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39-455: The University focused on catering to non-aligned countries , which were previously known as the " Third World ". The University's main goal was to train personnel from Asia, Africa, Eastern Europe, and Latin America. RUDN University was considered the ' Oxford ' of Russia in the mid-1980s due to the fame it achieved within a short period. RUDN University's stance on global issues became neutral after

78-548: A letter of support for the Russian invasion of Ukraine . The university was founded on 5 February 1960. Its stated purpose was to help developing nations . Many students from developed countries also attended the university. On 22 February 1961, the university was named Patrice Lumumba University after the Congolese independence leader Patrice Lumumba , who had been killed in a coup that January. The stated purpose for establishing

117-503: A mutual defense pact (under TIAR and NATO respectively). For many states, such as Ireland, neutrality does not mean the absence of any foreign interventionism. Peacekeeping missions for the United Nations are seen as intertwined with it. The Swiss electorate rejected a 1994 proposal to join UN peacekeeping operations. Despite this, 23 Swiss observers and police have been deployed around

156-471: A fellow member that is the victim of armed aggression. It accords "an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in [other member states'] power" but would "not prejudice the specific character of the security and defense policy of certain Member States" (neutral policies), allowing members to respond with non-military aid. Ireland's constitution prohibits participating in such a common defence. With

195-669: A forum for cooperation and the exchange of information on higher education and research policies. Members of the Association are European universities involved in teaching and research, national associations of rectors , and other organisations active in higher education and research. EUA is the result of a merger between the Association of European Universities and the Confederation of European Union Rectors' Conferences. The merger took place in Salamanca on 31 March 2001. The following

234-482: A sizeable military, while barring itself from foreign deployment. Not all neutral countries avoid any foreign deployment or alliances, as Austria and Ireland have active UN peacekeeping forces and a political alliance within the European Union . Sweden 's traditional policy was not to participate in military alliances, with the intention of staying neutral in the case of war . Immediately before World War II ,

273-640: A statement issued by the Russian Union of Rectors (RUR) in March 2022. The EUA justified the suspension on the support expressed in the statement, stating said universities were "opposed to the European values that they committed to when joining EUA". In early March 2022, open letters were published calling for an end to the war in Ukraine on behalf of employees, students, and graduates of several Russian universities, including

312-404: Is already in port, in which case it must have a 24-hour head start. A prize ship captured by a belligerent in the territorial waters of a neutral power must be surrendered by the belligerent to the neutral, which must intern its crew. Neutrality has been recognised in different ways, and sometimes involves a formal guarantor. For example, Switzerland and Belgium's neutrality was recognized by

351-521: The Donegal Corridor , making it possible for British planes to attack German U-boats in the mid-Atlantic. On the other hand, both Axis and Allied pilots who crash landed in Ireland were interned. Sweden and Switzerland, surrounded by possessions and allies of Nazi Germany similarly made concessions to Nazi requests as well as to Allied requests. Sweden was also involved in intelligence operations with

390-565: The Friendship of Nations ". The English-language version of the university's website, however, uses the name "RUDN University", with the acronym RUDN derived from the Russian name transliterated into English ("Rossiiskii Universitet Druzhby Narodov"). Nonetheless, it remains most common in English to use the name "Peoples' Friendship University of Russia" or the abbreviation "PFUR". From 1993 to 1998, PFUR

429-720: The Nordic countries stated their neutrality, but Sweden changed its position to that of non-belligerent at the start of the Winter War . Sweden would uphold its policy of neutrality until the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine . During the Cold War , former Yugoslavia claimed military and ideological neutrality from both the Western and Eastern Bloc , becoming a co-founder of the Non-Aligned Movement . There have been considerable changes to

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468-469: The SCO ). As a type of non-combatant status, nationals of neutral countries enjoy protection under the law of war from belligerent actions to a greater extent than other non-combatants such as enemy civilians and prisoners of war . Different countries interpret their neutrality differently: some, such as Costa Rica have demilitarized , while Switzerland holds to "armed neutrality", to deter aggression with

507-668: The Allies, including listening stations in Sweden and espionage in Germany. Spain offered to join the war on the side of Nazi Germany in 1940, allowed Axis ships and submarines to use its ports, imported war materials for Germany, and sent a Spanish volunteer combat division to aid the Nazi war effort. Portugal officially stayed neutral, but actively supported both the Allies by providing overseas naval bases, and Germany by selling tungsten . The United States

546-633: The Axis and Allied powers alike, while still keeping to the rules of the Law of Neutrality . The Holy See has been criticized—but largely exonerated later—for its silence on moral issues of the war. Some countries may occasionally claim to be "neutral" but not comply with the internationally agreed upon definition of neutrality as listed above. European University Association The European University Association ( EUA ) represents more than 800 institutions of higher education in 48 countries, providing them with

585-849: The Ecological faculty, the Faculty of Economics, the faculty of Law, the Philological faculty, the faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, the faculty of Refresher Training for Health Care Professionals, the Institute of Foreign Languages, the Institute of Distance Learning, the Institute of Hospitality Business and Tourism, and the Institute of Gravitation and Cosmology. More than 77,000 graduates work in 170 countries, among them more than 5,500 holders of PhD and Doctorate degrees. Lecturers train specialists in 62 majors and lines of study. More than 29,000 graduate and postgraduate students from 140 countries studied at

624-704: The European states closest to the war, only Andorra , Ireland , Portugal , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland (with Liechtenstein ), and Vatican City (the Holy See ) remained neutral to the end. Their fulfillment to the letter of the rules of neutrality has been questioned: Ireland supplied important secret information to the Allies ; for instance, the date of D-Day was decided on the basis of incoming Atlantic weather information , some of it supplied by Ireland but kept from Germany. Ireland also secretly allowed Allied aircraft to use

663-551: The Peoples' Friendship University of Russia. The university was ranked #1,035 worldwide by U.S. News & World Report and #1,635 by the Center for World University Rankings in 2022. The university staff includes about 5,000 employees; among them are 442 professors and Doctors of Science, 807 associate professors and candidates of science, 91 academicians and Corresponding Members of academies of Russia, 50 Honoured workers of Science of

702-612: The Russian Federation, 56 PFUR teachers and professors are full members of international academies and learned societies, as well as other general employees. 55°39′04″N 37°30′18″E  /  55.651°N 37.505°E  / 55.651; 37.505 Neutrality (international relations) A neutral country is a state that is neutral towards belligerents in a specific war or holds itself as permanently neutral in all future conflicts (including avoiding entering into military alliances such as NATO , CSTO or

741-532: The Soviet Union) but in other cases it is an active policy of the country concerned to respond to a geopolitical situation ( Ireland in the Second World War ). For the country concerned, the policy is usually codified beyond the treaty itself. Austria and Japan codify their neutrality in their constitutions, but they do so with different levels of detail. Some details of neutrality are left to be interpreted by

780-654: The Swedes each have a long history of neutrality: they have not been in a state of war internationally since 1815 and 1814, respectively. Switzerland continues to pursue, however, an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. According to Edwin Reischauer , "To be neutral you must be ready to be highly militarized, like Switzerland or Sweden." Sweden ended its policy of neutrality when it joined NATO in 2024. In contrast, some neutral states may heavily reduce their military and use it for

819-660: The US pretense of neutrality. Sweden also made concessions to the German Reich during the war to maintain its neutrality, the biggest concession was to let the 163rd German Infantry Division to be transferred from Norway to Finland by Swedish trains, to aid the Finns in the Continuation War . The decision caused a political " Midsummer Crisis " of 1941, about Sweden's neutrality . Equally, Vatican City made various diplomatic concessions to

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858-676: The benefit to a belligerent of entering the country by force not worth the cost. This may include: The term derives from the historic maritime neutrality of the First League of Armed Neutrality of the Nordic countries and Russia under the leadership of Catherine the Great , which was invented in the late 18th century but has since been used only to refer to countries' neutralities. Sweden and Switzerland are independently of each other famed for their armed neutralities, which they maintained throughout both World War I and World War II . The Swiss and

897-605: The end of the Cold War with the collapse of the Soviet Union . RUDN University mainly focuses on research and has partnerships with over 2500 foreign universities and research centres. In March 2023, the name of Patrice Lumumba was returned to the RUDN University. Yastrebov Oleg Alexandrovich (Ястребов Олег Александрович]), the rector of the Patrice Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University of Russia has signed

936-412: The express purpose of home defense and the maintenance of their neutrality, while other neutral states may abandon military power altogether (examples of states doing this include Liechtenstein ). However, the lack of a military does not always result in neutrality: Countries such as Costa Rica and Iceland replaced their standing army with a military guarantee from a stronger power or participation in

975-506: The extent to which they are, or should be, neutral is debated. For example, Ireland, which sought guarantees for its neutrality in EU treaties, argues that its neutrality does not mean that Ireland should avoid engagement in international affairs such as peacekeeping operations. Since the enactment of the Lisbon Treaty , EU members are bound by TEU, Article 42.7 , which obliges states to assist

1014-457: The first student teams of KVN were organized. Vladimir Frantsevich Stanis became the second Rector of the PFU. He proclaimed the "cult of knowledge" at the university, heading it from 1970 to 1993. In 1972, Stanis proceeded to extend the duration of studies, which until then were shorter, along the lines of mainstream Soviet universities. At the Faculty of Medicine, for instance, the duration of studies

1053-490: The government while others are explicitly stated; for example, Austria may not host any foreign bases, and Japan cannot participate in foreign wars. Yet Sweden, lacking formal codification, was more flexible during the Second World War in allowing troops to pass through its territory. Armed neutrality is the posture of a state or group of states that has no alliance with either side of a war but asserts that it will defend itself against resulting incursions from any party, making

1092-503: The interpretation of neutral conduct over the past centuries. Belligerents may not invade neutral territory, and a neutral power's resisting any such attempt does not compromise its neutrality. A neutral power must intern belligerent troops who reach its territory, but not escaped prisoners of war . Belligerent armies may not recruit neutral citizens, but they may go abroad to enlist. Belligerent armies' personnel and materiel may not be transported across neutral territory, but

1131-510: The launch of Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in defense at the end of 2017, the EU's activity on military matters has increased. The policy was designed to be inclusive and allows states to opt in or out of specific forms of military cooperation. That has allowed most of the neutral states to participate, but opinions still vary. Some members of the Irish Parliament considered Ireland's joining PESCO as an abandonment of neutrality. It

1170-514: The signatories of the Congress of Vienna , Austria has its neutrality guaranteed by its four former occupying powers, and Finland by the Soviet Union during the Cold War . The form of recognition varies, often by bilateral treaty (Finland), multilateral treaty (Austria) or a UN declaration (Turkmenistan). These treaties can in some ways be forced on a country (Austria's neutrality was insisted upon by

1209-547: The university as of 2014. They represented more than 150 nations of the world. It has a team of 4,500 employees, among them 2,826 teachers. Foreign and Russian political and public figures, scholars, and scientists have become PFUR Emeritus Professors. The university and 11 others from Russia were suspended from the European University Association (EUA) following support for the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine by its president Vladimir Mikhailovich Filippov in

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1248-686: The university was to give young people from Asia, Africa, and Latin America, especially from low-income families, an opportunity to be educated and to become qualified specialists. The organizations mentioned as founders of the university are the All-Union Central Soviet of Trade Unions, the Soviet Afro-Asian Solidarity Committee , and the Soviet Associations Union of Friendship and Intercultural Relationship. Sergey Vasilievich Rumiantsev, Doctor of Engineering,

1287-441: The world in UN projects. The legitimacy of whether some states are as neutral as they claim has been questioned in some circles, although this depends largely on a state's interpretation of its form of neutrality. There are three members of the European Union that still describe themselves as a neutral country in some form: Austria , Ireland , and Malta . With the development of the EU's Common Security and Defence Policy ,

1326-416: The wounded may be. A neutral power may supply communication facilities to belligerents, but not war materiel, although it need not prevent export of such materiel. Belligerent naval vessels may use neutral ports for a maximum of 24 hours, though neutrals may impose different restrictions. Exceptions are to make repairs—only the minimum necessary to put back to sea —or if an opposing belligerent's vessel

1365-540: Was extended from five to six years. By 1975, the university had more than 5,600 graduates, 4,250 people from 89 foreign countries. The university's name was changed to the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia on 5 February 1992 by the RF Government, the university's founder. The university's current Russian name is "Российский университет дружбы народов" which could be translated as "The Peoples' Friendship University of Russia" or, more directly, as "Russian University of

1404-464: Was headed by Vladimir Filippov , a 1973 graduate of Patrice Lumumba PFU. From 1998 to 2005, PFUR was directed by Dmitry Petrovich Bilibin, a graduate of Patrice Lumumba PFU. He was acting Rector until 2004 and was elected Rector of the university in 2004. Filippov was reelected Rector of the PFUR on 4 March 2005 and has headed the university since then. The 1990s saw the creation of new faculties and Institutes:

1443-610: Was initially neutral and bound by the Neutrality Acts of 1936 not to sell war materials to belligerents. Once war broke out, US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt persuaded Congress to replace the act with the Cash and carry program that allowed the US to provide military aid to the allies, despite opposition from non-interventionist members. The "Cash and carry" program was replaced in March 1941 by Lend-Lease , effectively ending

1482-619: Was passed with the government arguing that its opt-in nature allowed Ireland to "join elements of PESCO that were beneficial such as counter-terrorism, cybersecurity and peacekeeping... what we are not going to be doing is buying aircraft carriers and fighter jets". Malta, as of December 2017, is the only neutral state not to participate in PESCO. The Maltese government argued that it was going to wait and see how PESCO develops to see whether it would compromise Maltese neutrality. Many countries made neutrality declarations during World War II . However, of

1521-542: Was the university's first Rector. He remained its Rector until 1970. In 1960, Russian language studies for international students started at the preparatory Faculty. On 1 September, Russian language studies were introduced at the six main faculties of the PFU (Engineering faculty, Faculty of History and Philology, Medical Faculty, Agricultural Faculty, Faculty of Science, Faculty of Law and Economics). The first 288 students from 47 countries graduated in 1965. Around that time, international construction teams started to appear, and

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