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37-620: The Oxford University Exploration Club was established in December 1927 by Edward Max Nicholson , Colin Trapnell, and Charles Sutherland Elton . The Club's aim is to support and advise students with planning original expeditions abroad. Recent expeditions to Tibet, the Congo, Greenland, Trinidad, Mongolia, Svalbard, Namibia, Papua New Guinea and the remote Comoros Islands have discovered new species of birds, insects and plants, published scientific papers on

74-707: A direct route from New York City to Harriman State Park . In New Jersey, the Garden State Parkway , connecting the northern part of the state with the Jersey Shore , is restricted to buses and non-commercial traffic north of the Route 18 interchange, but trucks are permitted south of this point. It is one of the busiest toll roads in the country. In the Pittsburgh region, two of the major Interstates are referred to informally as parkways. The Parkway East ( I-376 , formally

111-613: A founder member of the Oxford University Exploration Club . At Oxford, he organized bird counts and censuses on the University's farm at Sanford. In 1928, Nicholson created and managed the first national birdwatch survey, a survey of the grey heron . Nicholson already had published his first work in 1926, Birds in England , and had three similar books published soon after. In The Art of Bird-Watching (1931), he discussed

148-759: A four-lane freeway before funding for the road was cut. In Minneapolis , the Grand Rounds Scenic Byway system has 50 miles (80 km) of streets designated as parkways. These are not freeways; they have a slow 25-mile-per-hour (40 km/h) speed limit, pedestrian crossings, and stop signs. In Cincinnati , parkways are major roads which trucks are prohibited from using. Some Cincinnati parkways, such as Columbia Parkway, are high-speed, limited-access roads, while others, such as Central Parkway, are multi-lane urban roads without controlled access. Columbia Parkway carries US-50 traffic from downtown towards east-side suburbs of Mariemont, Anderson, and Milford, and

185-619: A limp. In 1961, Nicholson, together with Victor Stolan , Sir Peter Scott and Guy Mountfort , formed the organising group that created the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) (now the World Wide Fund for Nature ). He was also a founder of the International Institute for Environment and Development . In 1966, he set up and headed environmental firm Land Use Consultants (LUC), remaining with them until 1989. One of LUC's first reports

222-762: A pleasant, shaded route to the park and serve as mini-parks within the neighborhood. The Rhode Island Metropolitan Park Commission developed several parkways in the Providence area. Other parkways, such as Park Presidio Boulevard in San Francisco, California , were designed to serve larger volumes of traffic. During the early 20th century, the meaning of the word was expanded to include limited-access highways designed for recreational driving of automobiles, with landscaping . These parkways originally provided scenic routes without very slow or commercial vehicles , at grade intersections , or pedestrian traffic. Examples are

259-523: A public transport shuttle (initially buses, now the Luton DART light railway). Parkways fitting the definition applied in this article also exist, as listed in this section. The city of Peterborough has roads branded as "parkways" which provide routes for much through traffic and local traffic. The majority are dual carriageways, with many of their junctions numbered. Five main parkways form an orbital outer ring road. Three parkways serve settlements. In

296-524: Is a limited access road from downtown to the Village of Mariemont. In Boston , parkways are generally four to six lanes wide but are not usually controlled-access. They are highly trafficked in most cases, transporting people between neighborhoods quicker than a typical city street. Many of them serve as principal arterials and some (like Storrow Drive , Memorial Drive , the Alewife Brook Parkway and

333-588: Is a surviving remnant of the Long Island Motor Parkway that became a surface street , no longer with controlled-access or non-commercial vehicle restrictions. The Palisades Interstate Parkway is a post-war parkway that starts at the George Washington Bridge , heads north through New Jersey, continuing through Rockland and Orange counties in New York. The Palisades Parkway was built to allow for

370-466: Is also applied to multi-use paths and greenways used by walkers and cyclists. In the United Kingdom, the term "parkway" more commonly refers to park and ride railway stations , where this is often indicated as part of the name, as with Bristol Parkway , the first such station, opened in 1972. Luton Airport Parkway is somewhat analogous - an interconnect railway station but with an airport via

407-580: Is particularly used for a roadway in a park or connecting to a park from which trucks and other heavy vehicles are excluded. Over the years, many different types of roads have been labeled parkways. The term may be used to describe city streets as narrow as two lanes with a landscaped median, wide landscaped setbacks, or both. The term has also been applied to scenic highways and to limited-access roads more generally. Many parkways originally intended for scenic, recreational driving have evolved into major urban and commuter routes. The first parkways in

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444-735: The City of Plymouth , the A38 is called "The Parkway" and bisects a rural belt of the local authority area, which coincides with the geographical centre; it has two junctions to enter the downtown part of the city. The Australian Capital Territory uses the term "parkway" to refer to roadways of a standard approximately equivalent to what would be designated as an "expressway", "freeway", or "motorway" in other areas. Parkways generally have multiple lanes in each direction of travel, no intersections (crossroads are accessed by interchanges), high speed limits, and are of dual carriageway design (or have high crash barriers on

481-671: The Clara Barton Parkway , running along the Potomac River near Washington, D.C. , and Alexandria, Virginia , were also constructed during this era. In Kentucky the term "parkway" designates a freeway in the Kentucky Parkway system , with nine built in the 1960s and 1970s. They were toll roads until the construction bonds were repaid; the last of these roads to charge tolls became freeways in 2006. The Arroyo Seco Parkway from Pasadena to Los Angeles , built in 1940,

518-632: The ENDS Report which became a highly influential journal for environmental policy specialists. He was President of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds from 1980 to 1985, helped set up the New Renaissance Group and was a trustee of Earthwatch Europe . In 1995, he appeared as a guest on Desert Island Discs . Nicholson's 1931 essay A National Plan for Britain led to the formation of

555-726: The Jubilee Walkway in London to celebrate his work in establishing the route. Two memorial sundials have been put in place in memory of Nicholson - one by the Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust at the WWT London Wetland Centre in Barnes, London , and another at Sedbergh School in Cumbria, where Nicholson went to school. Parkway A parkway is a landscaped thoroughfare . The term

592-591: The Merritt Parkway in Connecticut and the Vanderbilt Motor Parkway in New York. But their success led to more development, expanding a city's boundaries, eventually limiting the parkway's recreational driving use. The Arroyo Seco Parkway between Downtown Los Angeles and Pasadena, California , is an example of lost pastoral aesthetics. It and others have become major commuting routes, while retaining

629-835: The National Park Service . An example is the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) built Blue Ridge Parkway in the Appalachian Mountains of North Carolina and Virginia . Others are: Skyline Drive in Virginia ; the Natchez Trace Parkway in Mississippi , Alabama , and Tennessee ; and the Colonial Parkway in eastern Virginia's Historic Triangle area. The George Washington Memorial Parkway and

666-660: The Penn-Lincoln Parkway ) connects Downtown Pittsburgh to Monroeville, Pennsylvania . The Parkway West ( I-376 ) runs through the Fort Pitt Tunnel and links Downtown to Pittsburgh International Airport , southbound I-79 , Imperial, Pennsylvania , and westbound US 22/US 30. The Parkway North ( I-279 ) connects Downtown to Franklin Park, Pennsylvania and northbound I-79 . In the suburbs of Philadelphia , U.S. Route 202 follows an at-grade parkway alignment known as

703-575: The United States were developed during the late 19th century by landscape architects Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux as roads that separated pedestrians, bicyclists, equestrians, and horse carriages , such as the Eastern Parkway , which is credited as the world's first parkway, and Ocean Parkway in the New York City borough of Brooklyn . The term "parkway" to define this type of road

740-616: The VFW Parkway ) have evolved into regional commuter routes. "Parkway" is used in the names of many Canadian roads, including major routes through national parks , scenic drives, major urban thoroughfares, and even regular freeways that carry commercial traffic. Parkways in the National Capital Region are administered by the National Capital Region (Canada) . However, some of them are named "drive" or "driveway". The term in Canada

777-462: The "U.S. Route 202 Parkway" between Montgomeryville and Doylestown . The parkway varies from two to four lanes in width, has 5-foot-wide (1.5 m) shoulders, a 12-foot-wide (3.7 m) walking path called the US 202 Parkway Trail on the side, and a 40 mph (64 km/h) speed limit. The parkway opened in 2012 as a bypass of a section of US 202 between the two towns; it had originally been proposed as

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814-686: The Nature Conservancy in 1952, serving until 1966, just after the Conservancy lost its independent status. During his leadership, the Conservancy established itself as a research and management body that promoted ecology as having broad relevance and application to land use decision-making and management. Monks Wood Experimental Station , which helped set up, was perhaps the first to examine the effect of toxic chemicals on wildlife. In 1952, while in Baluchistan , he contracted polio , which left him with

851-656: The Protection of Nature (IUPN) (now International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)). In 1949, he oversaw Part 3 of The National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 which established the Nature Conservancy , a British state research council for natural sciences and 'biological service', and allowed for the legal protection of national nature reserves and Sites of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ). He replaced Captain Cyril Diver as Director General of

888-591: The influential policy think tank Political and Economic Planning (PEP), now the Policy Studies Institute . Nicholson had strong ideas on how a country should be run and wrote a book "The System". Nicholson joined the civil service in 1940, during World War II working for the Ministry of Shipping, then the Ministry of War Transport , attending conferences at Quebec and Cairo, and was with Winston Churchill at

925-438: The median). Victoria uses the term "parkway" to sometimes refer to smaller local access roads that travel through parkland. Unlike other uses of the term, these parkways are not high-speed routes but may still have some degree of limited access. Singapore uses the term "parkway" as an alternative to " expressway ". As such, parkways are also dual carriageways with high speed limits and interchanges . The East Coast Parkway

962-750: The name "parkway". In New York City, construction on the Long Island Motor Parkway (Vanderbilt Parkway) began in 1906 and planning for the Bronx River Parkway in 1907. In the 1920s, the New York City Metropolitan Area 's parkway system grew under the direction of Robert Moses , the president of the New York State Council of Parks and Long Island State Park Commission , who used parkways to provide access to newly created state parks, especially for city dwellers. As Commissioner of New York City Parks under Mayor LaGuardia, he extended

999-485: The parkways to the heart of the city, creating and linking its parks to the greater metropolitan systems. Most of the New York metropolitan parkways were designed by Gilmore Clark. The famed "Gateway to New England" Merritt Parkway in Connecticut was designed in the 1930s as a pleasurable alternative for affluent locals to the congested Boston Post Road, running through forest with each bridge designed uniquely to enhance

1036-539: The post-war peace conferences at Yalta and Potsdam . From 1945 until 1952, he was private secretary to Herbert Morrison , the Deputy Prime Minister. He also chaired the committee for 1951's Festival of Britain . During the war years, he was in charge of organizing shipping operations and convoys across the Atlantic. He was involved in the planning of "Operation Overlord", the invasion of Europe. For his services he

1073-585: The potential of co-operative birdwatching to inform the conservation debate. This led, in 1932, to the foundation of the British Trust for Ornithology , of which he was the first treasurer and later chairman (1947–1949). In 1947–1948, with the then director general of the United Nations ' scientific and education organisation UNESCO , Julian Huxley , he was involved in forming the International Union for

1110-521: The rainforest canopy, found some of the world’s deepest caves, scaled unclimbed peaks and recorded the folk music of nomads; all in co-operation and collaboration with local people and organisations. The Club was merged in 1965 with the Oxford University Women's Exploration Club (founded by Henrietta Hutton ), with equal status granted for both male and female members. Former members include: Edward Max Nicholson Max Nicholson, as he

1147-784: The scenery. Another example is the Sprain Brook Parkway from lower- Westchester to connect to the Taconic State Parkway to Chatham, New York . Landscape architect George Kessler designed extensive parkway systems for Kansas City, Missouri ; Memphis, Tennessee ; Indianapolis ; and other cities at the beginning of the 20th century. In the 1930s, as part of the New Deal the U.S. federal government constructed National Parkways designed for recreational driving and to commemorate historic trails and routes. These divided four-lane parkways have lower speed limits and are maintained by

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1184-525: Was 'Parkways in principle and Practice' (1967), in which Nicholson urged that "the problems of recreation, traffic, environmental quality and conservation should be studied together . .", to form a category of parkways in Britain. From 1951 to 1960, he was the senior editor of "British Birds" and was the chief editor of The Birds of the Western Palearctic ("BWP", 1977–1994, OUP ) from 1965 to 1992. He

1221-457: Was awarded the CVO and CB. Nicholson married Mary Crawford in 1932 and they had two children, Piers and Tom. The marriage was dissolved in 1964 and Crawford died in 1995. Nicholson then married Marie Mauerhofer (known as Toni) in 1965; they had one child, a son, David. She died in 2002. Max Nicholson died in 2003, aged 98. Every year on Nicholson's birthday, 12 July, a group of people walk a section of

1258-564: Was coined by Calvert Vaux and Frederick Law Olmsted in their proposal to link city and suburban parks with "pleasure roads". In Buffalo, New York , Olmsted and Vaux used parkways with landscaped medians and setbacks to create the first interconnected park and parkway system in the United States. Bidwell Parkway and Chapin Parkway are 200 foot wide city streets with only one lane for cars in each direction and broad landscaped medians that provide

1295-661: Was known to all, was born in Kilternan , Ireland , to English parents. His family moved to England in 1910, settling in Staines . He became interested in natural history after a visit to the natural history museum and later took to birdwatching , beginning to maintain a list of birds seen from 1913. He was educated at Sedbergh School in Cumbria and then Hertford College , Oxford from 1926, winning scholarships to both. At Oxford, he read history and visited Greenland and British Guiana as

1332-712: Was the first segment of the vast Southern California freeway system. It became part of State Route 110 and was renamed the Pasadena Freeway. A 2010 restoration of the freeway brought the Arroyo Seco Parkway designation back. In the New York metropolitan area , contemporary parkways are predominantly limited-access highways or freeways restricted to non-commercial traffic, excluding trucks and tractor-trailers . Some have low overpasses that also exclude buses. The Vanderbilt Parkway, an exception in western Suffolk County ,

1369-513: Was the only author to stay with the project from start to end, personally writing the habitat sections of all species in the nine volumes. In 1971, he gave the Witherby Memorial Lecture on the subject of Geograms. In 1976, he was an instrumental part of the setting up of Britain's first urban ecology park and the Trust for Urban Ecology . In 1978, Nicholson was instrumental in founding

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