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104-587: PADESM strategically campaigned along ethnic lines, initially welcoming both coastal people and descendants of Merina slaves. Over time, PADESM excluded the latter group entirely. The French colonial administration actively supported PADESM's formation and helped facilitate its political success. The nationalist Malagasy Uprising of 1947 led the French colonial administration to dissolve the MDRM and temporarily suspend all other political parties, including PADESM. Tensions between

208-535: A Merina nationalist and deputy, was an Andriana of the Andriamasinavalona sub-caste. The secret nationalist organization V.V.S. ( Vy Vato Sakelika ) was composed of some Andriana of the intelligentsia. A 1968 study showed that 14% of the population of Imerina was Andriana. The Andriana have been key players in Madagascan political and cultural life after independence as well. The Andriana were deeply affected by

312-619: A documentary on the Uprising entitled L'Insurrection de l'île rouge, Madagascar 1947 . Andriana Andriana was both the noble class and a title of nobility in Madagascar . Historically, many Malagasy ethnic groups lived in highly stratified caste-based social orders in which the Andriana were the highest strata. They were above the Hova (free commoner castes) and Andevo (slaves). The Andriana and

416-478: A group that was later discovered to have secret ties to the national police. Researchers have documented reports of nationalists whose member organizations joined the conflict upon commands issued by the colonial police and French settlers living in Madagascar. Despite the role of the militants in leading the uprising, the colonial authorities immediately held MDRM responsible for the movement and responded by targeting

520-451: A low of 11,000 to a high of over 100,000. The nationalists killed approximately 550 French nationals, as well as 1,900 Malagasy auxiliary men of the French army. By August 1948, the majority of the nationalist leaders were killed or captured, and the Uprising was effectively put down by December 1948, though the last armed resistance was only defeated in February 1949. The violent repression of

624-429: A non-nationalist party, PADESM eventually favored a gradual process toward independence that would preserve close ties to France and prevent the reemergence of the precolonial Merina hegemony. The French authorities tacitly supported PADESM, which accused MDRM of launching the uprising to re-establish Merina rule. By aligning itself with PADESM, Socialist-dominated French politicians sought to cast themselves as champions of

728-501: A policy of total war , and instructed all civilians under its control to assist the war effort by producing weapons, uniforms, and food for the rebels, to build air shelters to protect insurgents from air strikes and air reconnaissance, and to gather intelligence for the rebellion. The eruption of the conflict provided the pretext for violence between highland Merina and coastal Malagasy of other ethnic groups that were linked to precolonial history and politics. Merina Hova elites founded

832-558: A type of local red bird. Both organizations, which sought to achieve independence by force if necessary, saw their membership swell during this period. Following the end of the Second World War, several key Malagasy nationalist leaders attempted to achieve independence for Madagascar through legal means. At the first post-war constituent assembly convened in Paris in November 1945 to draft

936-531: Is further complicated by the fact that the same leaders who proclaimed Madagascar's independence in 1960 were those who had been major players in the PADESM political party, which had been favored by the colonial administration after the crushing of the revolt. According to historian Philippe Leymarie, the French crushing of the Uprising resulted in the near annihilation of the managerial class in Madagascar, with consequences that continued to reverberate for decades after

1040-610: The Cannes Film Festival and the Carthage Film Festival . The term tabataba means "noise" or "troubles" in the Malagasy language , and remains a common euphemism to refer to the Uprising. The film Ilo Tsy Very by director Solo Randrasana also depicts the Uprising, and was remade in 2011 to include references to the 2009 Malagasy political crisis . In 1994, French directors Danièle Rousselier and Corinne Godeau produced

1144-576: The First Republic . When Madagascar achieved independence in 1960, PSD leader Tsiranana was named the country's first president, a position he held until the rotaka protests forced him to resign in 1972. His administration was succeeded by the socialist nationalist Second Republic under Didier Ratsiraka . Malagasy Uprising [REDACTED]   France Malagasy secret societies The Malagasy Uprising ( French : Insurrection malgache ; Malagasy : Tolom-bahoaka tamin' ny 1947 )

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1248-470: The French National Assembly , and promised citizenship rights to residents of its overseas colonies. Despite the partial implementation of these reforms, forced labor on French-owned plantations and other rights abuses in Madagascar continued unabated. The nationalist secret society Panama ( Patriotes nationalistes malgaches ) was founded in 1941, followed in 1943 by another called Jiny after

1352-457: The Madagascar for the Malagasy Party (MONIMA), which has had considerable influence on Malagasy politics. France classified most documents related to the Uprising, and the French government maintained silence on the subject until French president Jacques Chirac termed it "unacceptable" during an official visit to Madagascar in 2005. Several Malagasy directors have set films in the period of

1456-467: The Tirailleurs Malgaches returning from World War II and frustrated with the limited recognition and opportunity afforded them by the French colonial government. Numerous others were railway workers who hid themselves in the dense eastern rainforest and made use of guerrilla tactics to attack French interests along the rail line connecting Antananarivo to the eastern port town of Toamasina . At

1560-565: The constitution of the French Fourth Republic , Madagascar was represented by two doctors named Joseph Raseta and Joseph Ravoahangy. Together with future writer Jacques Rabemananjara , in early 1946 they formed the Mouvement démocratique de la rénovation malgache (MDRM) political party, whose platform was built on national independence from France. All three leaders were the descendants of Hova who had been politically prominent in

1664-403: The " oil spot " method of General Joseph Gallieni , the first governor of the island (1896–1905) to root out, demoralize and crush the guerrilla fighters. In addition, the security forces adopted a strategy of terror and psychological warfare involving torture, collective punishment, the burning of villages, mass arrests and executions, and war rape. Many of these practices were later employed by

1768-502: The "Andria" prefix are common. However, unlike in Western cultures, where children automatically inherit the family name of a parent, Malagasy parents are free to choose their child's first and last names as they please. Following the end of the monarchy in Imerina , many parents have chosen to give their children names that include the "Andriana" prefix, despite lacking any family connection to

1872-450: The 129 death penalties pronounced by the civilian courts were enacted. Through amnesties and remissions, all prisoners (except the leaders) were freed in 1957. The uprising and its repression caused trauma that continues to manifest in the Malagasy population. Many Malagasy nationals fought each other and struggle to reconcile themselves to the remorse and guilt. Healing at the national level

1976-504: The 1820s under King Radama I , who the British government officially recognized as the sovereign over the entire island of Madagascar. After several failed attempts to impose its authority over the island, France used military force to capture the royal palace in September 1894 and exiled Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony upon officially colonizing the island in February 1895. Queen Ranavalona III

2080-451: The 1910s. Conscription of Malagasy soldiers to fight for France in World War I strengthened resentment of foreign rule, and in the interwar period these nationalist organizations proliferated. Germany's defeat of the French army and occupation of France in 1940, the imposition of a Vichy regime in Madagascar and the subsequent capture of the island by the British in 1942 further tarnished

2184-516: The 1950s. Nevertheless, as the process toward independence began, it became fragmented between conservative and progressive factions, with the latter splitting off in December 1956 to form the Parti sociale démocrate (PSD, Social Democratic Party). With this split and independence in 1960, PADESM became moribund. PADESM has had a lasting impact on political life in Madagascar. Philibert Tsiranana , leader of

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2288-640: The 1995 destruction of the royal palace, the Rova , in Antananarivo. Their approval and participation were periodically solicited throughout the reconstruction process. In 2011, the Council of Kings and Princes of Madagascar promoted the revival of a Christian Andriana monarchy that would blend modernity and tradition. Much of the known genealogical history of the Andriana of Imerina comes from Father François Callet's book Tantara ny Andriana eto Madagasikara ("History of

2392-458: The Conseil de la Republique. The results of the election and popular discontent with French interference served to intensify widespread frustration against the colonial authority and desire for Malagasy self-governance across the island. These factors finally erupted in a nationalist uprising that began on the evening of 29 March 1947 with attacks against a police camp and several French plantations in

2496-718: The French National Assembly. The Malagasy deputies submitted a bill to grant independence for Madagascar from French rule, but French deputies rejected it. The deputies attracted the disapproval of France's Socialist Prime Minister, Paul Ramadier , and the Minister of the Colonies, Marius Moutet. The French had humiliatingly had to ask Britain to yield Madagascar after World War II ended, and French political leaders suspected that Britain or South Africa would attempt to wrest Madagascar from France. The MDRM quest for independence

2600-709: The French military during the Algerian War . The intensity and cruelty of the French response was then unprecedented in the colonial history of France. On 6 May 1947, in Moramanga, soldiers machine-gunned MDRM officials detained in wagons, killing between 124 and 160 mostly unarmed MDRM activists. In Mananjary , hundreds of Malagasy were killed, among them 18 women and a group of prisoners thrown alive out of an airplane. Other massacres of 35 to 50 people occurred in Farafangana , Manakara, and Mahanoro . The rebels had expected that

2704-606: The Hova were a part of Fotsy , while the Andevo were Mainty in local terminology. The Andriana strata originally constituted the Merina society's nobility, warrior, and land-owning class. They were endogamous , and their privileges were institutionally preserved. While the term and concept of Andriana is associated with the Merina people of Madagascar, the term is not limited to them. The use of

2808-429: The MDRM leadership consistently maintained its innocence, the party was dissolved by the French administration on 10 May 1947, and all other political parties, including PADESM, were temporarily suspended. The banning of MDRM further strengthened PADESM's prominence after the end of the uprising. Between 1951 and 1956, PADESM candidates won three consecutive legislative elections. Despite the outward appearance of success,

2912-567: The MDRM not only in the interest of ending French rule, but also in regaining the political dominance of the Merina upon independence. In reaction to the founding of the MDRM, in 1946 the Party for the Disinherited of Madagascar ( Parti des déshérités de Madagascar , PADESM) was formed. It attracted membership from members of coastal communities formerly subjugated by the Merina empire, as well as highland-based descendants of former Merina slaves. Initially

3016-948: The MDRM, which many non-Merina feared would revive Merina political hegemony, the Party for the Disinherited of Madagascar ( Parti des déshérités de Madagascar , PADESM) was formed in June 1946 by members of coastal communities formerly subjugated by the Merina empire , as well as highland-based descendants of former Merina slaves. Militant leader Mahasampo Raveloson was key in the creation of the party. Other founding members included Philibert Tsiranana (who became Madagascar's first president after independence), Albert Sylla (who became Minister of Foreign Affairs under Tsiranana, and whose son, Jacques Sylla , would go on to become Prime Minister of Madagascar under Marc Ravalomanana ), and Albert Ratsiraka and Pascale Velonjara, respectively father and father-in-law of future president Didier Ratsiraka . In July 1946, PADESM

3120-457: The Malagasy population and to sabotage the peaceful policy of the MDRM." The Malagasy Uprising began on the evening of 29 March 1947, the evening before Palm Sunday . The timing had additional significance as the historic date of the traditional Merina Kingdom fandroana new year's festival, historically celebrated by a ritual period of anarchy followed by the Merina sovereign's reestablishment of order. Malagasy nationalists, chief among them

3224-528: The Merina people who arrived in the central highlands around the 15th century and absorbed the existing population of Vazimba . Andriamanelo (1540–1575) consolidated the power of the Hova when he united many of the Hova chiefdoms under his rule. The term Hova remained in use through the 20th century. However, some foreigners transliterated that word to be Ankova . Beginning in the 16th century, slaves were brought into Madagascar's various kingdoms, and social strata emerged in Merina kingdom. The Hova emerged as

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3328-406: The Merina society. In the 19th century, when Merina conquered the other kingdoms and ruled most of the island, a much larger army was needed; soldiers in this time were drawn from the Hova caste as well. The Andriana benefited from numerous privileges in precolonial Madagascar. Land ownership in Imerina was reserved for the Andriana class, who ruled over fiefs called menakely . The populace under

3432-802: The Nobles"). This collection of oral tradition about the history of the Merina Dynasty was originally written in Malagasy and published between 1878 and 1881. Callet summarized and translated it in French under the title Tantara ny Andriana (Histoire des rois) in 1908. Tantara ny Andriana constitutes the core material for the historians studying the Merina history and has been commented, criticised, and challenged ever since by historians from Madagascar, Europe , and North America . For examples, refer to Rasamimanana (1930), Ravelojaona et al. (1937), Ramilison (1951), Kent (1970), Berg (1988), or Larson (2000). The work

3536-480: The PSD, went on to become Madagascar's first president upon independence in 1960. Many other major political figures in Madagascar have connections to PADESM and PSD, including former president Didier Ratsiraka and former prime minister Jacques Sylla . More broadly, the formation of PADESM cemented ethnic rivalries within Malagasy politics, linking the interests of specific ethnic groups with particular political parties. At

3640-460: The Ratsiraka administration, the commemorations took on a new tone of pride and gratitude to nationalist fighters who sacrificed for their ideals and paved the way for later nationalist leaders. A national museum dedicated to the Uprising was inaugurated in 2012 by President Andry Rajoelina at Moramanga, 100 kilometers east of Antananarivo. The town has long been the site of the national monument to

3744-533: The United States government, which strongly denounced the French reaction and criticized its leadership. It also radicalized the leadership of the militant nationalist groups in Madagascar. Sensing the worsening mood in the country, on 27 March 1947 deputies Raseta, Ravoahangy and Rabemananjara jointly issued a statement, urging the public to "maintain absolute calm and coolness in the face of manoeuvrings and provocations of all kind destined to stir up troubles among

3848-580: The United States might intervene in their favor, but no such action was taken by Washington. In addition, the majority of the population did not rise up to join them in their fight. The rebels were thus steadily pushed back by the superior French military. Razafindrabe was forced to give up his headquarters at Beparasy in August 1947, while Radaoroson was usurped as leader of the southern insurgents by another rebel leader, Lehoaha, whose forces were better armed than those of Radaoroson. The rebels further fragmented in

3952-414: The Uprising since 1967, when 29 March was first declared a day of mourning by President Tsiranana. It is now observed as Martyrs' Day . The annual commemorations under his administration brought together perpetrators of war crimes, their surviving victims, former nationalist guerrillas and leaders, and family members of those killed, and characterized the Uprising as a tragic mistake. In the late 1970s under

4056-400: The Uprising, but the request was not approved. From July to October 1948 in Antananarivo, the French organized a large public trial of the uprising, charging 77 officials of the MDRM. The French authorities claimed that MDRM appeals for calm immediately prior to the outbreak of violence had been a diversion tactic to mask their involvement in organizing the rebellion, which the French alleged

4160-550: The Uprising. In 1967, the Malagasy government declared 29 March an annual holiday, and in 2012, a museum dedicated to the Uprising was inaugurated in Moramanga. By the close of the 19th century, Madagascar was largely under the control of the Kingdom of Imerina , with its royal palaces at its capital in Antananarivo . Although the kingdom had existed since the early 16th century, it expanded its control beyond its traditional borders in

4264-469: The Uprising. The most commentary appeared in the left-leaning Catholic monthly L'Esprit , with criticisms also published in other leftist publications like Humanité , Combat , Franc-tireur and Témoignage Chrétien . Albert Camus penned a seething rebuke of the French colonial administration that was published on 10 May 1947 in Combat . Very few details of the rising and subsequent repression were reported at

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4368-432: The actual number killed. The population of Madagascar at the time of the Uprising was approximately four million, and these estimated losses represented nearly two percent of the population. In 1950, the colonial administration revised the casualty number to 11,342 "known dead". According to official French figures 4,928 of these had been killed in rioting while the remainder had died of starvation or exhaustion after fleeing

4472-423: The central and eastern province, results were close in the western province, where the MDRM candidate Joseph Raseta won 21,475 votes and the PADESM candidate Totelehibe won 19,014 votes. In early 1947 the French administration instituted a new rule that increased the weight of the French vote over the Malagasy vote in selection of candidates, and three PADESM candidates favored by French conservatives were elected to

4576-496: The central highlands. Over time, the party grew more conservative, and Mahasampo Raveloson led a successful effort to exclude any Merina from the party, including descendants of those who had been enslaved by nobles of their own ethnic group under the Kingdom of Imerina and shared their coastal compatriots' concerns regarding Merina political dominance. The Socialist-dominated French authorities actively supported PADESM. The French characterized this support as an effort to champion

4680-463: The city walls. The highest ranks of Andriana were permitted to distinguish their tombs by the construction of a small, windowless wooden tomb house on top of it, called a trano masina (sacred house) for the king and trano manara (cold house) for the Zanakandriana, Zazamarolahy and Andriamasinavalona. This tradition may have originated with King Andriantompokoindrindra, who is said to have ordered

4784-640: The colonial government's image. Popular anger was especially aroused by its policies of forced labor in lieu of taxes , involuntary conscription into the army to fight in World War II , and the required contribution of large quantities of rice per head annually. Malagasy hopes for greater sovereignty were stirred by remarks given by General Charles de Gaulle at the Brazzaville Conference in 1944, where de Gaulle announced all colonies were thereafter French overseas territories entitled to representation in

4888-542: The conflict, of whom 350 were soldiers. In addition 1,900 Malagasy auxiliary men of the French army were killed. Although the MDRM leadership consistently maintained its innocence, the party was outlawed by the French colonial rulers. The French government classified the Malagasy Uprising documentation of the military, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of the Colonies. The French media reported little on

4992-410: The conflict, as well as a mausoleum at the town entrance near Ampanihifana containing the remains of an estimated 2,500 local nationalists killed in the conflict. The Malagasy Uprising has been commemorated in print and cinema . The film Tabataba (1989), directed by Raymond Rajaonarivelo , relates the experience of the insurrection through the eyes of an adolescent boy named Solo. It won awards at

5096-475: The country's independence. Many of the leading figures in the Uprising went on to dramatically shape the political and social landscape of Madagascar after independence. Monja Jaona , who was jailed by the French for nine years, founded the Madagascar for the Malagasy Party (MONIMA) in 1958 shortly after his release. His party was key in leading the rotaka peasant uprising against President Philibert Tsiranana which brought down his neo-colonial administration

5200-403: The descendants of Hova Merina who had been politically prominent in the former royal court . The party's platform was built on national independence from France and garnered mass support that cut across geographic, ethnic and class divisions. In November 1946 the trio were elected to represent Madagascar as deputies ( députés ) in the French National Assembly. In reaction to the founding of

5304-405: The eastern rainforest and the fighters extended their control from these points. The nationalists grouped together under various established or new configurations, including several militias with their own leadership structure, including generals and war ministers. Militias were sometimes led by traditional leaders ( mpanjaka ) of local communities. Many of the insurgents were demobilized soldiers of

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5408-515: The eastern rainforest carried out by militant Malagasy nationalists, chief among them the members of the nationalist secret societies Vy Vato Sakelika (VVS) and Jiny. Despite the role of the militants in leading the Uprising, the colonial authorities immediately accused the MDRM of instigating the movement. This view was echoed by PADESM leaders and shared by the majority of French settlers. The French authorities responded by targeting not only MDRM leaders and members, but also their supporters, drawing

5512-544: The end of July 1947, enabling the French to take the initiative. However, French army strength remained modest with soldiers numbering 18,000 in April 1947. The number of troops increased to about 30,000 in 1948. The French forces now included paratroopers, soldiers of the French Foreign Legion , and tirailleurs (colonial infantry) brought in from the French territories of Comoros and Senegal. The French strategy followed

5616-580: The event as it happened, and relatively little mention of the nationalist struggle was mentioned in Les Temps Modernes , the leftist publication that would become considered the leading anti-colonial advocate after the launch of the French offensive in Indochina. Other private publications served as forums for the Francophone intelligentsia to express their condemnation of the French government's response to

5720-484: The fighting. Historians continue to disagree over the number of casualties during the Malagasy Uprising. The original figure of 89,000 casualties is often quoted. Historian Jean Fremigacci contested the 89,000 estimate, noting that losses of this magnitude normally should have manifested on the demographic curve, but in Madagascar population growth began again and even accelerated from 1946 to 1949. He estimates 30–40,000 Malagasy deaths, of which 30,000 were violent and

5824-405: The firearms of the French military. Nevertheless, the rebels invented encirclement, ambush and human wave tactics that allowed them to defeat their better armed opponents on several occasions. The attacks in the east were immediately followed by similar actions in the south of the island before rapidly spreading throughout the country. By early April, when violence first erupted in Antananarivo,

5928-519: The first trano masina to be built on his tomb in honor of his memory. Andriana were also subjected to certain restrictions. Marriage outside the caste was forbidden by law among the lowest three ranks of Andriana. A high-ranking woman who married a lower-ranking man would take on her husband's lower rank. Although the inverse situation would not cause a high-ranking man to lose status, he could not transfer his rank or property to his children. For these reasons, intermarriage across Andriana caste divisions

6032-437: The first ever deputies to represent Madagascar at the French National Assembly, MDRM accused the French administration of stuffing ballot boxes, tampering with electoral rolls, intimidating MDRM candidates and supporters, and blatantly falsifying election results to ensure PADESM victory. Despite these irregularities, MDRM won 71 percent of the vote, and none of the PADESM candidates was elected. While MDRM won decisive victories in

6136-485: The first post-war constituent assembly convened in Paris in November 1945 to draft the constitution of the French Fourth Republic , Madagascar was represented by two doctors named Joseph Raseta and Joseph Ravoahangy  [ mg ; ru ] . They formed the Mouvement démocratique de la rénovation malgache (MDRM) political party together with future writer Jacques Rabemananjara in early 1946. All three leaders were

6240-400: The following year. After initially supporting Admiral Didier Ratsiraka , Tsiranana's successor, in 1992 Jaona led demonstrations against it and in favor of federalism, being severely wounded in the process. His son, Monja Roindefo , is also an active member of MONIMA and served as Prime Minister under Andry Rajoelina . The Malagasy government has organized official annual commemorations of

6344-407: The former Merina royal court. The movement was pacifist, and while it sought independence for Madagascar, it embraced the French vision of the island as part of the global Francophone economic and cultural community . Their platform garnered mass support that cut across geographic, ethnic and class divisions, and in November 1946 the trio were elected to represent Madagascar as deputies ( députés ) in

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6448-411: The former aristocracy. Austronesian people settled in Madagascar between 200 and 500 CE, arriving by boat from various Southeast Asian regions. Mainland Africans began migrating to the island by the 9th century. Portuguese traders were the first Europeans to arrive in the 15th century, soon followed by other European powers. This influx of diverse people led to various Malagasy sub-ethnicities by

6552-581: The free commoners' caste below the noble's hierarchy. During the rule of King Andriamanelo , a subset of Hova related to the king by blood gained the title Andriana . King Andriamanelo is credited with establishing the Andriana as a separate class in early Merina society. This class was subdivided into four groups by his son, the King Ralambo (1575–1600): The descendants of these three princes (Andriantompokoindrindra, Andrianamboninolona and Andriandranando) were called Andrianteloray . The caste

6656-537: The harsh response it drew from the Socialist Ramadier administration radicalized elements of the Malagasy population, including leaders of several militant nationalist secret societies. On the evening of 29 March 1947, coordinated surprise attacks were launched by Malagasy nationalists, armed mainly with spears, against military bases and French-owned plantations in the eastern part of the island concentrated around Moramanga and Manakara . The nationalist cause

6760-418: The height of the movement, nationalist insurgents gained control of one third of the island. The rebel territory was home to about 1,600,000 people, and a provisional government was set up: The head of the northern zone was Victorien Razafindrabe, a Merina and low-ranking ex-official, whereas Betsileo ex-teacher Michel Radaoroson served as insurgent leader in the south. The rebel provisional government followed

6864-580: The island in the 15th century. They established their society there because of wars and migrant pressure at the coast. Merina people were settled in the central Madagascar and formed one of the three major kingdoms on the island by the 18th century, the other two being the Swahili-Arab influenced Sakalava kingdom in the northwest and the Austronesian Betsimisaraka kingdom in the northeast. The term Hova originally applied to all members of

6968-415: The key leaders of the Uprising were captured or killed, and the last of the fighters disbanded and fled into the forests in December 1948. The eruption of the conflict provided the pretext for violence between highland Merina and coastal Malagasy of other ethnic groups . An estimated 1,900 to 5,000 Malagasy PADESM supporters were killed by their pro-MDRM nationalist countrymen during the conflict. Although

7072-478: The key leaders of the Uprising were captured or killed. Radaoroson died in combat on 20 July, Razafindrabe was captured on 2 September and died shortly afterwards, while Lehoaha surrendered on 11 November. The last rebel stronghold, named Tsiazombazaha ("That which is inaccessible to Europeans"), fell in November 1948. Defeated, most of the remaining nationalist fighters disappeared into the eastern rainforest in December 1948. The last senior rebel leader, Ralaivao,

7176-579: The members of the nationalist secret societies Vy Vato Sakelika (VVS) and Jiny, coordinated surprise attacks in the eastern part of the island at the Tristani police camp near the rail line at Moramanga , in the coastal town of Manakara and at several points along the lower Faraony River where key French plantations were located. Furthermore, a unit of the Tirailleurs Malgaches (Malagasy colonial troops) mutinied at Diego-Suarez and defected to

7280-409: The mid-2nd millennium. The Merina were probably the early arrivals, though this is uncertain, and other ethnic groups on Madagascar consider them relative newcomers to the island. The Merina people's culture likely mixed with the Madagascar natives named Vazimba, about whom little is known. According to the island's oral traditions, the "most Austronesian looking" Merina people reached the interior of

7384-408: The name of a Malagasy sovereign, prince, or nobleman was often historically composed by placing "Andriana" as a prefix to the remainder of the name. For example, the name of Merina king Andrianampoinimerina is a composite of "Andriana" and "Nampoinimerina", while that of the celebrated Sakalava warrior Andriamisara is formed from "Andriana" and "Misara". In Madagascar today, names beginning with

7488-411: The nationalist insurgency left deep scars in Malagasy society. A generation of the managerial class was wiped out, creating challenges for the country when it achieved independence in 1960. Madagascar's first three deputies were arrested, tortured and kept in prison until they were given amnesty in 1958. Another leader who survived the conflict, Monja Jaona , was also jailed for nine years and then founded

7592-421: The next months. The French counter-attacks remained rather limited until April 1948, however, as their forces were hindered by disease, the weather, and the unfamiliarity of the imported troops with local conditions, with over a thousand men hospitalized. With the end of the wet season , however, the French launched a large-scale offensive and overran the rebel territories. Between July and September 1948, most of

7696-627: The noble class in the 19th century. The valiha featured heavily in the music of the Merina royal court performed at palaces such as Ambohimanga or the Rova at Antananarivo . The strings of the valiha were more easily plucked with the fingernails, which were commonly grown long for this purpose; long fingernails became fashionable and symbolic of belonging to the Andriana class within the Kingdom of Imerina. At Antananarivo, only Andriana tombs were allowed to be constructed within town limits. Hovas (freemen) and slaves were required to bury their dead beyond

7800-444: The number of nationalist fighters was estimated at around 2,000. Attacks against French military bases multiplied over the course of the month throughout the central highlands as far south as Fianarantsoa and as far north as Lake Alaotra . The movement enjoyed particularly strong support in the south, where the revolt attracted as many as one million peasants to fight for the nationalist cause. Two guerrilla zones were established in

7904-471: The oppressed masses against the exploitative Hova elites. Though the uprising indeed remained geographically limited, it enjoyed broad support among several ethnic groups, not just Merina. French security forces were initially taken by surprise and were unable to organize an effective response to contain the uprising. By May 1947, however, the French military had begun to counter the nationalists' attacks. Five North African battalions arrived in Madagascar at

8008-473: The oppressed masses and strengthen their protection against exploitative Hova elites. Governor General Jules Marcel de Coppet provided the party with space in public buildings for meetings. PADESM candidates in the January 1947 provincial elections received financial support from French settlers owing to the party's favorable disposition to the French administration. In the critical November 1946 election to select

8112-421: The parties played out during the uprising through targeted acts of violence between supporters of the rival groups. An estimated 1,900 to 5,000 PADESM supporters were killed during the uprising by pro-MDRM nationalist fighters. After the nationalist movement was crushed in December 1948, PADESM experienced an increase in popularity, aided by continuing French support. The party won several key political elections in

8216-483: The party was suffering from internal divisions. Other countries under French colonial rule, including Morocco, Indochina and several in West Africa, had either become independent or had begun to negotiate the process to independence; this inspired the hope that Madagascar could follow suit, allowing for the tantalizing opportunity for PADESM to wield unfettered power in Malagasy politics. This emerging possibility fragmented

8320-443: The party's members and supporters. The extent to which the MDRM was actually involved in the uprising is disputed; most leaders of the party later claimed that they were innocent, whereas French intelligence maintained that the party had forged links with foreign powers like United Kingdom to channel arms and ammunition to militants. Later appraisals suggest that the MDRM was infiltrated by members of militant secret societies before

8424-478: The party, which became paralyzed by in-fighting. The progressive faction split off to form the Parti sociale démocrate (PSD, Social Democratic Party) in Mahajanga in December 1956, under the leadership of Philibert Tsiranana , a French-educated school teacher of Tsimihety coastal origin, and Andre Raseta. The PSD that emerged from the disintegration of PADESM was a powerful force in Malagasy politics throughout

8528-407: The physical and psychological fronts and engaged in a variety of terror tactics designed to demoralize the population. The French military force carried out mass execution , torture , war rape , torching of entire villages, collective punishment and other atrocities such as throwing live Malagasy prisoners out of airplanes ( death flights ). The estimated number of Malagasy casualties varies from

8632-488: The rebellion, and that though members of the party aided the insurgency, the party as whole did not. The French generally suspected that the rebellion was secretly supported by foreign powers, most significantly by the United Kingdom. Two British nationals, namely ex-Major John Morris, and Major Nicholson who worked at the British consulate in Antananarivo, were accused of stirring up Malagasy nationalist activities. Morris

8736-413: The rebels. Most historians share the view that the militants escalated the conflict toward violence on the basis of false information transmitted by duplicitous individuals or groups attempting to neutralize the nationalist influence. Members of VVS and Jiny involved in the initial attacks have stated that their organizations were obliged to attack after the signal to take action was transmitted to them by

8840-555: The remainder attributable to disease and starvation in the conflict areas. Fremigacci's interpretation was challenged by demographer Alfred Sauvy , who suggested the trauma to population growth that would normally be observed by these casualties may have been masked by improvements in malaria survival rates resulting from a major colonial anti-malaria campaign undertaken in the same period. According to Fremigacci, "There were war crimes in Madagascar in 1947 but without intent to exterminate." An estimated 550 French nationals died during

8944-468: The rule of an Andriana lord owed him, as well as the king, a certain amount of free labor each year ( fanompoana ) for public works such as the construction of dikes, rice paddies, roads and town walls. Posts of privilege within the government, such as judges or royal advisers, were likewise reserved for certain groups of Andriana. The valiha , the national instrument of Madagascar, was originally played by all classes of society, but became affiliated with

9048-415: The social taboo on intermarriage was weaker between the Andriana and Hova, but remained strong between Andriana and Andevo. The social mores and restrictions on inter-marriage between social strata were historically present among other Malagasy ethnic groups. The Andriana, along with the other castes, played an important part in the independence of Madagascar. For instance, Joseph Ravoahangy-Andrianavalona,

9152-568: The term became Rohandryan and later Roandriana , mainly used in the Southeastern part of the island among the Zafiraminia, Antemoro, and Antambahoaka ethnic groups. In the central Highlands, among the Merina, Betsileo, Bezanozano, and Sihanaka , the term became Randryan and later Randriana or simply Andriana . Other proposed etymologies for Andriana includes the root Handrina , which means "head or forehead" in Malagasy. In Madagascar,

9256-462: The time outside France. Over the decades that followed independence the French government and news sources in France remained largely silent on the issue of the Malagasy Uprising. In 1997, a Malagasy official criticized the French for never having had a diplomat present at the annual commemoration ceremonies. The first official condemnation of the Uprising's suppression by the French colonial authorities

9360-534: The wider population into the conflict. Attacks against the colonial authority in the east were immediately followed by similar actions in the south of the island before rapidly spreading throughout the country. The movement enjoyed particularly strong support in the south, where the revolt attracted as many as one million peasants to fight for the nationalist cause. The French responded with heavy military action and psychological warfare, including incidences of crimes against humanity. Between July and September 1948, most of

9464-779: The word "Andriana" to denote nobility occurs among numerous other Malagasy ethnic groups such as the Betsileo , the Betsimisaraka , the Tsimihety , the Bezanozano , the Antambahoaka , and the Antemoro . "Andriana" often traditionally formed part of the names of Malagasy kings, princes, and nobles. Linguistic evidence suggests its origin is traceable back to an ancient Javanese nobility title, although alternate theories have been proposed. In Malagasy,

9568-496: Was a Malagasy nationalist rebellion against French colonial rule in Madagascar , lasting from March 1947 to February 1949. Starting in late 1945, Madagascar's first French National Assembly deputies, Joseph Raseta , Joseph Ravoahangy  [ mg ; ru ] and Jacques Rabemananjara of the Mouvement démocratique de la rénovation malgache (MDRM) political party, led an effort to achieve independence for Madagascar through legal channels. The failure of this initiative and

9672-530: Was allowed to remain as a figurehead until the emergence of a popular uprising, termed the Menalamba rebellion , for which the queen was held responsible. The rebellion was harshly crushed, and the queen was exiled in 1897. The Menalamba rebellion was only the first manifestation of ongoing opposition to French rule that occasionally erupted in violent clashes between the Malagasy and the colonial authorities in Madagascar. Secret nationalist societies began to form in

9776-482: Was captured in February 1949, effectively ending the armed resistance. The French government's first official estimate of the number of Malagasy killed in the conflict was 89,000. In 1949 the High Commissioner of Madagascar added to this figure the estimated number who fled into the forest and were believed dead, declaring the true number of dead at over 100,000. Many Malagasy believe this to be an underestimate of

9880-585: Was changed to become a direct opposition party to MDRM. Initially a non-nationalist party, PADESM eventually favored a gradual process toward independence that would preserve close ties to France and prevent the reemergence of the precolonial hegemony. It actively recruited membership along ethnic lines to include coastal peoples and the descendants of Merina slaves, attracting a number of intellectual elites and political leaders from coastal areas. Its platform focused on increasing distribution of resources to coastal areas to counterbalance decades of colonial investment in

9984-440: Was eventually expelled from the island as a result. There also circulated rumours about American support for the rebels, though no evidence emerged to support these claims. In fact, the rebels were almost completely isolated from outside aid, and extremely poorly supplied with modern weaponry. They likely never possessed more than 150 rifles and three machine guns. Most rebels had to resort to spears, and had minimal protection from

10088-411: Was expressed by president Jacques Chirac during his official visit to Madagascar on 21 July 2005, when he met with Malagasy president Marc Ravalomanana and qualified the repression of the Malagasy uprising as "unacceptable". On the 65th anniversary of the Uprising in 2012, Malagasy Prime Minister Omer Beriziky issued a request to the French government to declassify their archival materials related to

10192-433: Was further divided into six groups by Ralambo's great-great-grandson King Andriamasinavalona (1675–1710), based on locality and genealogical proximity to the ruling family. The Andriana class was divided again into seven groups by King Andrianampoinimerina (1778–1810). In rank order, these groups were: The Andriana caste was originally the source of nobility, and specialized in the rituals and warrior occupations in

10296-492: Was held from 22 July to 4 October 1948, was marked by numerous irregularities. The principal witness for the prosecution was shot dead three days before the trial, and much of the evidence against the defendants was obtained through torture. All three were found guilty of conspiracy against the state and endangering national security. Although these points were raised at the trial, Ravoahangy was sentenced to death , along with Raseta and four other nationalists, while Rabemananjara

10400-505: Was rapidly adopted in the south and spread to the central highlands and the capital of Antananarivo by the following month, with the number of Malagasy nationalist fighters estimated at over one million. By May 1947, the French began to counter the nationalists. The French tripled the number of troops on the island to 18,000, primarily by transferring soldiers from French colonies elsewhere in Africa. The colonial authorities sought to fight on

10504-470: Was relatively infrequent. The Andriana, the Hova, and the Andevo strata were endogamous in the Merina society. According to the colonial era missionary William Ellis's memoir of 1838, an Andriana in the Malagasy society was prohibited from marrying a Hova or an Andevo. The exception, stated Ellis, was the unmarried Queen, who could marry anyone from any strata including the Hova, and her children were deemed to be royal. In contrast, Sandra Evers states that

10608-485: Was secretly launched by way of an encoded MDRM telegram. Deputies Ravoahangy and Rabemananjara were arrested and imprisoned on 12 April 1947, followed two months later by Raseta (who was in Paris when the Uprising began), in violation of their right to diplomatic immunity. Debates about the Malagasy Uprising in the French National Assembly on 1 August 1947 concluded with the decision to revoke this immunity for all three deputies, who were tortured in prison. The trial, which

10712-629: Was sentenced to life in prison . In July 1949, the convicts' death sentences were commuted to life in prison, and the trio remained imprisoned until they were granted amnesty in 1958. Few individuals, with the notable exception of Monja Jaona , the founder of Jiny in the south, have claimed responsibility for a leadership role in the insurrection. Beside this "trial of the parliamentarians", military courts relayed by civilian courts condemned 5,765 Malagasy nationals (865 by military courts and 4,891 by civilians). The military courts delivered 44 death penalties but carried out only eight executions, while 16 of

10816-467: Was therefore received as a blow to French prestige and authority, and it raised the specter of the violent conflict launched by Vietnamese nationalists in French Indochina the month before. Moutet responded stridently, declaring a "war against the Malagasy autonomy movement". The refusal of the French government to support a democratic process toward independence for Madagascar drew criticism from

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