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54-534: The body is divided into four sections ( head (H) (10% of a person's skin ); arms (A) (20%); trunk (T) (30%); legs (L) (40%)). Each of these areas is scored by itself, and then the four scores are combined into the final PASI. For each section, the percent of area of skin involved, is estimated and then transformed into a grade from 0 to 6: Within each area, the severity is estimated by three clinical signs: erythema (redness), induration (thickness) and desquamation (scaling). Severity parameters are measured on

108-421: A C shape (see image). The location of anatomical structures can also be described in relation to different anatomical landmarks . They are used in anatomy, surface anatomy, surgery, and radiology. Structures may be described as being at the level of a specific spinal vertebra , depending on the section of the vertebral column the structure is at. The position is often abbreviated. For example, structures at

162-464: A covering that meets sensory needs in some neurodivergent people, or a fashion accessory. Hats can also be indicative of social status in some areas of the world. While numerous charts detailing head sizes in infants and children exist, most do not measure average head circumference past the age of 21. Reference charts for adult head circumference also generally feature homogeneous samples and fail to take height and weight into account. One study in

216-448: A definition of what is at the front ("anterior"), behind ("posterior") and so on. As part of defining and describing terms, the body is described through the use of anatomical planes and anatomical axes . The meaning of terms that are used can change depending on whether an organism is bipedal or quadrupedal . Additionally, for some animals such as invertebrates , some terms may not have any meaning at all; for example, an animal that

270-647: A lot of good heads in this company"). Ancient Greeks had a method for evaluating sexual attractiveness based on the Golden ratio , part of which included measurements of the head. Headhunting is the practice of taking and preserving a person's head after killing the person. Headhunting has been practiced across the Americas, Europe, Asia, and Oceania for millennia. Headpieces can signify status, origin, religious/spiritual beliefs, social grouping, team affiliation, occupation, or fashion choices. In many cultures, covering

324-446: A nose and tongue inside of the mouth. It also houses the brain . Together, these organs function as a processing center for the body by relaying sensory information to the brain. Humans can process information faster by having this central nerve cluster. For humans , the front of the head (the face) is the main distinguishing feature between different people due to its easily discernible features, such as eye and hair colors, shapes of

378-545: A number of religions require men to wear specific head clothing—such as the Islamic taqiyah , Jewish yarmulke , or the Sikh turban . The same goes for women with the Muslim hijab or Christian nun's habit . A hat is a head covering that can serve a variety of purposes. Hats may be worn as part of a uniform or used as a protective device, such as a hard hat , a covering for warmth,

432-502: A patient who has achieved PASI 75 has also achieved PASI 50. There is a gradual tendency, as therapies become more effective to report higher efficacy rates in clinical trials - but aiming high may not be without risk of over-treating some patients. Psoriatic area assessment and severity assessments were found to be non-reproducible. Several automated procedure for more reproducible measurement of psoriatic area were developed, but were not suitable for large-scale trials . A method where

486-417: A scale of 0 to 4, from none to maximum. The sum of all three severity parameters is then calculated for each section of skin, multiplied by the area score for that area and multiplied by weight of respective section (0.1 for head, 0.2 for arms, 0.3 for body and 0.4 for legs). PASI is widely used in clinical trials of therapies to treat psoriasis. Although absolute PASI score is often used to define entry into

540-414: A standard set of terms to communicate clearly the position of a structure. Standard anatomical and zoological terms of location have been developed, usually based on Latin and Greek words, to enable all biological and medical scientists, veterinarians , doctors and anatomists to precisely delineate and communicate information about animal bodies and their organs, even though the meaning of some of

594-403: A state in which a part further away is abnormally placed towards (varus) or away from (valgus) the midline. The terms proximal (from Latin proximus  'nearest') and distal (from Latin distare  'to stand away from') are used to describe parts of a feature that are close to or distant from the main mass of the body, respectively. Thus the upper arm in humans

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648-437: A trial, it is response to treatment that is important to measure efficacy and outcomes. This is usually presented as a percentage response rate; e.g., PASI 50, PASI 75, PASI 90, PASI 100. PASI 75, for example, represents the percentage (or number) of patients who have achieved a 75% or more reduction in their PASI score from baseline. PASI 100 indicates patients who have achieved a complete resolution of all disease. By definition

702-442: A way of notionally indicating that they have a "larger head". Additionally, in science fiction , an extraterrestrial having a big head is often symbolic of high intelligence. Despite this depiction, advances in neurobiology have shown that the functional diversity of the brain means that a difference in overall brain size is only slightly to moderately correlated to differences in overall intelligence between two humans. The head

756-452: A wound on the upper arm, but proximal to a wound on the lower arm. The terms are also applied to internal anatomy, such as to the reproductive tract of snails . Unfortunately, different authors use the terms in opposite senses. Some consider "distal" as further from a point of origin near the centre of the body and others as further from where the organ reaches the body's surface; or other points of origin may be envisaged. This terminology

810-405: Is a source for many metaphors and metonymies in human language , including referring to things typically near the human head ( "the head of the bed"), things physically similar to the way a head is arranged spatially to a body ("the head of the table"), metaphorically ("the head of the class"), and things that represent some characteristics associated with the head, such as intelligence ("there are

864-413: Is also employed in molecular biology and therefore by extension is also used in chemistry, specifically referring to the atomic loci of molecules from the overall moiety of a given compound. Central and peripheral refer to the distance towards and away from the centre of something. That might be an organ, a region in the body, or an anatomical structure. For example, the central nervous system and

918-563: Is difficult for patients or doctors to describe the clinical severity for any specific PASI number. Attempts have been made to address this problem by providing descriptions of psoriasis severity in evaluation systems, including the Psoriasis Global Assessment (PGA) and the Lattice-System Physician's Global Assessment (LS-PGA); a study compared and validated PASI, PGA, and LS-PGA. Human head In human anatomy,

972-402: Is proximal and the hand is distal. "Proximal and distal" are frequently used when describing appendages , such as fins , tentacles , and limbs . Although the direction indicated by "proximal" and "distal" is always respectively towards or away from the point of attachment, a given structure can be either proximal or distal in relation to another point of reference. Thus the elbow is distal to

1026-515: Is radially symmetrical will have no anterior surface, but can still have a description that a part is close to the middle ("proximal") or further from the middle ("distal"). International organisations have determined vocabularies that are often used as standards for subdisciplines of anatomy. For example, Terminologia Anatomica for humans and Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria for animals. These allow parties that use anatomical terms, such as anatomists , veterinarians , and medical doctors , to have

1080-402: Is rarely used in human anatomy, apart from embryology, and refers more to the front of the face than the superior aspect of the organism. Similarly, the term "caudal" is used more in embryology and only occasionally used in human anatomy. This is because the brain is situated at the superior part of the head whereas the nose is situated in the anterior part. Thus, the "rostrocaudal axis" refers to

1134-481: Is roughly symmetrical. To do this, distinct ends of an organism are chosen, and the axis is named according to those directions. An organism that is symmetrical on both sides has three main axes that intersect at right angles . An organism that is round or not symmetrical may have different axes. Example axes are: Examples of axes in specific animals are shown below. Several terms are commonly seen and used as prefixes : Other terms are used as suffixes , added to

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1188-458: Is to the head or tail of an animal. To describe how close to the head of an animal something is, three distinct terms are used: For example, in horses , the eyes are caudal to the nose and rostral to the back of the head. These terms are generally preferred in veterinary medicine and not used as often in human medicine. In humans, "cranial" and "cephalic" are used to refer to the skull, with "cranial" being used more commonly. The term "rostral"

1242-434: Is to the midline, or the medial plane. Lateral (from Latin lateralis  'to the side') describes something to the sides of an animal, as in "left lateral" and "right lateral". Medial (from Latin medius  'middle') describes structures close to the midline, or closer to the midline than another structure. For example, in a human, the arms are lateral to the torso . The genitals are medial to

1296-438: The anterior superior iliac spine , the medial malleolus or the medial epicondyle . Anatomical lines are used to describe anatomical location. For example, the mid-clavicular line is used as part of the cardiac exam in medicine to feel the apex beat of the heart . Special terms are used to describe the mouth and teeth. Fields such as osteology , palaeontology and dentistry apply special terms of location to describe

1350-606: The head is at the top of the human body . It supports the face and is maintained by the skull , which itself encloses the brain . The human head consists of a fleshy outer portion, which surrounds the bony skull . The brain is enclosed within the skull. There are 22 bones in the human head. The head rests on the neck , and the seven cervical vertebrae support it. The human head typically weighs between 2.3 and 5 kilograms (5.1 and 11.0 lb) Over 98% of humans fit into this range. There have been odd incidences where human beings have abnormally small or large heads. The Zika virus

1404-449: The head . Anterior (from Latin ante  'before') describes what is in front, and posterior (from Latin post  'after') describes what is to the back of something. For example, for a dog the nose is anterior to the eyes and the tail is considered the most posterior part; for many fish the gill openings are posterior to the eyes but anterior to the tail. These terms describe how close something

1458-648: The neuraxis is different between the two groups, and so is what is considered the standard anatomical position , such as how humans tend to be standing upright and with their arms reaching forward. Thus, the "top" of a human is the head, whereas the "top" of a dog would be the back, and the "top" of a flounder may be on either the left or right side. Unique terms are also used to describe invertebrates as well, because of their wider variety of shapes and symmetry. Because animals can change orientation with respect to their environment, and because appendages like limbs and tentacles can change position with respect to

1512-467: The pectoralis major muscle). In radiology , an X-ray image may be said to be "anteroposterior", indicating that the beam of X-rays, known as its projection, passes from their source to patient's anterior body wall first, then through the body to exit through posterior body wall and into the detector/film to produce a radiograph. The opposite is true for the term "posteroanterior," while side-to-side projections are known as either "lateromedial" (from

1566-415: The peripheral nervous systems . Central (from Latin centralis ) describes something close to the centre. For example, the great vessels run centrally through the body; many smaller vessels branch from these. Peripheral (from Latin peripheria , originally from Ancient Greek ) describes something further away from the centre of something. For example, the arm is peripheral to

1620-529: The United States estimated the average human head circumference to be 57 centimetres ( 22 + 1 ⁄ 2  in) in males and 55 centimetres ( 21 + 3 ⁄ 4  in) in females. A British study by Newcastle University showed an average size of 57.2 cm for males and 55.2 cm for females with average size varying proportionally with height Macrocephaly can be an indicator of increased risk for some types of cancer in individuals who carry

1674-402: The advantage of accurate computerized measurement of the area on the digital photograph was combined with physician's proficiency in determination of the edge of psoriatic lesion was published. The patients were examined and photographed before and after the therapy with calcipotriol ointment or placebo. The psoriatic area was manually outlined on the patient's photographs by physician and the area

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1728-400: The body in a standing position with arms at the side and palms facing forward, with thumbs out and to the sides. Many anatomical terms can be combined, either to indicate a position in two axes simultaneously or to indicate the direction of a movement relative to the body. For example, "anterolateral" indicates a position that is both anterior and lateral to the body axis (such as the bulk of

1782-570: The body. These terms refer to the distance of a structure from the surface. Deep (from Old English ) describes something further away from the surface of the organism. For example, the external oblique muscle of the abdomen is deep to the skin. "Deep" is one of the few anatomical terms of location derived from Old English rather than Latin – the anglicised Latin term would have been "profound" (from Latin profundus  'due to depth'). Superficial (from Latin superficies  'surface') describes something near

1836-417: The closeness to the midline of the dental arch. Terms used to describe structures include "buccal" (from Latin bucca  'cheek') and "palatal" (from Latin palatum  'palate') referring to structures close to the cheek and hard palate respectively. Several anatomical terms are particular to the hands and feet. Additional terms may be used to avoid confusion when describing

1890-421: The end of words: Superior (from Latin super  'above') describes what is above something and inferior (from Latin inferus  'below') describes what is below it. For example, in the anatomical position , the most superior part of the human body is the head and the most inferior is the feet. As a second example, in humans, the neck is superior to the chest but inferior to

1944-454: The genetic mutation that causes Cowden syndrome . For adults, this refers to head sizes greater than 58 centimeters in men or greater than 57 centimeters in women. Anterior Standard anatomical terms of location are used to describe unambiguously the anatomy of animals , including humans . The terms, typically derived from Latin or Greek roots, describe something in its standard anatomical position . This position provides

1998-417: The hand') is commonly used to describe the front of the hand, and dorsal is the back of the hand. For example, the top of a dog 's paw is its dorsal surface; the underside, either the palmar (on the forelimb) or the plantar (on the hindlimb) surface. The palmar fascia is palmar to the tendons of muscles which flex the fingers, and the dorsal venous arch is so named because it is on the dorsal side of

2052-446: The head is provided by the cervical nerves . Modern texts are in agreement about which areas of the skin are served by which nerves , but there are minor variations in some of the details. The borders designated by diagrams in the 1918 edition of Gray's Anatomy are similar but not identical to those generally accepted today. The cutaneous innervation of the head is as follows: The head contains sensory organs : two eyes, two ears,

2106-504: The head is seen as a sign of respect. Often, some or all of the head must be covered and veiled when entering holy places or places of prayer. For many centuries, women in Europe, the Middle East , and South Asia have covered their head hair as a sign of modesty. This trend has changed drastically in Europe in the 20th century, although is still observed in other parts of the world. In addition,

2160-512: The legs. Temporal has a similar meaning to lateral but is restricted to the head. The terms "left" and "right" are sometimes used, or their Latin alternatives ( Latin : dexter , lit.   'right'; Latin : sinister , lit.   'left'). However, it is preferred to use more precise terms where possible. Terms derived from lateral include: Varus (from Latin  'bow-legged') and valgus (from Latin  'knock-kneed' ) are terms used to describe

2214-448: The level of the fourth cervical vertebra may be abbreviated as "C4", at the level of the fourth thoracic vertebra "T4", and at the level of the third lumbar vertebra "L3". Because the sacrum and coccyx are fused, they are not often used to provide the location. References may also take origin from superficial anatomy , made to landmarks that are on the skin or visible underneath. For example, structures may be described relative to

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2268-401: The main body, terms to describe position need to refer to an animal when it is in its standard anatomical position . This means descriptions as if the organism is in its standard anatomical position, even when the organism in question has appendages in another position. This helps avoid confusion in terminology when referring to the same organism in different postures. In humans, this refers to

2322-456: The mouth and teeth. This is because although teeth may be aligned with their main axes within the jaw, some different relationships require special terminology as well; for example, teeth also can be rotated, and in such contexts terms like "anterior" or "lateral" become ambiguous. For example, the terms "distal" and "proximal" are also redefined to mean the distance away or close to the dental arch , and "medial" and "lateral" are used to refer to

2376-400: The outer surface of the organism. For example, in skin , the epidermis is superficial to the subcutis . These two terms, used in anatomy and embryology , describe something at the back ( dorsal ) or front/belly ( ventral ) of an organism. The dorsal (from Latin dorsum  'back') surface of an organism refers to the back, or upper side, of an organism. If talking about

2430-402: The outside of the left or right side of the body toward the inside) or "mediolateral"(from the inside of that side of the body toward the outside. The same logic is applied to all planes of the body and, thus top-to-bottom or bottom-to-top X-ray projections are known as "superoinferior" and "inferosuperior," respectively. However, within the diagnostic imaging industry, for this particular example,

2484-449: The sensory organs, and the wrinkles. Humans easily differentiate between faces because of the brain's predisposition toward facial recognition. When observing a relatively unfamiliar species, all faces seem nearly identical. Human infants are biologically programmed to recognize subtle differences in anthropomorphic facial features. People who have greater than average intelligence are sometimes depicted in cartoons as having bigger heads as

2538-453: The skull ( external carotid artery ) and inside of the skull ( internal carotid artery ). The area inside the skull also receives blood supply from the vertebral arteries , which travel up through the cervical vertebrae. The twelve pairs of cranial nerves provide the majority of nervous control to the head. The sensation to the face is provided by the branches of the trigeminal nerve , the fifth cranial nerve . Sensation to other portions of

2592-442: The skull, the dorsal side is the top. The ventral (from Latin venter  'belly') surface refers to the front, or lower side, of an organism. For example, in a fish, the pectoral fins are dorsal to the anal fin , but ventral to the dorsal fin . The terms are used in other contexts; for example dorsal and ventral gun turrets on a bomber aircraft. Specific terms exist to describe how close or far something

2646-460: The surfaces of the hand and what is the "anterior" or "posterior" surface. The term "anterior", while anatomically correct, can be confusing when describing the palm of the hand; Similarly is "posterior", used to describe the back of the hand and arm. This confusion can arise because the forearm can pronate and supinate and flip the location of the hand. For improved clarity, the directional term palmar (from Latin palma  'palm of

2700-429: The terms "cranial" (towards the head) and "caudal" (towards the tail, or, downwards, away from the head) are known interchangeable alternatives to the previous two projection terms. Combined terms were once generally hyphenated, but the modern tendency is to omit the hyphen. Anatomical terms describe structures with relation to four main anatomical planes : The axes of the body are lines drawn about which an organism

2754-404: The terms often is context-sensitive. Much of this information has been standardised in internationally agreed vocabularies for humans ( Terminologia Anatomica ) and animals ( Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria ). Different terms are used for groups of creatures with different body layouts, such as bipeds (creatures that stand on two feet, such as humans) and quadrupeds . The reasoning is that

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2808-431: Was automatically measured by a computer. For comparison, the physicians also made standard psoriatic area assessment. Computer-aided measurement of psoriatic lesion area was found to improve the power of the clinical trial, compared to the standard approach. The physician's estimations of the psoriatic lesion area tend to overestimate. The adapted PASI index, where the psoriatic area was not converted into an area grade, but

2862-448: Was maintained as a continuous variable, also improved the power of the clinical trial. The modified PASI which involves computer-aided area measurement as a continuous variable is named Computer aided psoriasis continuous area and severity score cPcASI. PASI can be too unwieldy to use outside of trials, which has led to attempts to simplify the index (SPASI) for clinical use. While higher PASI scores indicate more severe psoriasis, it

2916-400: Was responsible for underdeveloped heads in the early 2000s. The face is the anterior part of the head, containing the eyes , nose , and mouth . On either side of the mouth, the cheeks provide a fleshy border to the oral cavity . The ears sit to either side of the head. The head receives blood supply through the internal and external carotid arteries . These supply the area outside of

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