104-676: On May 4, 1988, a fire followed by several explosions occurred at the Pacific Engineering and Production Company of Nevada (PEPCON) chemical plant in Henderson, Nevada . The disaster caused two fatalities, 372 injuries, and an estimated $ 100 million of damage. A large portion of the Las Vegas Valley within a 10-mile (16 km) radius of the plant was affected and several agencies activated disaster plans. The PEPCON plant, located in Henderson, Nevada , 10 miles (16 km) from Las Vegas ,
208-499: A $ 71 million 1992 settlement (equivalent to $ 138 million in 2023) with contributions from multiple parties including AMPAC/PEPCON and Southwest Gas Corporation that was divided among insurance companies on subrogation claims as well as the victims and their families. After the incident, American Pacific Corporation changed the name of the perchlorate chemicals manufacturing subsidiary to PEPCON Production, Inc and within one year, to Western Electrochemical Co. (WECCO). It built
312-678: A catastrophic fire and series of explosions. The facility was one of only two in the United States producing ammonium perchlorate, a key component in solid rocket fuel. The disaster resulted in two fatalities, injured over 300 individuals, and caused extensive damage throughout the Las Vegas Valley. The explosions were so powerful that they registered seismic activity equivalent to a 3.5 magnitude earthquake and were felt up to 10 miles away. The incident led to significant changes in industrial safety regulations and emergency response protocols in
416-415: A contributing factor. Product stored in an area north of the process building heated up and approximately seven minutes later at 11:51 a.m., an aluminum econobin containing approximately 4,000 pounds (1,800 kg) of AP located about 30 feet (9 m) west of the northwest corner of the building detonated, causing damage to the surrounding structures and batch dryer. The yield of this first detonation
520-406: A crater 15 feet (4.6 m) deep and 200 feet (61 m) long in the eastern storage area. A large amount of AP remained on the ground after the incident and material was subsequently recovered and recycled within one year. The largest explosion had an estimated yield of 0.25 kiloton TNT equivalent (similar to a 1.0 kiloton nuclear explosion in free air). USDOL concluded that the initiation mode of
624-424: A distance of over 70 feet (20 m) through and around batch tanks to the batch dryer was considered extremely remote. USDOL stated that sparks from such operations would not present enough energy to ignite ordinary combustibles in close proximity, let alone at distances of up to 70 feet (20 m) and concluded that "the possibility of welding and cutting operations as a source of ignition is considered very low, in
728-544: A formal report but did issue a two-page press release on July 15, 1988, describing what it believed to be the cause of the fire; this and other CCFD information was incorporated into a report by the United States Fire Administration (USFA). The United States Department of Labor (USDOL), working with the Division of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH), issued a lengthy report on the accident that discounted
832-748: A lecture hall, player and alumni lounges, and an on-site day care center. The facility which was the first complex built solely for the use of a WNBA team opened in April 2023. The Henderson Silver Knights of the American Hockey League play in a 6,000-seat arena, the Dollar Loan Center in Henderson. The arena is also home to the Vegas Knight Hawks of the Indoor Football League , and
936-409: A massive explosion about four minutes after the first. USDOL reported that six or seven detonations occurred solely in areas where aluminum econo bins or steel drums were utilized to store the product of nominal 200 micron size. USFA reported that little fuel remained after that, causing the flame to diminish rapidly, except for a fireball that was supplied by the high-pressure natural gas line underneath
1040-590: A member of the Nevada System of Higher Education , and has a satellite campus of the College of Southern Nevada. It also has campuses for private institutions of higher education including the Roseman University of Health Sciences , Touro University , and DeVry University . Several for-profit colleges also operate in the city, including The Art Institute of Las Vegas and Everest College . KVVU-TV (channel 5)
1144-463: A mixture of fuming nitric acid and sulfuric acid. TNT is one of the most commonly used explosives for military, industrial, and mining applications. TNT has been used in conjunction with hydraulic fracturing (popularly known as fracking), a process used to acquire oil and gas from shale formations. The technique involves displacing and detonating nitroglycerin in hydraulically induced fractures followed by wellbore shots using pelletized TNT. TNT
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#17330858082381248-600: A national average of 1.8. Henderson is home for the Henderson Executive Airport . The main airport for the metropolitan area is Harry Reid International Airport , northwest of Henderson. Street numbering is different within the city of Henderson than with the rest of the Las Vegas Valley. The center of Henderson lies within the intersection of Water Street and Lake Mead Parkway. The Henderson Police Department for years referred to Lake Mead Parkway (and its former name Lake Mead Drive) as "146", while Boulder Highway
1352-414: A new ammonium perchlorate plant in an isolated area about 14 miles (23 km) outside of Cedar City, Utah with a substantial voluntary no-build buffer around it. Natural gas service to this WECCO facility is handled in a different manner (mostly above ground away from AP storage areas) than was the case at PEPCON. On July 30, 1997, an explosion at that plant killed one and injured four. As of March 2023,
1456-532: A pollutant whose removal is a priority. The USEPA maintains that TNT levels in soil should not exceed 17.2 milligrams per kilogram of soil and 0.01 milligrams per litre of water. Dissolution is a measure of the rate that solid TNT in contact with water is dissolved. The relatively low aqueous solubility of TNT causes solid particles to be continuously released to the environment over extended periods of time. Studies have shown that TNT dissolves more slowly in saline water than in freshwater. However, when salinity
1560-422: A pressure wave from a starter explosive, called an explosive booster . Although blocks of TNT are available in various sizes (e.g. 250 g, 500 g, 1,000 g), it is more commonly encountered in synergistic explosive blends comprising a variable percentage of TNT plus other ingredients. Examples of explosive blends containing TNT include: Upon detonation , TNT undergoes a decomposition equivalent to
1664-431: A process called sulfitation, where the crude TNT is treated with aqueous sodium sulfite solution to remove less stable isomers of TNT and other undesired reaction products. The rinse water from sulfitation is known as red water and is a significant pollutant and waste product of TNT manufacture. Control of nitrogen oxides in feed nitric acid is very important because free nitrogen dioxide can result in oxidation of
1768-578: Is 14.5 GJ/t (14.5 MJ/kg or 4.027 kWh/kg), which requires that the carbon in TNT fully react with atmospheric oxygen, which does not occur in the initial event. For comparison, gunpowder contains 3 MJ/kg, dynamite contains 7.5 MJ/kg, and gasoline contains 47.2 MJ/kg (though gasoline requires an oxidant , so an optimized gasoline and O 2 mixture contains 10.4 MJ/kg). Various methods can be used to detect TNT, including optical and electrochemical sensors and explosive-sniffing dogs. In 2013, researchers from
1872-461: Is a function of their ability to associate with the mobile phase (water) and a stationary phase (soil). Materials that associate strongly with soils move slowly through soil. The association constant for TNT with soil is 2.7 to 11 L/kg of soil. This means that TNT has a one- to tenfold tendency to adhere to soil particulates than not when introduced into the soil. Hydrogen bonding and ion exchange are two suggested mechanisms of adsorption between
1976-475: Is a major process that impacts the transformation of energetic compounds. The alteration of a molecule in photolysis occurs by direct absorption of light energy or by the transfer of energy from a photosensitized compound. Phototransformation of TNT "results in the formation of nitrobenzenes , benzaldehydes , azodicarboxylic acids, and nitrophenols , as a result of the oxidation of methyl groups , reduction of nitro groups , and dimer formation." Evidence of
2080-737: Is a reactive molecule and is particularly prone to react with reduced components of sediments or photodegradation in the presence of sunlight. TNT is thermodynamically and kinetically capable of reacting with a wide number of components of many environmental systems. This includes wholly abiotic reactants, like hydrogen sulfide , Fe , or microbial communities, both oxic and anoxic and photochemical degradation. Soils with high clay contents or small particle sizes and high total organic carbon content have been shown to promote TNT transformation. Possible TNT transformations include reduction of one, two, or three nitro-moieties to amines and coupling of amino transformation products to form dimers . Formation of
2184-510: Is altered, TNT dissolves at the same speed. Because TNT is moderately soluble in water, it can migrate through subsurface soil, and cause groundwater contamination. Adsorption is a measure of the distribution between soluble and sediment adsorbed contaminants following attainment of equilibrium. TNT and its transformation products are known to adsorb to surface soils and sediments, where they undergo reactive transformation or remained stored. The movement or organic contaminants through soils
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#17330858082382288-407: Is best known as an explosive material with convenient handling properties. The explosive yield of TNT is considered to be the standard comparative convention of bombs and asteroid impacts. In chemistry , TNT is used to generate charge transfer salts . TNT was first synthesized in 1861 by German chemist Joseph Wilbrand and was originally used as a yellow dye. Its potential as an explosive
2392-509: Is classified as having a hot desert climate (BWh) in the Köppen climate classification . It has mild winters and hot summers. Snow can occasionally fall in the winter. The monsoon can bring storms in the summer, which can cause flash flooding and thunderstorms . The hottest month is July and the coldest month is December. On average there are 292 clear days per year. At the census of 2010, 257,729 people resided in Henderson. The racial makeup
2496-415: Is formally a part of Lake Mead Parkway which is a direct link to Henderson for motorists traveling in and out of Southern California . The city of Henderson has a low percentage of households without a car. In 2015, 2.8 percent of Henderson households lacked a car, and increased to 5 percent in 2016. The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Henderson averaged 1.74 cars per household in 2016, compared to
2600-423: Is generally saturated with the maximum amount of TNT that will dissolve in water (about 150 parts per million (ppm).) However it has an indefinite composition that depends on the exact process; in particular, it may also contain cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX) if the plant uses TNT/RDX mixtures, or HMX if TNT/HMX is used. Red water (also known as "Sellite water") is produced during the process used to purify
2704-503: Is in unincorporated Clark County . Findlay Prep was a high school basketball program sponsored by the Henderson International School. Henderson International School – a private preparatory school owned by Meritas – hosted Findlay College Prep . Since its creation in 2006 by businessman Cliff Findlay, its dozen students comprised the school's only high school students. Henderson is home to Nevada State University ,
2808-451: Is likely to be lower "than TNT in subsurface environments where specific adsorption to clay minerals dominates the sorption process." Thus, the mobility of TNT and its transformation products are dependent on the characteristics of the sorbent. The mobility of TNT in groundwater and soil has been extrapolated from "sorption and desorption isotherm models determined with humic acids , in aquifer sediments, and soils". From these models, it
2912-515: Is listed as a possible human carcinogen , with carcinogenic effects demonstrated in animal experiments with rats, although effects upon humans so far amount to none (according to IRIS of March 15, 2000). Consumption of TNT produces red urine through the presence of breakdown products and not blood as sometimes believed. Some military testing grounds are contaminated with wastewater from munitions programs, including contamination of surface and subsurface waters which may be colored pink because of
3016-408: Is often referred as "93", its former highway designation. The Union Pacific Railroad serves Henderson over a branch line originally built to support construction of Hoover Dam . The final few miles of the line, owned by the U.S. Government, were abandoned after the dam was completed. The line still extends to Boulder City ; in 1985, the state purchased the section east of appropriately I-11 , with
3120-404: Is predicted that TNT has a low retention and transports readily in the environment. Compared to other explosives, TNT has a higher association constant with soil, meaning it adheres more with soil than with water. Conversely, other explosives, such as RDX and HMX with low association constants (ranging from 0.06 to 7.3 L/kg and 0 to 1.6 L/kg respectively) can move more rapidly in water. TNT
3224-610: Is produced in a three-step process. First, toluene is nitrated with a mixture of sulfuric and nitric acid to produce mononitrotoluene (MNT). The MNT is separated and then renitrated to dinitrotoluene (DNT). In the final step, the DNT is nitrated to trinitrotoluene (TNT) using an anhydrous mixture of nitric acid and oleum . Nitric acid is consumed by the manufacturing process, but the diluted sulfuric acid can be reconcentrated and reused. After nitration, TNT can either be purified by crystallization from an organic solvent or stabilized by
PEPCON disaster - Misplaced Pages Continue
3328-498: Is the 2nd most populous city in Nevada , after Las Vegas, with an estimated population of 320,189 in 2019. The city is part of the Las Vegas Valley . Henderson is notable for its extensive system of outdoor recreation facilities, including over 220 miles (354 km) of trails and 72 parks. Incorporated in 1953, Henderson was originally known for its role in magnesium production during World War II. Since then, it has grown rapidly through
3432-725: Is the Las Vegas Valley's Fox affiliate and licensed to Henderson, and is based from studios on the northwest side of the city. The city is served by RTC Transit (formerly Citizens Area Transit/CAT) with its network of bus routes which run throughout the Las Vegas Valley . Henderson is served by four major highways: Henderson Black Hills and ( State Route 582 ), which is the main thoroughfare connecting with Las Vegas and Boulder City ; Lake Mead Parkway ( State Route 564 ); Interstate 11 and Interstate 215 . State Route 146 , also known as Saint Rose Parkway, connects Interstate 15 near Sloan with Interstate 215 in Green Valley. This stretch
3536-471: Is the location for 29 elementary schools, nine middle schools, and nine high schools. Five of the nine high schools are public schools, including Basic , Coronado , Green Valley , Foothill , and Liberty . The remaining four are private college preparatory schools, including the Henderson International School . A tenth high school, Silverado High School , also serves parts of Henderson but
3640-400: Is used as a reference point for many other explosives, including nuclear weapons, as their energy content is measured in equivalent tonnes (metric tons, t) of TNT. The energy used by NIST to define the equivalent is 4.184 GJ /t. For safety assessments, it has been stated that the detonation of TNT, depending on circumstances, can release 2.673–6.702 GJ/t. The heat of combustion however
3744-454: Is usually considered more problematic, as TNT has very low soil mobility. Red water is significantly more toxic and as such it has always been considered hazardous waste. It has traditionally been disposed of by evaporation to dryness (as the toxic components are not volatile), followed by incineration. Much research has been conducted to develop better disposal processes. Because of its suitability in construction and demolition, TNT has become
3848-493: Is valued partly because of its insensitivity to shock and friction, with reduced risk of accidental detonation compared to more sensitive explosives such as nitroglycerin . TNT melts at 80 °C (176 °F), far below the temperature at which it will spontaneously detonate, allowing it to be poured or safely combined with other explosives. TNT neither absorbs nor dissolves in water, which allows it to be used effectively in wet environments. To detonate, TNT must be triggered by
3952-512: The Challenger disaster two years prior, there was United States Government instruction that excess perchlorate – to be used for future Shuttle boosters and which was owned by the U.S. Government or its prime contractors – would be stored in customer-owned aluminum bins as customer-owned material at the PEPCON plant. Ammonium perchlorate manufactured for other United States government programs
4056-528: The Indian Institutes of Technology using noble-metal quantum clusters could detect TNT at the sub- zeptomolar (10 mol/m ) level. TNT is poisonous, and skin contact can cause skin irritation, causing the skin to turn a bright yellow-orange color. During the First World War , female munition workers who handled the chemical found that their skin turned bright yellow, which resulted in their acquiring
4160-559: The NBA G League Ignite of the NBA G League . Henderson has more than 37 miles (60 km) of trails. The city received its charter from the Nevada State Legislature in 1953, formally incorporating the city with a council/manager form of government. Henderson is divided into four wards. A mayor and four council members are elected citywide, but no more than one council member are allowed to reside in each ward. Lorna Kesterson
4264-622: The Nevada Southern Railroad Museum operating excursion trains over the easternmost seven miles (11 km). Fire prevention services are provided by the Henderson Fire Department and police services by the Henderson Police Department . The following is an incomplete list of notable Henderson residents: Henderson appears in the 2010 video game Fallout: New Vegas , where it is depicted as home to
PEPCON disaster - Misplaced Pages Continue
4368-472: The steric hindrance of the NO 2 group in the ortho position . Research has shown that in freshwater environments, with high abundances of Ca , the adsorption of TNT and its transformation products to soils and sediments may be lower than observed in a saline environment, dominated by K and Na . Therefore, when considering the adsorption of TNT, the type of soil or sediment and the ionic composition and strength of
4472-523: The 20th century amatol , a mixture of TNT with ammonium nitrate , was a widely used military explosive. TNT can be detonated with a high velocity initiator or by efficient concussion. For many years, TNT used to be the reference point for the Figure of Insensitivity . TNT had a rating of exactly 100 on the "F of I" scale. The reference has since been changed to a more sensitive explosive called RDX , which has an F of I rating of 80. The energy density of TNT
4576-529: The Henderson site is a commercial development near the Valley Auto Mall which is home to several dealerships and a university. Footage of the explosion has been shown in the following disaster and survival-related documentary-reality television shows: Henderson, Nevada Henderson is a city in Clark County, Nevada , United States, about 16 miles (26 km) southeast of downtown Las Vegas . It
4680-981: The Mojave. The mountains that surround Henderson mostly have gentle slopes. The McCullough Range is closest to the city; most of this range is covered by black rocks from a volcanic explosion millions of years ago. These mountains reach an average height of about 3,800 feet (1,200 m). The landscape consists of the desert; the only water in the city is found in washes like Duck Creek. Residential neighborhoods in Henderson include Anthem , Anthem Country Club, Ascaya, Black Mountain Vistas, Cadence, Calico Ridge, Champion Village, The Fountains, Grand Legacy, Green Valley , Green Valley Estates, Green Valley Ranch , Hillsboro Heights, Inspirada, Lake Las Vegas , MacDonald Highlands , MacDonald Ranch, Madeira Canyon, Club at Madeira Canyon, Roma Hills, Seven Hills , Sun City Anthem, Sun City MacDonald Ranch, Tuscany Village , and Whitney Ranch. Henderson
4784-574: The Park" celebrated its tenth anniversary in 1996, a testament to Henderson's long-standing support for the arts and cultural programs. The city also boasts the largest recreational facility – the Henderson Multigenerational Facility – in Nevada as well as Nevada's only scenic Bird Preserve. The city supports a variety of other cultural events, many of which are held at the outdoor amphitheater,
4888-476: The REPCONN headquarters. TNT Trinitrotoluene ( / ˌ t r aɪ ˌ n aɪ t r oʊ ˈ t ɒ lj u iː n / ), more commonly known as TNT (and more specifically 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene , and by its preferred IUPAC name 2-methyl-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene ), is a chemical compound with the formula C 6 H 2 (NO 2 ) 3 CH 3 . TNT is occasionally used as a reagent in chemical synthesis , but it
4992-639: The United States, which was called the "miracle metal" of World War II. The plant supplied the US War Department with magnesium for incendiary munition casings and airplane engines, frames, and other parts. A quarter of all US wartime magnesium came from the Henderson Plant to strengthen aluminum , using 25% of Hoover Dam 's power to separate the metal from its ore by electrolysis . Although "born in America's defense", Henderson's future after World War II
5096-467: The administration building, two on the loading dock and the final largest detonation in the eastern storage area, where the gas line burned after the detonations occurred. The two largest explosions produced seismic waves measuring 3.0 and 3.5 on the Richter scale . Much of the approximately 4,500 metric tons of AP either burned/decomposed in combination with a fuel or exploded, with the final detonation creating
5200-420: The age of 18 living with them, 56.4% were married couples living together, 10.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.0% were non-families. 20.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the average family size was 3.05. In the city, the population was spread out, with 25.1% under
5304-400: The age of 18, 7.9% from 18 to 24, 32.5% from 25 to 44, 24.4% from 45 to 64, and 10.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age for the city was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.4 males. The city's median household income was $ 63,830, and the median family income was $ 74,120. The per capita income for the city
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#17330858082385408-555: The author's professional opinion". Both the USFA and USDOL reports noted that the flames spread to 55 US gal (210 L) plastic drums containing the product that were stored next to the building as employees tried in vain to put the fire out inside the building with water hoses. USFA reported that the first of a series of explosions occurred in the drums about 10 to 20 minutes after ignition, and employees had begun fleeing on foot or in cars. USDOL reported this differently, stating that
5512-552: The cause and origin findings of the CCFD. USDOL noted that the Arson Division of CCFD maintained control over the site for several weeks and that DOSH and PEPCON investigating teams were not permitted entry into the facility until 13 days after the event. The first significant DOSH inspection did not occur until 33 days after the fire. At that time, the damaged areas had been disturbed and key evidence had been either displaced or removed from
5616-436: The city's Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, fiscal year ending June 30, 2016, the city's largest employers are: An increasing number of major shopping malls, movie theater complexes, concert venues, restaurants and casino resorts offer residents a variety of choices for leisure time in Henderson. The city also sits a few miles southeast of Las Vegas and is not too far from the world-famous Las Vegas Strip . "Shakespeare in
5720-432: The color of brown sugar and requiring an explosive booster charge of granular crystallized grade A TNT for detonation. High-explosive shells were filled with grade A TNT, which became preferred for other uses as industrial chemical capacity became available for removing xylene and similar hydrocarbons from the toluene feedstock and other nitrotoluene isomer byproducts from the nitrating reactions. In industry, TNT
5824-486: The complainants was arrested and detained for two days in the Henderson detention facility , while the other was an alleged crime victim . During its investigation into the allegations, the department inquired whether the city of Henderson would be interested in resolving the matter voluntarily. The city expressed its full commitment to ensure compliance with the ADA. Under the settlement, the city of Henderson will pay $ 35,000 to
5928-423: The complainants. The city agreed to provide sign language interpreters, usually within an hour of a person's request to law enforcement officers. Henderson also agreed to modify its handcuffing policies for people who use sign language or hand writing to communicate, and to adopt other policies consistent with the ADA. The Clark County School District provides elementary and secondary public education. Henderson
6032-405: The crude TNT. It has a complex composition containing more than a dozen aromatic compounds, but the principal components are inorganic salts ( sodium sulfate , sodium sulfite , sodium nitrite and sodium nitrate ) and sulfonated nitroaromatics . Pink and red water are colorless at the time of generation; the color is produced by photolytic reactions under the influence of sunlight. Despite
6136-539: The development of master planned communities starting with the large Green Valley neighborhood, redevelopment and reinvestment after the PEPCON Disaster, and the city government's historically proactive planning and management. The township of Henderson first emerged in the 1940s during World War II with the building of the Basic Magnesium Plant. Henderson quickly became the main supplier of magnesium in
6240-498: The evacuation zone to 10 miles (16 km), but the idea was dropped due to the new information, although a few cases of respiratory irritation were reported in a small community about 30 miles (50 km) downwind. Crews in protective clothing headed to the scene to clean up, a slow process due to leaking tanks of anhydrous ammonia and residue from acids and other products. Several firefighters had to undergo treatment for respiratory irritation. Overhaul continued until dusk and resumed
6344-469: The explosion. Roads in the area were clogged in both directions due to residents trying to leave and curious spectators headed toward the scene, creating a traffic jam that took over two hours to clear. More than an hour after the first explosions, authorities concluded that the airborne products could be a respiratory irritant; they were not considered highly toxic, nor was the danger of further explosions estimated as high. Authorities had considered expanding
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#17330858082386448-516: The exudated liquid into the fuze screw thread can form fire channels , increasing the risk of accidental detonation. Fuze malfunction can also result from the liquid migrating into the fuze mechanism. Calcium silicate is mixed with TNT to mitigate the tendency towards exudation. Pink water and red water are two distinct types of wastewater related to trinitrotoluene. Pink water is produced from equipment washing processes after munitions filling or demilitarization operations, and as such
6552-419: The fire and/or participated in early fire-fighting activities. USDOL reported that testimony indicated that welding operations had taken place somewhere between 30 and 90 minutes prior to the discovery of the fire. These operations took place on the northwest wall of the building; the vicinity was thoroughly washed down prior to and during this task. USDOL stated that the likelihood of transferring hot molten metal
6656-399: The fire spread rapidly to the north side of the partition, northeast and south walls by radiative and convective heat transfer. The extremely rapid fire spread in the process building and subsequent growth to other buildings was primarily due to the highly combustible fiberglass reinforced siding panels and close spacing of adjacent buildings. High winds blowing in a northeasterly direction were
6760-437: The fire was undetermined. It stated that smoking, sparking of electrical equipment, or frictionally ignited gas are among the probable igniting sources. About 75 people escaped successfully, but two were killed in the last two larger explosions: Roy Westerfield, PEPCON's controller, who stayed behind to call the CCFD; and Bruce Halker, the plant manager, who stood near his car when the first major detonation occurred. Employees at
6864-484: The following day. Authorities found the remains of Bruce Halker, the plant manager, but no trace of the other victim, controller Roy Westerfield, was ever found. Emergency medical services treated and transported about 100 patients to five hospitals in the region, with the remaining 200 to 300 heading into hospitals on their own volition. Many of the injured had been struck by flying glass when windows were shattered. Fifteen firefighters were injured. About four hours after
6968-468: The ground was discovered in various portions of the plant including beneath the gas and telephone vaults and portions of the asphalt paving. USFA reported that the fire continued to spread in the stacks of drums creating a large fireball and leading to the first of four explosions in the drum storage area. USFA reported that the fire then made its way into the storage area for the filled aluminum shipping containers, resulting in two small explosions there, and
7072-432: The ground water are important factors. The association constants for TNT and its degradation products with clays have been determined. Clay minerals have a significant effect on the adsorption of energetic compounds. Soil properties, such as organic carbon content and cation exchange capacity have significant impacts on the adsorption coefficients. Additional studies have shown that the mobility of TNT degradation products
7176-515: The help of local industry, Henderson was incorporated on April 16, 1953, as the City of Henderson. On May 23, 1953, Henderson, with its population of 7,410, elected Dr. Jim French as the first mayor. Originally only about 13 square miles (34 km ) in size, the city quickly began to grow, reaching over 100 square miles (260 km ) in size in 2022. On May 4, 1988, the Pacific Engineering and Production Company of Nevada (PEPCON) chemical plant experienced
7280-419: The incident, hospitals were advised by the fire department that their disaster plans could be deactivated. The explosions leveled the PEPCON plant and Kidd & Company marshmallow factory. Damage within a 1.5-mile (2.4 km) radius was severe, including destroyed cars, damage to buildings, and downed power lines. Damage to windows and moderate structure damage was recorded within three miles (4.8 km) of
7384-467: The incident. The damage reached a radius of up to 10 miles (16 km), including shattered windows, doors blown off their hinges, cracked windows and injuries from flying glass and debris. At McCarran International Airport , seven miles (11 km) away in Las Vegas, windows were cracked and doors were pushed open. The shock wave buffeted a Boeing 737 on final approach. An investigation estimated that
7488-566: The larger explosion was equivalent to 0.25 kiloton of TNT , approximately the same yield of a tactical nuclear weapon . In 1991, the Nevada legislature passed the Chemical Catastrophe Prevention Act, which led to Nevada's Chemical Accident Prevention Program. PEPCON had only $ 1 million in stated liability insurance, but costs paid by its insurer significantly exceeded this amount. A courtroom battle involving dozens of insurance companies and over 50 law firms resulted in
7592-463: The largest one of its kind in Nevada. Henderson has a public library system with five branches. Henderson is home to the headquarters of the Las Vegas Raiders . In February 2018, the then Oakland Raiders (who in 2017 announced they would relocate to Las Vegas in time for the 2020 NFL season) announced the signing of a deal for 55 acres of land near Henderson Executive Airport , on which
7696-554: The methyl group of toluene. This reaction is highly exothermic and carries with it the risk of a runaway reaction leading to an explosion. In the laboratory, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene is produced by a two-step process. A nitrating mixture of concentrated nitric and sulfuric acids is used to nitrate toluene to a mixture of mono- and di-nitrotoluene isomers, with careful cooling to maintain temperature. The nitrated toluenes are then separated, washed with dilute sodium bicarbonate to remove oxides of nitrogen, and then carefully nitrated with
7800-529: The most widely used explosive and thus its toxicity is the most characterized and reported. Residual TNT from manufacture, storage, and use can pollute water, soil, the atmosphere , and the biosphere . The concentration of TNT in contaminated soil can reach 50 g/kg of soil, where the highest concentrations can be found on or near the surface. In September 2001, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) declared TNT
7904-517: The names, red and pink water are not necessarily different shades; the color depends mainly on the duration of solar exposure. If exposed long enough, "pink" water may turn various shades of pink, red, rusty orange, or black. Because of the toxicity of TNT, the discharge of pink water to the environment has been prohibited in the US and many other countries for decades, but ground contamination may exist in very old plants. However, RDX and tetryl contamination
8008-444: The nearby Kidd marshmallow factory heard the explosion and also evacuated. The fire chief of the City of Henderson, who was leaving the main fire station about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) north of the PEPCON facility, spotted the huge smoke column and immediately ordered his units to the scene. As he approached the plant, he could see a massive white and orange fireball about 100 ft (30 m) in diameter and dozens of people fleeing
8112-400: The nickname " canary girls " or simply "canaries". People exposed to TNT over a prolonged period tend to experience anemia and abnormal liver functions. Blood and liver effects, spleen enlargement and other harmful effects on the immune system have also been found in animals that ingested or breathed trinitrotoluene. There is evidence that TNT adversely affects male fertility . TNT
8216-514: The nitro functional groups and soil colloids. The number of functional groups on TNT influences the ability to adsorb into soil. Adsorption coefficient values have been shown to increase with an increase in the number of amino groups. Thus, adsorption of the TNT decomposition product 2,4-diamino-6-nitrotoluene (2,4-DANT) was greater than that for 4-amino-2,6-dinitrotoluene (4-ADNT), which was greater than that for TNT. Lower adsorption coefficients for 2,6-DNT compared to 2,4-DNT can be attributed to
8320-481: The north wall of the batch dryer section of the process building. A windstorm had damaged a fiberglass structure and employees were using a welding torch to repair the steel frame. The USFA report stated that this activity caused a fire that spread rapidly in the fiberglass material, accelerated by nearby ammonium perchlorate residue. The USDOL report discounted this theory while relying upon eyewitness testimony and scientific burn tests. Ten people testified that they saw
8424-455: The photolysis of TNT has been seen due to the color change to pink of TNT-containing wastewaters when exposed to sunlight. Photolysis is more rapid in river water than in distilled water. Ultimately, photolysis affects the fate of TNT primarily in the aquatic environment but could also affect the fate of TNT in soil when the soil surface is exposed to sunlight. The ligninolytic physiological phase and manganese peroxidase system of fungi can cause
8528-458: The plant produced other perchlorate chemicals including sodium perchlorate. The facility also had a 16-inch (41 cm) high-pressure gas transmission line running underneath it, carrying natural gas at 300 psi (2.1 MPa) gauge pressure . The invoice for this pipe, which was installed in 1956, characterized it as "limited service". With the Space Shuttle fleet grounded as a result of
8632-425: The plant, which had been ruptured by one of the explosions. That gas line was shut off at about 1:00 p.m. by the gas company at a valve about a mile away. USDOL also reported that there was strong evidence of a natural gas fire prior to the second explosion at the northeast edge of the plant within a 6 ft × 200 ft (2 m × 61 m) narrow band of soft sand. The leading edge of this sandbar
8736-409: The presence of TNT. Such contamination, called "pink water", may be difficult and expensive to remedy . TNT is prone to exudation of dinitrotoluenes and other isomers of trinitrotoluene when projectiles containing TNT are stored at higher temperatures in warmer climates. Exudation of impurities leads to formation of pores and cracks (which in turn cause increased shock sensitivity). Migration of
8840-758: The purposes of manufacture and storage. The German armed forces adopted it as a filling for artillery shells in 1902. TNT-filled armour-piercing shells would explode after they had penetrated the armour of British capital ships , whereas the British Lyddite -filled shells tended to explode upon striking armour, thus expending much of their energy outside the ship. The British started replacing Lyddite with TNT in 1907. The United States Navy continued filling armour-piercing shells with explosive D after some other nations had switched to TNT, but began filling naval mines , bombs , depth charges , and torpedo warheads with burster charges of crude grade B TNT with
8944-542: The reaction plus some of the reactions and The reaction is exothermic but has a high activation energy in the gas phase (~62 kcal/mol). The condensed phases (solid or liquid) show markedly lower activation energies of roughly 35 kcal/mol due to unique bimolecular decomposition routes at elevated densities. Because of the production of carbon , TNT explosions have a sooty appearance. Because TNT has an excess of carbon, explosive mixtures with oxygen-rich compounds can yield more energy per kilogram than TNT alone. During
9048-535: The region. In the aftermath, PEPCON ceased operations in Henderson, and the site was eventually redeveloped for commercial use. Henderson is about 16 miles (26 km) southeast of downtown Las Vegas. According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 107.7 square miles (279.0 km ), all land. The city is in the Mojave Desert with wildlife and vegetation typical of
9152-478: The scene and assisted injured firefighters. Recognizing the danger posed by a fire that was beyond their firefighting capabilities, they made no attempt to approach or fight the fire. The Henderson Police Department , Nevada Highway Patrol , Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department and the Nevada National Guard evacuated a five-mile (8 km) radius around the plant, concentrating on areas downwind of
9256-454: The scene. At about 11:54, as he approached the site, the first of the two major explosions sent a shock wave that shattered the windows of his car and showered him and his passenger with glass. The driver of a heavily damaged vehicle coming away from the plant then advised the chief about the danger of subsequent larger explosions, which prompted the chief to turn around and head back toward his station. The other units also stopped heading toward
9360-461: The site after the explosion. The second major explosion nearly destroyed the chief's car; after he and his passenger were cut by flying glass , he was able to drive the damaged vehicle to a hospital. The windshields of a responding Henderson Fire Department vehicle were blown in, injuring the driver and firefighters with shattered glass. Several nearby fire departments responded to the accident. Clark County units staged 1.5 miles (2.4 km) from
9464-404: The site. According to the USFA report, the fire originated around a drying process structure at the plant between 11:30 a.m. and 11:40 a.m. that day. USDOL reported that at least one fire was burning in a barrel located at the west side of the southern portion of the building partition, which separated the batch dryer from the batch tanks in the process building. Fire was also reported on
9568-821: The team's executive offices and practice facility were built. The Intermountain Healthcare Performance Center opened in June 2020. Henderson is the home to the headquarters of the Las Vegas Aces of the Women's National Basketball Association . In February 2021, ground was broken for an Aces facility next to the Raiders facility. The 50,000 square foot facility houses the Aces’ practice facility, offices, training room, weight room, hydrotherapy space, physical therapy area, locker rooms,
9672-472: The two monoamino transformation products, 2-ADNT and 4-ADNT, is energetically favored, and therefore is observed in contaminated soils and ground water. The diamino products are energetically less favorable, and even less likely are the triamino products. The transformation of TNT is significantly enhanced under anaerobic conditions as well as under highly reducing conditions. TNT transformations in soils can occur both biologically and abiotically. Photolysis
9776-438: Was $ 33,238. The Henderson zip code 89012 where MacDonald Highlands is located, has the 7th highest per-capita income in the United States at $ 148,899. About 3.9% of families and 5.6% of the population were below the poverty line , including 6.4% of those under age 18 and 4.7% of those age 65 or over. In July 2020, Amazon announced the opening of a new 600,000-square-foot (56,000 m ) facility in Henderson. According to
9880-477: Was 2,200.8 inhabitants per square mile (849.7/km ). There were 71,149 housing units at an average density of 892.8 per square mile (344.7/km ). The city's racial makeup was 80.49% White , 3.76% African American , 0.70% Native American , 3.98% Asian , 0.42% Pacific Islander , 3.16% from other races , and 3.49% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 13.71% of the population. There were 66,331 households, out of which 33.0% had children under
9984-402: Was 76.9% White , 5.1% African American , 0.7% Native American , 7.2% Asian , 0.6% Pacific Islander , and 4.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 14.9% of the population and 68.7% of the population was non-Hispanic White . According to the 2000 census , there were 175,381 people, 66,331 households, and 47,095 families residing in the city. The population density
10088-432: Was also a large marshmallow factory, Kidd & Company , about 500 feet (150 m) away, and a gravel quarry in operation nearby 3,000 feet (900 m) to the west. The closest residential buildings were about 1 + 3 ⁄ 4 miles (2.8 km) away. Several theories have been advanced concerning the cause of the fire and explosions. The Clark County Fire Department (CCFD) in Clark County , Nevada, did not issue
10192-609: Was elected as Henderson's first female mayor, serving two terms until 1993. In 2013, the Department of Justice (DOJ) announced it had reached a cooperative settlement agreement with the city of Henderson under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). The DOJ received complaints by individuals who are deaf that officers for the city of Henderson did not provide them with qualified sign language interpreters and other auxiliary aids and services when needed for effective communication. One of
10296-411: Was estimated to be the equivalent of between 17 and 41 kg (37 and 90 pounds) of TNT . USDOL reported that considerable evidence suggested that natural gas leaks were present in the plant. The on-site investigation of the plant revealed the presence of carbonaceous deposits around the perimeter of the foundation of the batch dryer building. Other visual evidence of burning, possibly natural gas, from
10400-408: Was located approximately 1,100 ft (340 m) from the batch dryer building. USFA reported that there were a total of seven explosions during the accident. Eyewitness testimony and a video, which was filmed by Dennis Todd and began after the first detonation, as well as other resources indicated there were five high-order detonations: one north of the batch dryer, one in the storage area south of
10504-430: Was not held at the PEPCON plant during this period. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) plastic and steel drums were used for in-process and additional storage at the time of the accident, as they had been for many years prior to the Challenger accident. An estimated 4500 metric tons of the finished product were stored at the facility at the time of the disaster. In addition to the PEPCON and Kerr-McGee facilities, there
10608-445: Was not recognized for three decades, mainly because it was so much less sensitive than other explosives known at the time. Its explosive properties were discovered in 1891 by another German chemist, Carl Häussermann. TNT can be safely poured when liquid into shell cases, and is so insensitive that in 1910 it was exempted from the UK's Explosives Act 1875 and was not considered an explosive for
10712-525: Was one of only two American producers of ammonium perchlorate ("AP"), an oxidizer used in solid propellant rockets, including the Space Shuttle boosters , Trident SLBMs , and other rockets such as the Patriot . The other producer, Kerr-McGee , was located less than 1.5 mi (2.4 km) away from the PEPCON facility, within the area that suffered some blast damage. In addition to ammonium perchlorate,
10816-573: Was uncertain. In 1947, magnesium production was no longer necessary for defense, and most of the Black Mountain Industrial (BMI) Complex's 14,000 employees moved away. Enrollment in the school system was reduced by two thirds, and well over half the townsite houses, built to house plant workers, became vacant. In 1947, the United States War Asset Administration offered Henderson for sale as war surplus property. With
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