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67-464: A parabolic aluminized reflector lamp ( PAR lamp or simply PAR ) is a type of electric lamp that is widely used in commercial, residential, and transportation illumination. It produces a highly directional beam. Usage includes theatrical lighting , locomotive headlamps , aircraft landing lights, and residential and commercial recessed lights ("cans" in the United States). Many PAR lamps are of

134-564: A constant power module (CPM), which is typically a 20- or 50-ampere breaker in a dimming module casing. CPMs are used to supply line voltage to non-dimming electrical devices such as smoke machines, chain winches, and scenic motors that require constant operating voltage. When a device is powered by a CPM, it is fully energized whenever the CPM is turned on, independent of lighting console levels. CPMs must be used (in lieu of dimmers) to power non-dimming devices that require specific line voltages (e.g. in

201-462: A luminaire or lantern ) is a device that produces controlled lighting as part of the effects a lighting designer brings to a show. The term lighting instrument is preferred to light to avoid confusion between light and light sources. There are a variety of instruments frequently used in the theater. Although they vary in many ways they all have the following four basic components in one form or other: Additional features will vary depending on

268-452: A scene . They are often mounted in can-shaped fixtures known as PARCAN s, which can be used to generate colours by fitting them with colored sheets called gels . The cans are arranged into rows of different colours and identical rows placed on different sides of the stage; such assemblies made from aluminum bars are known as PARbar s. Due to their affordability, they are ideal for colour washes in several different colours. However, because of

335-768: A 5-primary colour system (with cool and warm white LEDs) instead for better color reproduction. Intelligent, moving PARs allow for the ability to pan and tilt the instruments through a lighting control console. These have been generally superseded by dedicated intelligent lighting fixtures, which use a different light source and offer more control over the colour and shape of the beam. Theatrical lighting The equipment used for stage lighting (e.g. cabling, dimmers, lighting instruments, controllers) are also used in other lighting applications, including corporate events, concerts , trade shows, broadcast television, film production, photographic studios, and other types of live events. The personnel needed to install, operate, and control

402-429: A design. Many designers start their careers as lighting technicians. Often, this is followed by training in a vocational college or university that offers theatre courses. Many jobs in larger venues and productions require a degree from a vocational school or college in theatrical lighting, or at least a bachelor's degree. In theater: In film: In the context of lighting design, a lighting instrument (also called

469-421: A dimmer to dim a circuit and thus potentially damage its non-dimming device. Devices like moving heads also require independent power, as they cannot function on a partially dimmed channel for power, on top of requiring several other channels in order to convey all of the data they require for their several features. In order to simplify the control of moving head lanterns, instead of assigning channels manually to

536-437: A large circular opening at the top of the theater. Early Modern English theaters were roofless, allowing natural light to be utilized for lighting the stage. As theaters moved indoors, artificial lighting became a necessity and it was developed as theaters and technology became more advanced. At an unknown date, candlelight was introduced which brought more developments to theatrical lighting across Europe. While Oliver Cromwell

603-400: A much larger range of movement as well as a more natural inertial movement but are typically more expensive. The above characteristics are not always static, and it is frequently the variation in these characteristics that is used in achieving the goals of lighting. Stanley McCandless was perhaps the first to define controllable qualities of light used in theater. In A Method for Lighting

670-445: A parabolic reflector with a smooth aluminium surface determining the spread of the beam. The most common sealed beam type combines these three elements into an integral unit. The light source usually approximates a point source that can be focused on; tungsten filaments and halogen lamps are common, but some theatrical usage that requires a higher color temperature may use hydrargyrum medium-arc iodide (HMI) instead. PAR lamps come in

737-431: A positive impact on the lighting market, and are becoming more popular when compared to the energy usage of current incandescent, halogen, and discharge sources. Most instruments are suspended or supported by a U-shaped yoke , or ' trunnion arm' fixed to the sides of the instrument, normally near its center of gravity . On the end of such, a clamp (known as a hook-clamp, C-clamp, or pipe clamp—pipe referring to battens )

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804-481: A single point or easily concentrated area, and usually have a warm-up period, during which they emit no light or do so intermittently. However, fluorescent lights are being used more and more for special effects lighting in theaters. High-intensity discharge lamps (or HID lamps), however, are now common where a very bright light output is required—for example in large follow spots, hydrargyrum medium-arc iodide (HMI) floods, and modern automated fixtures. When dimming

871-494: A variety of standardized sizes. The size of a round PAR lamp is expressed as the nominal diameter of the mouth of the reflector, in eighths of an inch—so the approximate nominal lamp bell diameter in inches can be found by dividing the PAR size by 8. A PAR56, for example, is 56 eighths of an inch (7 inches) in diameter; a PAR36 is 36 eighths (4.5 inches) in diameter, and so on. Similarly, the diameter in millimeters can be found by multiplying

938-416: A wide variety of replaceable light bulbs. Between 1940 and 1956, all U.S. cars had to have two 7-inch (178 mm) round headlamps with dual filaments, so each lamp provided both a high and a low beam light distribution. In 1957, a system of four sealed-beam headlamps—two per side, of 5 + 3 / 4 inches (146 mm) diameter, was allowed in some U.S. states. The following year in 1958, all states allowed

1005-409: Is a fully featured multiple controller networking protocol. These allow the possibility of feedback of position, state or fault conditions from units, whilst allowing much more detailed control of them. A dimmer is a device used to vary the average voltage applied to an instrument's lamp. The brightness of a lamp depends on its electric current , which in turn depends on the applied lamp voltage. When

1072-400: Is because one moving light can do the work of several generics. In Australia and many other places, the lamps inside a theatrical fixture are referred to as bubbles . In North American English, a bubble refers to the protrusion that occurs when one's body (or other oily substance) contacts the lamp. Heat will cause the portion of the lamp which has oil on it to expand when it is on creating

1139-433: Is essential. Intensity is measured in lux , lumens and foot-candles . The intensity of a luminaire (lighting instrument or fixture) depends on a number of factors including its lamp power, the design of the instrument (and its efficiency), optical obstructions such as color gels or mechanical filters , the distance to the area to be lit and the beam or field angle of the fixture, the color and material to be lit, and

1206-486: Is inserted into the optical path to produce light of the same color. For example, a blue gel is used to create blue light. Custom colors are obtained by means of subtractive CMY color mixing, by inserting combinations of cyan, magenta and yellow filters into the optical path of the lighting fixture. The inserted filters may have varying densities, with correspondingly varied percentages of transmission, that subtractively mix colors (the filters absorb unwanted light colors, but

1273-452: Is normally fixed, made in a "C" configuration with a screw to lock the instrument onto the pipe or batten from which it is typically hung. Once secured, the fixture can be panned and tilted using tension adjustment knobs on the yoke and clamp. An adjustable c-wrench, ratchet (US) or spanner (UK) is often used to assist the technician in adjusting the fixture. Most venues require an additional metal safety cable or chain to be attached between

1340-405: Is not always the case. Within the groups of "wash" and "spot" light, there are other, more specific types of fixtures. This nomenclature also changes across the world depending on location and industry. Traditionally theatre and stage lighting has been of the "generic" type. These are lights which are focussed, geled, and then simply dimmed to give the effect the designer wants. In recent years

1407-405: Is often used with borderlights and cyclorama lights. Direction refers to the shape, quality and evenness of a lamp's output. The pattern of light an instrument makes is largely determined by three factors. The first are the specifics of the lamp , reflector and lens assembly. Different mounting positions for the lamp (axial, base up, base down), different sizes and shapes of reflector and

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1474-439: Is panned and tilted in the desired position by pan and tilt motors, thereby causing the light beam to move. Moving head fixtures have the effects and lamp assembly inside the head with transformers and other electronics in the base or external ballast. There are advantages and disadvantages to both. Scanners are typically faster and less costly than moving head units but have a narrower range of movement. Moving head fixtures have

1541-430: Is required, it is done by mechanical dousers or shutters, as these types of lamps also cannot be electrically dimmed. Over the last six years, LED-based luminaires of all varieties and types have been introduced to the market. Some of these fixtures have become very popular, whereas others have not been able to match the output from incandescent and discharge sources that lighting designers prefer. LED fixtures are making

1608-464: Is sometimes specified in two numbers. In the United States of America, sealed-beam headlamps were introduced in 1939, becoming standard equipment across all American-market vehicles starting in 1940 and remaining the only type allowed for almost four and a half decades, until the 1984 model year. Before and after those years, vehicles could have model-specific, nonstandard-shape headlamps, using any of

1675-512: Is where an instrument is pointed. The final focus should place the "hot spot" of the beam at the actor's head level when standing at the center of the instrument's assigned "focus area" on the stage. Position refers to the location of an instrument in the theater's fly system or on permanent pipes in front-of-house locations. Hanging is the act of placing the instrument in its assigned position. In addition to these, certain modern instruments are automated , referring to motorized movement of either

1742-409: The sealed beam variety, with a parabolic reflector , one or more filaments , and a glass or plastic lens sealed permanently together as a unit. Originally introduced for road vehicle headlamp service, sealed beams have since been applied elsewhere. Halogen sealed beam lamps incorporate a halogen lamp within a quartz or hard glass envelope. A PAR lamp consists of a light source, with lens and

1809-413: The (U.S.) automotive lamps market. Aircraft landing (ACL) lights are often sealed beams that have a very narrow beam spread. They typically have a size of PAR36 or PAR64, and run on 28 V DC. They have found some use in stage lighting as well. PAR lamps and their fixtures are widely used in theatre, concerts and motion picture production when a substantial amount of flat lighting is required for

1876-698: The Continental innovations" in their productions. Theaters such as the Drury Lane Theatre and the Covent Garden Theatre were lit by a large central chandelier and had a varying number of smaller stage chandeliers and candle sconces around the walls of the theaters. Two main court theaters, built between 1660 and 1665, were the Cockpit Theatre and the Hall Theatre. Chandeliers and sconces seemed to be

1943-575: The LD creates an instrument schedule and a light plot as well as informing the DSM where each LX (lighting) cue is designed to be triggered in the script, which the DSM notes down in their plot book. The schedule is a list of all required lighting equipment, including color gel, gobos, color wheels, barndoors and other accessories. The light plot is typically a plan view of the theatre where the performance will take place, with every luminaire marked. This typically specifies

2010-425: The PAR designation by 3.175. For example, a PAR16 lamp is approximately 2 inches or 50.8 mm in diameter. The size of rectangular PAR lamps is expressed as the letters REC followed by the reflector's mouth height, the letter "X", and the reflector's mouth width—with both dimensions in millimeters. For example, REC142X200 lamps are 142  high and 200 mm wide. Depending on the parabolic reflector geometry,

2077-495: The Stage , McCandless discusses color , distribution , intensity and movement as the qualities that can be manipulated by a lighting designer to achieve the desired visual, emotional and thematic look on stage. The McCandless method , outlined in that book, is widely embraced today. The method involves lighting an object on the stage from three angles—2 lights at 45 degrees to the left and right, and one at 90 degrees (perpendicular to

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2144-456: The US, 120 V, 60 Hz power) in order to avoid damage to such devices. Dimmers are seldom used to control non-dimming devices because even if a dimmer channel is trusted to always operate at full power, it may not be controlled when communications are disrupted by start up and shut down of the lighting control surface, noise interference, or DMX disconnects or failure. Such a loss of control might cause

2211-463: The applied voltage is decreased, a lamp's electric current will also decrease, thus reducing the light output from the lamp (dimming it). Conversely, a higher voltage will cause higher lamp current and increased (brighter) light output. Dimmers are frequently found in large enclosures called racks or dimmer racks that draw significant three-phase power . They are often removable modules that range from 20-ampere, 2.4- kilowatt to 100-ampere units. In

2278-407: The approximate lighting focus and direction, a reference number, accessories, the address number (assigned DMX addresses) in the dimmer system and channel on the lighting control console . A lighting designer must satisfy the requirements set forth by the director or head planner. Practical experience is required to know the effective use of different lighting instruments and color in creating

2345-539: The back of the lamp's reflector. PAR38 lamps, with an E22 base and with ratings up to 150W, were often used for domestic outdoor floodlight illumination for patios, backyards, and often combined with a PIR sensor switch as a security/convenience light, for example, in a driveway. Coloured versions were popular with discos and mobile DJs, however were usually only available up to 100w in coloured form and were considerably more expensive than standard PAR38 globes. In domestic applications, halogen and later on LED largely replaced

2412-1044: The bubble, and causing the lamp to explode. That is why one should never directly touch the glass portion of a lamp. Cleaning with rubbing alcohol will remove the oil. Lighting control tools might best be described as anything that changes the quality of the light. Historically this has been done by the use of intensity control. Technological advancements have made intensity control relatively simple - solid state dimmers are controlled by one or more lighting controllers. Controllers are commonly lighting consoles designed for sophisticated control over very large numbers of dimmers or luminaires, but may be simpler devices which play back stored sequences of lighting states with minimal user interfaces. Consoles are also referred to as lighting desks or light-boards. For larger shows or installations, multiple consoles are sometimes used together and in some cases lighting controllers are combined or coordinated with controllers for sound, automated scenery, pyrotechnics and other effects to provide total automation of

2479-440: The case of LED MR lamps , LED PAR lamps generally use an array of individual LED elements that are unsuitable for reflector operation. Nevertheless, some degree of beam control can be obtained with aperture or lens, and LED PAR 38 replacements with a 40° spread is common. Models built for stage lighting may use less similar dimensions. They often use a RGB color model for color-tuning abilities, though some higher-end fixtures use

2546-418: The case of incandescent lamps, some color changes occur as a lamp is dimmed, allowing for a limited amount of color control through a dimmer. Fades (brightness transitions) can be either UP or DOWN, meaning that the light output is increasing or decreasing during the transition. Most modern dimmers are solid state, though many mechanical dimmers are still in operation. In many cases, a dimmer can be replaced by

2613-617: The ceiling or on tracks . Sealed beam lamp arrays are also in use by modern lighthouses . High-power, mains-voltage, theatrical PARs usually use the bi-pin GX16d "Mogul" lamp connector; G9.5 and variants are common too. Theater metal-halide lamps use G12. In addition to being used on light bulbs themselves, the G38 connectors are also found as a part of the Raylite reflector assembly, although some Raylite reflectors have "tails" which then require connection to

2680-559: The configuration of the filament and its placement within the paraboloid, PAR lamps can achieve a wide range of beams, from narrow spot to wide flood. The following suffixes are commonly used with PAR lamps to indicate their beam width: PAR lamps are also manufactured to produce beam patterns specific to the needs of particular applications, such as low-beam and high-beam headlamps and fog and driving lights for vehicles, and warning lamps for school buses . The suffixes given are for 1000-Watt PAR64 lamps only. The focused beam can be oval and

2747-480: The degree to which one is able to control the shape and quality of the light produced by the instrument, with spotlights being controllable, sometimes to an extremely precise degree, and floodlights being completely uncontrollable. Instruments that fall somewhere in the middle of the spectrum can be classified as either a spot or a flood, depending on the type of instrument and how it is used. In general, spotlights have lenses while floodlights are lensless, although this

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2814-403: The desired colors pass through unaffected). Manufacturers will sometimes include an additional green or amber ("CTO" color correction) filter to extend the range (gamut) of subtractive color mixing systems. Lamp power also influences color in tungsten lamps. As the lamp power is decreased, the tungsten filament in a bulb will tend to produce increasing percentages of orange light, as compared to

2881-418: The emergence of moving lights (or automated lights) has had a substantial impact of theatre and stage lighting. A typical moving light allows the designer to control the position, color, shape, size and strobing of the light beam created. This can be used for exciting effects for the entertainment or dancefloor use. Moving lights are also often used instead of having a large number of "generic" lights. This

2948-435: The entire fixture body or the movement of a mirror placed in front of its outermost lens. These fixtures and the more traditional follow spots add direction and motion to the relevant characteristics of light. Automated fixtures fall into either the "moving head" or "moving mirror/scanner" category. Scanners have a body which contains the lamp, circuit boards, transformer, and effects (color, gobo, iris etc.) devices. A mirror

3015-720: The entire show, using a specific branch of MIDI technology called MSC (MIDI show control). See show control . The lighting controller is connected to the dimmers (or directly to automated luminaires) using a control cable or wireless link (e.g. DMX512 ) or network, allowing the dimmers which are bulky, hot and sometimes noisy, to be positioned away from the stage and audience and allowing automated luminaires to be positioned wherever necessary. In addition to DMX512, newer control connections include RDM (remote device management) which adds management and status feedback capabilities to devices which use it while maintaining compatibility with DMX512; and Architecture for Control Networks (ACN) which

3082-501: The equipment also cross over into these different areas of "stage lighting" applications. The earliest known form of stage lighting was during the early Grecian (and later the Roman) theaters. They would build their theatres facing east to west so that in the afternoon they could perform plays and have the natural sunlight hit the actors, but not those seated in the orchestra. Natural light continued to be utilized when playhouses were built with

3149-596: The exact type of fixture. Most theatrical light bulbs (or lamps , the term usually preferred) are tungsten-halogen (or quartz-halogen), an improvement on the original incandescent design that uses a halogen gas instead of an inert gas to increase lamp life and output. Fluorescent lights are infrequently used other than as worklights because, although they are far more efficient, they are expensive to make dimmed (run at less than full power) without using specialised dimmer ballasts and only very expensive models will dim to very low levels. They also do not produce light from

3216-435: The fixture and its truss, or other string support anchorage. Some larger fixtures can weigh over 100 lb (45 kg) and are suspended very high above performers heads, and could cause serious injury or death if they fell by accident or due to incorrect attachment. In the event of failure, the cable would halt the fall of the fixture before it could cause serious damage or injury. Many venues place strict guidelines regarding

3283-418: The front of the object). An alternative formulation is by Jody Briggs, who calls them Variable of Light : Angle, Color, Intensity, Distance, Texture, Edge-quality, Size, and Shape. A lighting designer (LD) is familiar with the various types of lighting instruments and their uses. In consultation with the director , the DSM (deputy stage manager) and the scenic designer , and after observing rehearsals ,

3350-568: The incandescent PAR38. In situations where sunlight or other specular light is available, a white foam reflector is often used to accomplish the same effect as a PAR array. PAR cans are being replaced in some stage applications by LED stage lighting , which use less electric power and produce a wide array of saturated colors without the use of color filters, when white light is not needed. Smaller sealed beam PAR lamps (PAR 38 and smaller) with an Edison screw base are common in indoor lighting. They can be found in recessed fixtures mounted in

3417-640: The lack of dynamic control over the beam diameter, shape and sharpness, PARs are rarely used as Front of House lights other than for front washes but can be used for special effect lighting such as lighting from directly above or from extreme angles as well as general wash lights overhead/above stage. If used cleverly, par cans can provide low budget productions with good effects. PAR64 sealed beam lamps are often used for these purposes; they are typically available with 250, 500 or 1000 watt power ratings. Beam spreads are designated as FL ( flood ), SP ( spot ), NSP (narrow spot), and VNSP (very narrow spot), as stamped on

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3484-617: The lantern, many desks also offer a fixtures section, where one can assign the lantern as a fixture, allowing the desk to organise the data being transferred to the lantern on a much simpler scale for the operator. Fixtures may also incorporate smoke machines, snow machines, haze machines etc., allowing many special effects to be run from a single desk. Increasingly, modern lighting instruments are available which allow remote control of effects other than light intensity, including direction, color, beam shape, projected image, and beam angle. The ability to move an instrument ever more quickly and quietly

3551-515: The little information historians do have, not much changed by the middle of the 18th century. Gas lighting hit the English stage in the early 1800s beginning with the Drury Lane and Covent Garden theaters. In the 1820s, a new type of artificial illumination was developed. In this type of illumination, a gas flame is used to heat a cylinder of quicklime (calcium oxide). Upon reaching a certain temperature,

3618-413: The mains flex with the use of a ceramic connector block (ideally fixed to the can's body). In residential and office use, the usual connector for the lamp's voltage is often used. This includes Edison screw or a bayonet connector for mains-supplied PARs, or small bi-pin connectors for low voltage applications. LED retrofit equipment that match PAR lamp dimensions is made by some manufacturers. As with

3685-413: The nature of the lens (or lenses) being used can all affect the pattern of light. Secondly, the specifics of how the lamp is focused affect its pattern. In ellipsoidal reflector spotlights (ERS) or profile spotlights , there are two beams of light emitted from the lamp. When the cones of both intersect at the throw distance (the distance to the stage), the lamp has a sharply defined 'hard' edge. When

3752-408: The nearly white light emitted at full power. This is known as amber shift or amber drift . Thus a 1000-watt instrument at 50 percent power will emit a higher percentage of orange light than a 500-watt instrument operating at full power. LED fixtures create color through additive color mixing with red, green, blue, and in some cases amber, LEDs at different intensities. This type of color mixing

3819-418: The new system. Two of the lamps contained two filaments and served as low and high beam, while the other two lamps contained only one filament and were active only during high-beam operation. From the 1975 model year , a rectangular version of the four-lamp system was legalized. The new lamps were 165 mm ( 6 + 1 / 2  in) wide and 100 mm (4 in) tall. For 1978, a rectangular version of

3886-508: The primary lighting sources here but other developments were being made, especially at the Hall. By the 1670s, the Hall Theatre started using footlights, and between 1670 and 1689 they used candles or lamps. It can be noted that by the end of the 17th century, "French and English stages were fairly similar". There is not much written on theatrical lighting in England at the end of the 17th century and from

3953-416: The quicklime would begin to incandesce. This illumination could then be directed by reflectors and lenses. It took some time from the development of this new Limelight before it found its way into theatrical use, which started around 1837. Limelight became popular in the 1860s and beyond, until it was displaced by electrical lighting. Lighting advances made in English theaters during this time frame paved

4020-525: The refurbishing of the theaters, it was found that the "main source of light in Restoration theaters to be chandeliers" which were "concentrated toward the front of the house, and especially over the forestage". English theatres during this time used dipped candles to light chandeliers and sconces . Dipped candles were made by dipping a wick into hot wax repeatedly to create a cylindrical candle. Candles needed frequent trimming and relighting regardless of what

4087-411: The relative contrasts to other regions of illumination. Color temperature is measured in kelvins . A light's apparent color is determined by its lamp color, the color of any gels in the optical path, its power level, and the color of the material it lights. A tungsten lamp's color is typically controlled by inserting one or more gels (filters) into its optical path. In the simplest case, a single gel

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4154-526: The two cones do not intersect at that distance, the edge is fuzzy and 'soft'. Depending on which beam (direct or reflected) is outside the other, the pattern may be 'thin and soft' or 'fat and soft'. Lastly, a gobo or break up pattern may be applied to ERSs and similar instruments. This is typically a thin sheet of metal with a shape cut into it. It is inserted into the instrument near its aperture. Gobos, or templates, come in many shapes, but often include leaves, waves, stars and similar patterns. The focus

4221-544: The two-lamp system became legal; these measured 200 mm (8 in) wide and 142 mm ( 5 + 1 / 2  in) tall. With only two round and two rectangular lamp sizes allowed, the sealed-beam headlamp mandate greatly restricted styling possibilities for automobiles. Halogen sealed-beam headlamps appeared on U.S. cars in 1979, to enable greater high beam intensity newly permitted by Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 108 without unreasonably high lamp wattage. Eventually, halogen sealed-beam lights came to dominate

4288-447: The use of safety cables. The entire lighting apparatus includes the lights themselves, the physical structure which supports them, the cabling, control systems, dimmers , power supplies, and the light boards . (lighting console) Hanging the lights or hanging the battons to hang the lights is known as 'rigging'. All lights are loosely classified as either floodlights (wash lights) or spotlights . The distinction has to do with

4355-409: The way for the many lighting advances in the modern theatrical world. Stage lighting has multiple functions, including: Lighting design is an art form, and thus no one way is the "correct" way. There is a modern movement that states that the lighting design helps to create the environment in which the action takes place while supporting the style of the piece. "Mood" is arguable while the environment

4422-534: Was happening on-stage because "they dripped hot grease on both the audience and actors". Chandeliers also blocked the view of some patrons. There were two different types of Restoration theaters in England: Restoration commercial theaters and Restoration court theaters. Commercial theaters tended to be more "conservative in their lighting, for economic reasons" and therefore used "candle-burning chandeliers" primarily. Court theatres could afford to "use most of

4489-515: Was ruling Britain, all stage production was suspended in 1642 and no advancements were made to English theaters. During this theatrical famine, great developments were being made in theaters on the European mainland. Charles II, who would later become King Charles II witnessed Italian theatrical methods and brought them back to England when he came to power. New playhouses were built in England and their large sizes called for more elaborate lighting. After

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