Misplaced Pages

#163836

84-500: Otherness may refer to: The state of the Other , in philosophy Alterity or otherness, the philosophical principle of exchanging one's perspective for that of the "other" Otherness of childhood As a proper noun [ edit ] Otherness (book) , an anthology of science fiction stories by David Brin Otherness (F. Paul Wilson) ,

168-423: A representation created and depicted with language that identifies, describes, and classifies. The conceptual re-formulation of the nature of the Other also included Levinas's analysis of the distinction between " the saying and the said "; nonetheless, the nature of the Other retained the priority of ethics over metaphysics . In the psychology of the mind (e.g. R. D. Laing ), the Other identifies and refers to

252-400: A Dominator–Dominated binary relationship, postmodern philosophy presents the Other and Otherness as phenomenological and ontological progress for Man and Society. Public knowledge of the social identity of peoples classified as "Outsiders" is de facto acknowledgement of their being real , thus they are part of the body politic , especially in the cities. As such, "the post-modern city

336-528: A city by creating social spaces that use the spatial and temporal plans of the city to allow the LGBT communities free expression of their social identities , e.g. a boystown , a gay-pride parade , etc.; as such, queering urban spaces is a political means for the non-binary sexual Other to establish themselves as citizens integral to the reality (cultural and socio-economic) of their city's body politic . The philosopher of feminism , Cheshire Calhoun identified

420-401: A colony, Othering a non-white people allowed the colonisers to physically subdue and "civilise" the natives to establish the hierarchies of domination (political and social) required for exploiting the subordinated natives and their country. As a function of empire, a settler colony is an economic means for profitably disposing of two demographic groups: (i) the colonists (surplus population of

504-513: A great popularizer of geographic information. The society has long supported geographic research and education on geographical topics. The Association of American Geographers was founded in 1904 and was renamed the American Association of Geographers in 2016 to better reflect the increasingly international character of its membership. One of the first examples of geographic methods being used for purposes other than to describe and theorize

588-469: A male-dominated culture that represents Woman as the sexual Other to Man. In a patriarchal culture, the Man–Woman relation is society's normative binary-gender relation, wherein the sexual Other is a social minority with the least socio-political agency , usually the women of the community, because patriarchal semantics established that "a man represents both the positive and the neutral, as indicated by

672-477: A malevolent force in several novels by F. Paul Wilson Otherness (EP) , a 1995 EP by Scottish band Cocteau Twins Otherness (Kindness album) , a 2014 album by English musician Kindness Otherness (Alexisonfire album) , a 2022 album by Canadian band Alexisonfire Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Otherness . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change

756-447: A non-verbal form of communication that is universal. This dates back to Darwin's theory of emotion , which explains the evolutionary development of expressed emotion. This aids individual and societal relationships as there is the presence of emotional communication. For example, when studying social phenomena, individuals' emotions can connect and create a social emotion which can define the event happening. Medical or health geography

840-402: A notion of Us-versus-Them is, in effect, to pretend that the principal consideration is epistemological and natural—our civilization is known and accepted, theirs is different and strange—whereas, in fact, the framework separating us from them is belligerent, constructed, and situational. The contemporary, post-colonial world system of nation-states (with interdependent politics and economies)

924-453: A perception of the consciousness of the Self. In Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology (1943), Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) applied the dialectic of intersubjectivity to describe how the world is altered by the appearance of the Other, of how the world then appears to be oriented to the Other person, and not to the Self. The Other appears as a psychological phenomenon in

SECTION 10

#1732863349164

1008-443: A person or a social group from mainstream society to the social margins—for being essentially different from the societal norm (the plural Self)—is a socio-economic function of gender. In a society wherein man–woman heterosexuality is the sexual norm, the Other refers to and identifies lesbians (women who love women) and gays (men who love men) as people of same-sex orientation whom society has othered as "sexually deviant" from

1092-567: A settlement is positioned relative to the physical environment) and situation (how a settlement is positioned relative to other settlements). Another area of interest is the internal organization of urban areas with regard to different demographic groups and the layout of infrastructure. This subdiscipline also draws on ideas from other branches of Human Geography to see their involvement in the processes and patterns evident in an urban area . Subfields include: Economic geography , Population geography , and Settlement geography . These are clearly not

1176-542: Is a geographical celebration of difference that moves sites once conceived of as 'marginal' to the [social] centre of discussion and analysis" of the human relations between the Outsiders and the Establishment. Human geography Human geography or anthropogeography is the branch of geography which studies spatial relationships between human communities, cultures, economies, and their interactions with

1260-527: Is a school of interpretation whose material happens to be the Orient, its civilisations, peoples, and localities. Its objective discoveries – the work of innumerable devoted scholars who edited texts and translated them, codified grammars, wrote dictionaries, reconstructed dead epochs, produced positivistically verifiable learning – are and always have been conditioned by the fact that its truths, like any truths delivered by language, are embodied in language, and, what

1344-490: Is an interdisciplinary field relating emotions, geographic places and their contextual environments. These subjective feelings can be applied to individual and social contexts. Emotional geography specifically focuses on how human emotions relate to, or affect, the environment around them. Firstly, there is a difference between emotional and affectual geography and they have their respective geographical sub-fields. The former refers to theories of expressed feelings and

1428-423: Is associated with geographers such as David Harvey and Richard Peet . Radical geographers seek to say meaningful things about problems recognized through quantitative methods, provide explanations rather than descriptions, put forward alternatives and solutions, and be politically engaged, rather than using the detachment associated with positivists. (The detachment and objectivity of the quantitative revolution

1512-408: Is most apparent in the theory of environmental determinism , made popular in the 19th century by Carl Ritter and others, and has close links to the field of evolutionary biology of the time. Environmental determinism is the theory that people's physical, mental and moral habits are directly due to the influence of their natural environment. However, by the mid-19th century, environmental determinism

1596-459: Is not male. In feminist definition, women are the Other to men (but not the Other proposed by Hegel) and are not existentially defined by masculine demands; and also are the social Other who unknowingly accepts social subjugation as part of subjectivity , because the gender identity of woman is constitutionally different from the gender identity of man. The harm of Othering is in the asymmetric nature of unequal roles in sexual and gender relations;

1680-401: Is superior and prior to the Self. In the event, Levinas re-formulated the face-to-face encounter (wherein a person is morally responsible to the Other person) to include the propositions of Jacques Derrida (1930–2004) about the impossibility of the Other (person) being an entirely metaphysical pure-presence . That the Other could be an entity of pure Otherness (of alterity ) personified in

1764-445: Is the application of geographical information, perspectives, and methods to the study of health , disease , and health care . Health geography deals with the spatial relations and patterns between people and the environment. This is a sub-discipline of human geography, researching how and why diseases are spread and contained. Historical geography is the study of the human, physical, fictional, theoretical, and "real" geographies of

SECTION 20

#1732863349164

1848-462: Is the study of urban and rural areas with specific regards to spatial, relational and theoretical aspects of settlement. That is the study of areas which have a concentration of buildings and infrastructure . These are areas where the majority of economic activities are in the secondary sector and tertiary sectors . Urban geography is the study of cities, towns, and other areas of relatively dense settlement. Two main interests are site (how

1932-410: Is the truth of language?, Nietzsche once said, but "a mobile army of metaphors , metonyms , and anthropomorphisms – in short, a sum of human relations, which have been enhanced, transposed, and embellished poetically and rhetorically, and which, after long use, seem firm, canonical, and obligatory to a people: truths are illusions about which one has forgotten that this is what they are." In so far as

2016-525: The Self . Therefore, the condition of Otherness is a person's non-conformity to and with the social norms of society; and Otherness is the condition of disenfranchisement (political exclusion), effected either by the State or by the social institutions (e.g., the professions ) invested with the corresponding socio-political power . Therefore, the imposition of Otherness alienates the person labelled as "the Other" from

2100-687: The apartheid-era cultural representations of coloured people in South Africa (1948–94). Consequent to the Holocaust (1941–1945), with documents such as The Race Question (1950) and the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1963), the United Nations officially declared that racial differences are insignificant to anthropological likeness among human beings. Despite

2184-474: The 1970s, a number of critiques of the positivism now associated with geography emerged. Known under the term ' critical geography ,' these critiques signaled another turning point in the discipline. Behavioral geography emerged for some time as a means to understand how people made perceived spaces and places and made locational decisions. The more influential 'radical geography' emerged in the 1970s and 1980s. It draws heavily on Marxist theory and techniques and

2268-452: The Earth. The subject matter investigated is strongly influenced by the researcher's methodological approach. Economic geography examines relationships between human economic systems, states, and other factors, and the biophysical environment. Emotional geography is a subtopic within human geography, more specifically cultural geography , which applies psychological theories of emotion . It

2352-550: The Orient occurred in the existential awareness of the Western world, as a term, The Orient later accrued many meanings and associations, denotations, and connotations that did not refer to the real peoples, cultures, and geography of the Eastern world, but to Oriental studies , the academic field about the Orient as a word. In the Eastern world, the field of Occidentalism , the investigation programme and academic curriculum of and about

2436-489: The Orient, Edward Saïd said that: the Orient that appears in Orientalism, then, is a system of representations framed by a whole set of forces that brought the Orient into Western learning , Western consciousness, and later, Western empire. If this definition of Orientalism seems more political than not, that is simply because I think Orientalism was, itself, a product of certain political forces and activities. Orientalism

2520-509: The Other (as a metaphor, as a metonym, and as an anthropomorphism) are manifestations of the xenophobia inherent to the European historiographies that defined and labelled non–European peoples as the Other who is not the European Self. Supported by the reductive discourses (academic and commercial, geopolitical and military) of the empire's dominant ideology , the colonialist misrepresentations of

2604-483: The Other as a philosophic concept and as a term within phenomenology ; as a noun, the Other identifies and refers to a person and to a group of persons; as a verb, the Other identifies and refers to a category and a label for persons and things. Post-colonial scholarship demonstrated that, in pursuit of empire, "the colonizing powers narrated an 'Other' whom they set out to save, dominate, control, [and] civilize . . . [in order to] extract resources through colonization" of

Otherness - Misplaced Pages Continue

2688-444: The Other do not affect me as examples of the same genus united with my neighbor, by resemblance or common nature, individuations of the human race, or chips off the old block. . . . The others concern me from the first. Here, fraternity precedes the commonness of a genus. My relationship with the Other as neighbor gives meaning to my relations with all the others.— Otherwise than Being, or Beyond Essence Jacques Derrida said that

2772-576: The Other explain the Eastern world to the Western world as a binary relation of native weakness against colonial strength. In the 19th-century historiographies of the Orient as a cultural region, the Orientalists studied only what they said was the high culture (languages and literatures, arts and philologies) of the Middle East, but did not study that geographic space as a place inhabited by different nations and societies. About that Western version of

2856-658: The Other) is the state of being different from and alien to the social identity of a person and to the identity of the Self . In the discourse of philosophy, the term Otherness identifies and refers to the characteristics of Who? and What? of the Other, which are distinct and separate from the Symbolic order of things; from the Real (the authentic and unchangeable); from the æsthetic ( art , beauty , taste ); from political philosophy ; from social norms and social identity ; and from

2940-498: The Other. In that vein, the language of Otherness used in Oriental Studies perpetuates the cultural perspective of the dominantor–dominated relation, which is characteristic of hegemony ; likewise, the sociologic misrepresentation of the feminine as the sexual Other to man reasserts male privilege as the primary voice in social discourse between women and men. In The Colonial Present: Afghanistan, Palestine and Iraq (2004),

3024-466: The Self; likewise, in human geography , the practice of othering persons means to exclude and displace them from the social group to the margins of society, where mainstream social norms do not apply to them, for being the Other. The concept of the Self requires the existence of the constitutive Other as the counterpart entity required for defining the Self . Accordingly, in the late 18th century, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) introduced

3108-465: The United Nations' factual dismissal of racialism , institutional Othering in the United States produces the cultural misrepresentation of political refugees as illegal immigrants (from overseas) and of immigrants as illegal aliens (usually from México). To European people, imperialism (military conquest of non-white people, annexation, and economic integration of their countries to the motherland)

3192-596: The Western Self. As a function of imperial ideology, Orientalism fetishizes people and things in three actions of cultural imperialism : (i) Homogenization (all Oriental peoples are one folk); (ii) Feminization (the Oriental always is subordinate in the East–West relation); and (iii) Essentialization (a people possess universal characteristics); thus established by Othering, the empire's cultural hegemony reduces to inferiority

3276-403: The absolute alterity of the Other is compromised, because the Other person is other than the Self and the group. The logic of alterity (otherness) is especially negative in the realm of human geography , wherein the native Other is denied ethical priority as a person with the right to participate in the geopolitical discourse with an empire who decides the colonial fate of the homeland of

3360-506: The binary relation of the Orient and the Occident . Orientalism created the artificial existence of the Western Self and the non–western Other. Orientalists rationalised the cultural artifice of a difference of essence between white and non-white peoples to fetishize (identify, classify, subordinate) the peoples and cultures of Asia into "the Oriental Other"—who exists in opposition to

3444-409: The centre of society, and places him or her at the margins of society, for being the Other. The term Othering or Otherizing describes the reductive action of labelling and defining a person as a subaltern native , as someone who belongs to the socially subordinate category of the Other. The practice of Othering excludes persons who do not fit the norm of the social group , which is a version of

Otherness - Misplaced Pages Continue

3528-476: The common use of [the word] Man to designate human beings in general; whereas [the word] Woman represents only the negative, defined by limiting criteria, without reciprocity" from the first sex, from Man. In 1957, Betty Friedan reported that a woman's social identity is formally established by the sexual politics of the Ordinate–Subordinate nature of the Man–Woman sexual relation, the social norm in

3612-511: The concept of the Other as a constituent part of self-consciousness (preoccupation with the Self), which complemented the propositions about self-awareness (capacity for introspection) proffered by Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762–1814). John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) introduced the idea of the other mind in 1865 in An Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy , the first formulation of

3696-487: The constitutive Other to an object of consciousness, by not preserving its absolute alterity —the innate condition of otherness, by which the Other radically transcends the Self and the totality of the human network, into which the Other is being placed. As a challenge to self-assurance, the existence of the Other is a matter of ethics, because the ethical priority of the Other equals the primacy of ethics over ontology in real life. From that perspective, Lévinas described

3780-410: The country whose people the colonial power designated as the Other. As facilitated by Orientalist representations of the non–Western Other, colonization —the economic exploitation of a people and their land—is misrepresented as a civilizing mission launched for the material, cultural, and spiritual benefit of the colonized peoples. Counter to the post-colonial perspective of the Other as part of

3864-539: The course of a person's life, and not as a radical threat to the existence of the Self. In that mode, in The Second Sex (1949), Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986) applied the concept of Otherness to Hegel's dialectic of the " Lord and Bondsman " ( Herrschaft und Knechtschaft , 1807) and found it to be like the dialectic of the Man–Woman relationship, thus a true explanation for society's treatment and mistreatment of women. The psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan (1901–1981) and

3948-436: The discipline such as feminist geography , new cultural geography , settlement geography , and the engagement with postmodern and post-structural theories and philosophies. The primary fields of study in human geography focus on the core fields of: Cultural geography is the study of cultural products and norms – their variation across spaces and places, as well as their relations. It focuses on describing and analyzing

4032-691: The discipline, and a continued separation of geography from its two subfields of physical and human geography and from geology , geographers in the mid-20th century began to apply statistical and mathematical models in order to solve spatial problems. Much of the development during the quantitative revolution is now apparent in the use of geographic information systems ; the use of statistics, spatial modeling, and positivist approaches are still important to many branches of human geography. Well-known geographers from this period are Fred K. Schaefer , Waldo Tobler , William Garrison , Peter Haggett , Richard J. Chorley , William Bunge , and Torsten Hägerstrand . From

4116-463: The environment, examples of which include urban sprawl and urban redevelopment . It analyzes spatial interdependencies between social interactions and the environment through qualitative and quantitative methods. This multidisciplinary approach draws from sociology, anthropology, economics, and environmental science, contributing to a comprehensive understanding of the intricate connections that shape lived spaces. The Roll Geographical Society

4200-725: The essence of the West—Europe as a culturally homogeneous place—did not exist as a counterpart to Orientalism. In the postmodern era , the Orientalist practices of historical negationism , the writing of distorted histories about the places and peoples of "The East", continues in contemporary journalism; e.g. in the Third World, political parties practice Othering with fabricated facts about threat-reports and non-existent threats (political, social, military) that are meant to politically delegitimise opponent political parties composed of people from

4284-467: The false binary-relations of social class, caste , and race , of sex and gender, and of nation and religion. The profitable functioning of a colony (economic or settler) requires continual protection of the cultural demarcations that are basic to the unequal socio-economic relation between the "civilised man" (the colonist) and the "savage man", thus the transformation of the Other into the colonial subaltern. The social exclusion function of Othering

SECTION 50

#1732863349164

4368-525: The female Other as the female-half of the binary-gender relation that is the Man and Woman relation. The deconstruction of the word Woman (the subordinate party in the Man and Woman relation) produced a conceptual reconstruction of the female Other as the Woman who exists independently of male definition, as rationalised by patriarchy. That the female Other is a self-aware Woman who is autonomous and independent of

4452-630: The geographer Derek Gregory said that the US government's ideologic answers to questions about reasons for the terrorist attacks against the U.S. (i.e. 11 September 2001) reinforced the imperial purpose of the negative representations of the Middle-Eastern Other; especially when President G. W. Bush (2001–2009) rhetorically asked: "Why do they hate us?" as political prelude to the War on Terror (2001). Bush's rhetorical interrogation of armed resistance to empire, by

4536-439: The inequality arises from the social mechanics of intersubjectivity . About the production of knowledge of the Other who is not the Self , the philosopher Michel Foucault said that Othering is the creation and maintenance of imaginary "knowledge of the Other"—which comprises cultural representations in service to socio-political power and the establishment of hierarchies of domination . That cultural representations of

4620-434: The link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Otherness&oldid=1163235875 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Other (philosophy) The condition and quality of Otherness (the characteristics of

4704-440: The motherland) and (ii) the colonised (the subaltern native to be exploited) who antagonistically define and represent the Other as separate and apart from the colonial Self. Othering establishes unequal relationships of power between the colonised natives and the colonisers, who believe themselves essentially superior to the natives whom they othered into racial inferiority, as the non-white Other. That dehumanisation maintains

4788-458: The natural resources, and the cultures of the native inhabitants, as culturally inferior to the West. Historically, Western cartography often featured distortions (proportionate, proximate, and commercial) of places and true distances by placing the cartographer's homeland in the centre of the mapamundi ; these ideas were often utilized to support imperialistic expansion . In contemporary cartography,

4872-508: The nature of the Other as "insomnia and wakefulness"; an ecstasy (an exteriority) towards the Other that forever remains beyond any attempt at fully capturing the Other, whose Otherness is infinite; even in the murder of an Other, the Otherness of the person remains uncontrolled and not negated. The infinity of the Other allowed Lévinas to derive other aspects of philosophy and science as secondary to that ethic; thus: The others that obsess me in

4956-416: The non-white Other in an artificial dominator-dominated relationship that can be resolved only through racialist noblesse oblige , the "moral responsibility" that psychologically allows the colonialist Self to believe that imperialism is a civilising mission to educate, convert, and then culturally assimilate the Other into the empire—thus transforming the "civilised" Other into the Self. In establishing

5040-505: The non–Western Other, produced an Us-and-Them mentality in American relations with the non-white peoples of the Middle East; hence, as foreign policy, the War on Terror is fought for control of imaginary geographies, which originated from the fetishised cultural representations of the Other invented by Orientalists ; the cultural critic Edward Saïd said that: To build a conceptual framework around

5124-424: The norms of binary-gender heterosexuality. In practise, sexual Othering is realised by applying the negative denotations and connotations of the terms that describe lesbian, gay, bisexual , and transgender people, in order to diminish their personal social status and political power , and so displace their LGBT communities to the legal margin of society. To neutralise such cultural Othering, LGBT communities queer

SECTION 60

#1732863349164

5208-400: The only subfields that could be used to assist in the study of Urban geography , but they are some major players. Within each of the subfields, various philosophical approaches can be used in research; therefore, an urban geographer could be a Feminist or Marxist geographer, etc. Such approaches are: As with all social sciences, human geographers publish research and other written work in

5292-425: The other after René Descartes (1596–1650). Edmund Husserl (1859–1938) applied the concept of the Other as the basis for intersubjectivity , the psychological relations among people. In Cartesian Meditations: An Introduction to Phenomenology (1931), Husserl said that the Other is constituted as an alter ego , as an other self . As such, the Other person posed and was an epistemological problem—of being only

5376-409: The past. Historical geography studies a wide variety of issues and topics. A common theme is the study of the geographies of the past and how a place or region changes through time. Many historical geographers study geographical patterns through time, including how people have interacted with their environment, and created the cultural landscape. Political geography is concerned with the study of both

5460-400: The patriarchal West. When queried about their post-graduate lives, the majority of women interviewed at a university-class reunion, used binary gender language, and referred to and identified themselves by their social roles (wife, mother, lover) in the private sphere of life; and did not identify themselves by their own achievements (job, career, business) in the public sphere of life. Unawares,

5544-435: The patriarchy's formal subordination of the female sex with the institutional limitations of social convention , tradition , and customary law ; the social subordination of women is communicated (denoted and connoted) in the sexist usages of the word Woman . In 1949, the philosopher of existentialism , Simone de Beauvoir applied Hegel 's conception of "the Other" (as a constituent part of self-awareness ) to describe

5628-421: The people, places, and things of the Eastern world, as measured against the West, the standard of superior civilisation. Colonial stability requires the cultural subordination of the non-white Other for transformation into the subaltern native ; a colonised people who facilitate the exploitation of their labour , of their lands, and of the natural resources of their country. The practise of Othering justifies

5712-404: The philosopher of ethics Emmanuel Levinas (1906–1995) established the contemporary definitions, usages, and applications of the constitutive Other, as the radical counterpart of the Self. Lacan associated the Other with language and with the symbolic order of things. Levinas associated the Other with the ethical metaphysics of scripture and tradition ; the ethical proposition is that the Other

5796-418: The physical domination and cultural subordination of the native people by degrading them—first from being a national-citizen to being a colonial-subject—and then by displacing them to the periphery of the colony, and of geopolitical enterprise that is imperialism. Using the false dichotomy of "colonial strength" (imperial power) against "native weakness" (military, social, and economic), the coloniser invents

5880-462: The physical properties of the earth is John Snow's map of the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak . Though Snow was primarily a physician and a pioneer of epidemiology rather than a geographer, his map is probably one of the earliest examples of health geography . The now fairly distinct differences between the subfields of physical and human geography developed at a later date. The connection between both physical and human properties of geography

5964-553: The polar-perspective maps of the northern hemisphere, drawn by U.S. cartographers, also frequently feature distorted spatial relations (distance, size, mass) of and between the U.S. and Russia which according to historian Jerome D. Fellman emphasise the perceived inferiority (military, cultural, geopolitical) of the Russian Other. In Key Concepts in Political Geography (2009), Alison Mountz proposed concrete definitions of

6048-422: The social and ethnic groups designated as the Other in that society. The Othering of a person or of a social group—by means of an ideal ethnocentricity (the ethnic group of the Self) that evaluates and assigns negative, cultural meaning to the ethnic Other—is realised through cartography ; hence, the maps of Western cartographers emphasised and bolstered artificial representations of the national-identities,

6132-411: The social constructs of expressed feelings which can be generalisable and understood globally. The latter refers to theories underlying inexpressible feelings that are independent, embodied, and hard to understand. Emotional geography approaches geographical concepts and research from an expressed and generalisable perspective. Historically, emotions have an ultimate adaptive significance by accentuating

6216-492: The spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and the ways in which political processes are themselves affected by spatial structures. Subfields include: Electoral geography , Geopolitics , Strategic geography and Military geography . Population geography is the study of ways in which spatial variations in the distribution, composition, migration, and growth of populations are related to their environment or location. Settlement geography , including urban geography ,

6300-523: The threat of conquest [hegemony]." The racialist perspective of the Western world during the 18th and 19th centuries was invented with the Othering of non-white peoples, which also was supported with the fabrications of scientific racism , such as the pseudo-science of phrenology , which claimed that, in relation to a white-man's head, the head-size of the non-European Other indicated inferior intelligence; e.g.

6384-635: The unconscious mind , to silence , to insanity , and to language ("to what is referred and to what is unsaid"). Nonetheless, in such psychologic and analytic usages, there might arise a tendency to relativism if the Other person (as a being of pure, abstract alterity) leads to ignoring the commonality of truth . Likewise, problems arise from unethical usages of the terms The Other, Otherness, and Othering to reinforce ontological divisions of reality: of being , of becoming , and of existence . In Totality and Infinity: An Essay on Exteriority (1961), Emmanuel Lévinas said that previous philosophy had reduced

6468-437: The unique characteristics of each region through both human and physical aspects. With links to possibilism and cultural ecology some of the same notions of causal effect of the environment on society and culture remain with environmental determinism. By the 1960s, however, the quantitative revolution led to strong criticism of regional geography. Due to a perceived lack of scientific rigor in an overly descriptive nature of

6552-429: The ways language, religion, economy, government, and other cultural phenomena vary or remain constant from one place to another and on explaining how humans function spatially. Development geography is the study of the Earth's geography with reference to the standard of living and the quality of life of its human inhabitants, study of the location, distribution and spatial organization of economic activities, across

6636-418: The women had acted conventionally , and automatically identified and referred to themselves as the social Other to men. Although the nature of the social Other is influenced by the society's social constructs ( social class , sex , gender ), as a human organisation, society holds the socio-political power to formally change the social relation between the male-defined Self and Woman , the sexual Other, who

6720-725: Was founded in England in 1830. The first professor of geography in the United Kingdom was appointed in 1883, and the first major geographical intellect to emerge in the UK was Halford John Mackinder , appointed professor of geography at the London School of Economics in 1922. The National Geographic Society was founded in the United States in 1888 and began publication of the National Geographic magazine which became, and continues to be,

6804-459: Was intellectually justified by (among other reasons) orientalism , the study and fetishization of the Eastern world as "primitive peoples" requiring modernisation the civilising mission . Colonial empires were justified and realised with essentialist and reductive representations (of people, places, and cultures) in books and pictures and fashion, which conflated different cultures and peoples into

6888-474: Was itself critiqued by radical geographers as being a tool of capital). Radical geography and the links to Marxism and related theories remain an important part of contemporary human geography (See: Antipode ). Critical geography also saw the introduction of 'humanistic geography', associated with the work of Yi-Fu Tuan , which pushed for a much more qualitative approach in methodology. The changes under critical geography have led to contemporary approaches in

6972-514: Was preceded by the European imperial system of economic and settler colonies in which "the creation and maintenance of an unequal economic, cultural, and territorial relationship, usually between states, and often in the form of an empire, [was] based on domination and subordination ." In the imperialist world system, political and economic affairs were fragmented, and the discrete empires "provided for most of their own needs ... [and disseminated] their influence solely through conquest [empire] or

7056-449: Was under attack for lacking methodological rigor associated with modern science, and later as a means to justify racism and imperialism . A similar concern with both human and physical aspects is apparent during the later 19th and first half of the 20th centuries focused on regional geography . The goal of regional geography, through something known as regionalisation , was to delineate space into regions and then understand and describe

#163836