicopter PZL W-3 Sokół . It also produces a light helicopter, the PZL SW-4 Puszczyk . After 1991 the state factory became a state-owned corporation (WSK "PZL-Świdnik" SA ). It also produced the SZD-30 Pirat , PW-5 and PW-6 gliders and cooperates widely with other nations' manufacturers, e.g. , in the manufacture of Agusta A109 fuselages. In early 2010

12285-399: Was a genuine follower of Lenin, exactly as he claimed. Another Stalin biographer, Stephen Kotkin , wrote that "his violence was not the product of his subconscious but of the Bolshevik engagement with Marxist–Leninist ideology." Dmitri Volkogonov , who wrote biographies of both Lenin and Stalin, wrote that during the 1960s through 1980s, an official patriotic Soviet de-Stalinized view of

12402-462: Was also marked by militant atheism, mass anti-religious persecution , and ethnic cleansing through forced deportations . Some historians, such as Robert Service , have blamed Stalinist policies, particularly collectivization, for causing famines such as the Holodomor . Other historians and scholars disagree on Stalinism's role. Officially designed to accelerate development toward communism ,

12519-622: Was bought by United Technologies in 2002 and changed its name to Pratt & Whitney Rzeszów in 2015. In 1952 the engine manufacturer WSK-Kalisz was created. It manufactured mostly Soviet-licensed engines, first piston (the Shvetsov ASh-82 and the Ivchenko AI-14 ) and then jet (the Klimov VK-1 ). It also produced Polish piston engines, such as the WN-3 , and other equipment. In October 1996 it

12636-642: Was built in Mielec in 1938-1939, but production was only just starting there at the outbreak of World War II. An engine factory division, PZL WS-1 in Warsaw-Okęcie ( Wytwórnia Silników - Engine Works 1), produced mostly licensed versions of British Bristol engines, such as the Bristol Pegasus and the Bristol Mercury . The WS-1 factory was former Polskie Zakłady Skody , the Polish division of Skoda Works , and

12753-487: Was decided to adopt a foreign-sourced turbojet engine to power the aircraft. Quickly, the British Armstrong Siddeley Viper had emerged as the company's favoured option; however, reportedly, negotiations for its acquisition eventually broken down; accordingly, work on the project was delayed until a suitable domestically built powerplant had reached an advanced stage of development. On 5 February 1960,

12870-495: Was depicted as the chief discipline during the revolution. However, in reality, Stalin was considered a relatively unknown figure with secondary importance at the time of the event. In his book, The Stalin School of Falsification , Leon Trotsky argued that the Stalinist faction routinely distorted political events, forged a theoretical basis for irreconcilable concepts such as the notion of "Socialism in One Country" and misrepresented

12987-524: Was glorified as a central figure to the October Revolution . Conversely, the roles of other Soviet figures such as Lenin and Trotsky were diminished or misrepresented. In the aftermath of the succession struggle, in which Stalin had defeated both Left and Right Opposition , a cult of Stalin had materialised. From 1929 until 1953, there was a proliferation of architecture , statues , posters , banners and iconography featuring Stalin in which he

13104-467: Was increasingly identified with the state and seen as an emblem of Marxism. In July 1930, a state decree instructed 200 artists to prepare propaganda posters for the Five Year Plans and collectivsation measures. Historian Anita Pisch drew specific focus to the various manifestations of the personality cult in which Stalin was associated with the "Father", "Saviour" and "Warrior" cultural archetypes with

13221-497: Was later improved into the WSK SO-3W , which was able to generate 10.80 kN (2,425 lb f ) of thrust. The PZL TS-11 Iskra is an all-metal jet-propelled trainer aircraft. It is relatively conventional in layout, featuring a trapezoid -shaped mid-wing arrangement. These wings, which only had a gentle angle of sweep along the leading edge , feature air intakes embedded into the wing root. The TS-11's single turbojet engine

13338-474: Was nationalized and renamed in 1936. In 1937-1939 a new engine division, PZL WS-2 , was built in Rzeszów . During World War II and the five-year German occupation, all Polish aviation industry was taken over by German firms, and as a result, almost completely destroyed. By the end of the war, all factories were either ruined or robbed of tooling. Despite it, from 1944 there were carried out efforts to design new aircraft, in primitive conditions (first of all, in

13455-426: Was renamed WSK "PZL-Kalisz" and became a corporation ( SA ). WSK Warszawa II was created in 1952 in Warsaw as a manufacturer of aircraft parts and military equipment parts. In 1995 it was changed from a state factory to a corporation WSK "PZL Warszawa II" SA. PZL TS-11 Iskra The PZL TS-11 Iskra (English: Spark ) is a Polish jet trainer , developed and manufactured by aircraft company PZL-Mielec . It

13572-503: Was subject to public denunciation, many of his ideas were rejected on ideological grounds and condemned as "bourgeois idealism" in the Stalin era. A policy of ideological repression impacted various disciplinary fields such as genetics , cybernetics , biology , linguistics , physics , sociology , psychology , pedology , mathematical logic , economics and statistics . Pseudoscientific theories of Trofim Lysenko were favoured over other scientific disciplines during

13689-474: Was used by the air forces of Poland and India . It is notable as being the first domestically developed jet aircraft to be produced by Poland, its service for over 50 years as the principal training aircraft of the Polish Air Force, and at the time of its retirement was the oldest jet-propelled aircraft still in service in Poland. As a part of efforts to preserve Poland's ability to independently develop aircraft in an era of political and economic subservience to

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