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132-621: The Osoppo aimed to cooperate independently with the communist Garibaldi Brigades and to contribute to the antifascist fight against the occupying German forces . The latter had in fact established the Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral , subtracting the whole territory of Friuli-Venezia Giulia from the authority of the Italian Social Republic and establishing an harsh regime of repression and dispossession, availing of

264-590: A last but vain mediation. On 15 December 1944 MacPherson met the leaders of Natisone and complained how, since their passage to the 9th Corps , frequent incidents occurred between the Garibaldi and Osoppo Brigades, adding that the political divergences had to be absolutely postponed to the end of the war and that they could not be a hindrance to military operation in any case, underlying how the Allies were bound by international agreements which did not allow them to interfere in

396-402: A limited availability) and the notable gap between the promises of missions and the material actually sent (beside the different promises of OSS and SOE agents), induced the local Resistance to a cynical attitude following the development of a lack of trust in the Allies, thus encouraging revolutionary propaganda and adherence to pro-Soviet tendencies. In general, as Claudio Pavone explains, if

528-457: A massacre occurred on 7 February 1945 near the malghe of Porzûs (comune of Faedis , Eastern Friuli ). The event, connected to the specific situation on the eastern border with the strong ideological motivations of communist Garibaldi partisans and the nationalist rancours between Slavs and Italians, was the most severe bloodshed between partisan formations during the Resistance. In Porzûs there

660-740: A report to his command in which he stated that the Slovenian 9th Corps considered the major and the Osoppo as collaborators of the Germans and that, for this reason, both the British mission and the Osoppo had to be eliminated at any cost, as they were considered elements that opposed their annexation design. The Osoppo Brigades, in particular, were considered as the "natural enemy" by Slovenian partisans, who led violent propaganda against them, disarming them wherever possible, and denying them any right to recruit. At that point,

792-492: A roundup. The Garibaldini distinguished by their political symbols of their uniforms: red handkerchiefs around the neck, red stars on hats, emblems with hammer and sickle . Despite the directives of CVL command aimed to unite all the combatant formations and to promote the use of national badges and the military salute, militants of the brigades continued to be indifferent towards those directives, remaining faithful to their traditions, and most of them continued to salute with

924-492: A roundup. The Garibaldini distinguished by their political symbols of their uniforms: red handkerchiefs around the neck, red stars on hats, emblems with hammer and sickle . Despite the directives of CVL command aimed to unite all the combatant formations and to promote the use of national badges and the military salute, militants of the brigades continued to be indifferent towards those directives, remaining faithful to their traditions, and most of them continued to salute with

1056-594: A violent Slav nationalist reaction at the arrival of the partisans in the Italian territory. Yugoslav formations, often supported by the local Slav population, began to arrest many Italian citizens on the charge of being fascists, but actually there was no distinction among the Italians who were generally considered as "enemies of the people". Arrests were concentrated in Pisino and, after a brief trial, prisoners were shot and threw into

1188-420: Is wrong to mobilize people who are not only not in favour but are against it; it is wrong to impose Slovenian in schools, if this is not required by those concerned; it is harmful to respond with hostile acts and threats to the opposition of the population [...] Despite that, almost 1,500 Garibaldi partisans, even with hardship, were obliged to accept the strategy of PCI leaders on 24 December 1944 and they crossed

1320-494: The 11º Corpo d'armata ) waited until 11 September, when he was reached by the first German divisions who were quickly occupying Istria and he gave them the command. The same happened in Pula . The dissolution of many divisions and the lack of orders led to the deliver of more than 100,000 Italian soldiers deployed in the area to the Germans without any chance to draft a resistance plan. The German occupation did not extended immediately to

1452-1006: The 88ª Brigata "Casotti" and later the entire " Antonio Gramsci " division in the Oltrepò Pavese . Those situations led sometimes to diatribes and contrasts that did not reduced the common will of antifascist struggle and the related application in fight. The most famous groups of Garibaldi Brigades were those of Vincenzo Moscatelli "Cino" and Eraldo Gastone "Ciro" in the Partisan Republic of Valsesia , Pompeo Colajanni "Barbato", Vincenzo Modica "Petralia" and Giovanni Latilla "Nanni" in Valle Po and Langhe , Francesco Moranino "Gemisto" in Biella , Mario Ricci "Armando" in Modena and Arrigo Boldrini "Bulow" in Romagna . Together with BGs, there were

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1584-696: The 88ª Brigata "Casotti" and later the entire " Antonio Gramsci " division in the Oltrepò Pavese . Those situations led sometimes to diatribes and contrasts that did not reduced the common will of antifascist struggle and the related application in fight. The most famous groups of Garibaldi Brigades were those of Vincenzo Moscatelli "Cino" and Eraldo Gastone "Ciro" in the Partisan Republic of Valsesia , Pompeo Colajanni "Barbato", Vincenzo Modica "Petralia" and Giovanni Latilla "Nanni" in Valle Po and Langhe , Francesco Moranino "Gemisto" in Biella , Mario Ricci "Armando" in Modena and Arrigo Boldrini "Bulow" in Romagna . Together with BGs, there were

1716-773: The Brigata Partigiana Stella Rossa killed by Germans during the roundup of Marzabotto , the anarchic Emilio Canzi , the sole commander of the 13th operative zone of Tuscan Emilian Apennines. Moreover, Aldo Aniasi remained at the command of the 2ª Divisione Garibaldi "Redi" in Ossola despite he had left the PCI in order to join the PSI, while Luigi Pierobon , one of the leaders of the Italian Catholic Federation of University Students of Veneto , had an important part in

1848-490: The Brigata Partigiana Stella Rossa killed by Germans during the roundup of Marzabotto , the anarchic Emilio Canzi , the sole commander of the 13th operative zone of Tuscan Emilian Apennines. Moreover, Aldo Aniasi remained at the command of the 2ª Divisione Garibaldi "Redi" in Ossola despite he had left the PCI in order to join the PSI, while Luigi Pierobon , one of the leaders of the Italian Catholic Federation of University Students of Veneto , had an important part in

1980-509: The CLNAI , the only command allowed to give orders legitimately regarding the operative deployment of partisan forces) ordered to the Italian partisans located in the zone to pass under the dependence of the Yugoslav 9th Corps in order to create (according to Palmiro Togliatti in a letter to Vincenzo Bianco, PCI representative in the 9th Corps): A completely different condition from the one existing in

2112-552: The Cossacks of Don and Kuban led by general Krasnov and prince Zulikize, who created commands in Verzegnis and Paluzza and organized wide plunders and devastations, collaborating into the massive repression of partisans. Political authorities and military divisions of RSI participated to the repression and the fight against the Resistance formations: divisions of X MAS initially manifested unrealistic anti-Slavic defence purposes on

2244-493: The Giustizia e Libertà formations located in the region, was to fight against Germans and fascists for a democratic state within the Resistance, trying to keep an active collaboration with the Garibaldi communist units and protecting moreover the interests of the Italian population of Friuli and Venezia Giulia facing Yugoslav partisan forces. The Cappello Alpino and a green handkerchief were chosen as recognition signs. The brigade

2376-449: The Gruppi di azione patriottica (GAP, "Groups of Patriotic Action"), specialised in sabotages and attempts against nazi-fascist occupants. GAPs and BGs represented almost 50% of the forces of the partisan Resistance. At the final insurrection of April 1945, the active garibaldini combatants were about 51,000 divided in 23 "divisions" on a total of about 100,000 partisans. On 15 April 1945,

2508-401: The Gruppi di azione patriottica (GAP, "Groups of Patriotic Action"), specialised in sabotages and attempts against nazi-fascist occupants. GAPs and BGs represented almost 50% of the forces of the partisan Resistance. At the final insurrection of April 1945, the active garibaldini combatants were about 51,000 divided in 23 "divisions" on a total of about 100,000 partisans. On 15 April 1945,

2640-449: The Isonzo . Their command moved toward Circhina and Zakriž , in the current Slovenia . At the end of the war, Garibaldi partisans were sent to free Lubiana and not Trieste, as initially promised. It is a serious decision, a big mistake, because it is clear that Slovenians have changed their position on the border issue and we should not accept the request of the 9th Corps. Since July 1944,

2772-598: The Italian Social Republic (RSI). The policy of German authorities in the Adriatisches Kustenland , ruled by Rainer with dictatorial powers, included the ouster of the political-administrative influence of the RSI, the planning and actuation of measures for a subsequent annexation to the Reich, the economic exploitation, the repression of dissent and anti-fascist partisan struggle. In Carnia , German authorities established even

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2904-435: The Italian Social Republic . The general command of the brigades ordered the formation of a relay system from the communist cells already active in the cities, in order to link militant units among the various zones, the strengthen of connections and the actual carrying out of the partisan struggle. For this purpose, it was established that the 50% of militants had to be assigned to the military activity. A body of inspectors

3036-435: The Italian Social Republic . The general command of the brigades ordered the formation of a relay system from the communist cells already active in the cities, in order to link militant units among the various zones, the strengthen of connections and the actual carrying out of the partisan struggle. For this purpose, it was established that the 50% of militants had to be assigned to the military activity. A body of inspectors

3168-472: The Julian Alps and advanced through Karst Plateau and Istria, pointing towards Gorizia, Trieste, Pula and Fiume. Moreover, since the second half of 1941, in the provinces of Gorizia, Pula, Fiume and Trieste there was already an increasing partisan activity of guerrilla-warfare and sabotage by Slovenian resistance groups. The Yugoslav formations, kindled by a strong nationalism and by a spirit of vengeance after

3300-635: The National Liberation Committee (CLN), in particular the Italian Socialist Party . Led by Luigi Longo and Pietro Secchia , they were the largest of the partisan groups and suffered the highest number of losses. Members wore a red handkerchief around the neck with red stars on their hats. On 20 September 1943 in Milano , the military committee of PCI was formed and in October it became in

3432-401: The National Liberation Committee (CLN), in particular the Italian Socialist Party . Led by Luigi Longo and Pietro Secchia , they were the largest of the partisan groups and suffered the highest number of losses. Members wore a red handkerchief around the neck with red stars on their hats. On 20 September 1943 in Milano , the military committee of PCI was formed and in October it became in

3564-639: The Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral , with the original name used during the domination of the Habsburg monarchy and the clear cancellation of what Italy obtained after the World War I . Those regions were put under the leadership of Carinthian Friedrich Rainer , appointed as High Commissar with full powers, in anticipation of the formal annexation of the region into the Third Reich . In his diaries, Joseph Goebbels talks about annexation project not only for

3696-572: The Waffen-SS formations, cossacks and fascist republican forces. This autonomous partisan group was led by Candido Grassi (battle name "Verdi"), Manlio Cencig (battle name "Mario"), two captains of the Royal Italian Army and Don Ascanio De Luca (already chaplain of Alpini in Montenegro and parson of Colugna, Tavagnacco , at the time). Because of the complex political-military situation of

3828-523: The raised fist . Generally, Garibaldi Brigades received orders from the PCI representative among the Corpo Volontari della Libertà , who was Luigi Longo (battle name "Italo"), and from the National Liberation Committee . However, all the BGs depended directly on the general command, formed by general commander Longo, Pietro Secchia (battle name "Botte" or "Vineis"), who was also the political commissar of

3960-421: The raised fist . Generally, Garibaldi Brigades received orders from the PCI representative among the Corpo Volontari della Libertà , who was Luigi Longo (battle name "Italo"), and from the National Liberation Committee . However, all the BGs depended directly on the general command, formed by general commander Longo, Pietro Secchia (battle name "Botte" or "Vineis"), who was also the political commissar of

4092-593: The "Garemi", "Nannetti" and "Ortigara" Divisions stopped the German retreat and freed Padova , Valdagno and Belluno . Severe problems of collaboration between the Italian partisans and the Slovenian formations of the People's Liberation Army of Yugoslavia arose on the eastern border, where the strong Slavic chauvinism, difficulties of Italian communist leaders and the contradictory aspects of their policy fostered divisions and anti-Slavic resentments within non-communist forces of

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4224-495: The "Garemi", "Nannetti" and "Ortigara" Divisions stopped the German retreat and freed Padova , Valdagno and Belluno . Severe problems of collaboration between the Italian partisans and the Slovenian formations of the People's Liberation Army of Yugoslavia arose on the eastern border, where the strong Slavic chauvinism, difficulties of Italian communist leaders and the contradictory aspects of their policy fostered divisions and anti-Slavic resentments within non-communist forces of

4356-621: The "military work" given to commanders of BGs on the field and to regional delegates with full powers. Despite the direct link with PCI, the Garibaldi Brigades had notable leaders who were not communist militants, like the Catholic and apolitical Aldo Gastaldi (with the battle name "Bisagno", after the homonymous torrent stream ), one of the most important partisan commanders in Genoa , the apolitical Mario Musolesi (battle name "Lupo"), leader of

4488-462: The "military work" given to commanders of BGs on the field and to regional delegates with full powers. Despite the direct link with PCI, the Garibaldi Brigades had notable leaders who were not communist militants, like the Catholic and apolitical Aldo Gastaldi (with the battle name "Bisagno", after the homonymous torrent stream ), one of the most important partisan commanders in Genoa , the apolitical Mario Musolesi (battle name "Lupo"), leader of

4620-545: The 50s, there were expectations of a return of war in mountains against the bourgeois state firmly placed in the capitalist field. Garibaldi Brigades The Brigate Garibaldi or Garibaldi Brigades were partisan units aligned with the Italian Communist Party active in the armed resistance against both German and Italian fascist forces during World War II . The Brigades were mostly made up of communists , but also included members of other parties of

4752-582: The 9th corpus also launched a violent propaganda campaign against the Osoppo Brigades, arresting and deporting some of the relays, and accusing their partisans of capitalism, fascism and collaboration with the Germans. However it was the Slovenes, in a certain sense, who collaborated with the Germans, reporting to them the Osoppo bases and movements. At the same time, both the Osoppo and the British mission were accused of being German spies. Despite these complaints,

4884-402: The Adriatic Littoral but even also for the whole Veneto , in order to exploit it as a "tourist attraction area" for the German " master race ". On 10 September 1943, provinces of Bolzano, Belluno and Trento were unified into the "Voralpenland" while the territory comprising Udine, Gorizia, Trieste, Pola, Fiume and Ljubljiana was officially established as Adriatisches Kustenland in October, after

5016-463: The Allies (due to the lack of supply launches and to the poor progress of the advance in Italy) and to the Osoppo had grown, rather than decreased. At the same time the Garibaldi had increased their political activity. Indeed, the British agents had been threatened with arrests and executions. Following these facts and threats, Nicholson himself moved to Udine, thus abandoning his sector. On the eastern side of

5148-509: The American Office of Strategic Services (OSS) had begun a linking mission in Friuli with the partisan called Chicago-Texas . This mission was led by two Italian agents affiliated to PCI, Alfredo Michelagnoli and Giuseppe Gozzer . The mission was organized accordingly to a wider agreement between OSS and PCI, providing the enrolment of "experienced men" appointed by the party, in exchange for

5280-499: The Friulian territory and Julian March , at the middle of opposite nationalisms and secular ethnic and territorial conflicts, the Osoppo Brigades had often conflictual relationships with Garibaldi formations and they were in contrast with Slovenian-Yugoslav partisan forces. The name "Osoppo" was a symbolic reference with the history of the region during the Italian unification , when in 1848

5412-553: The GL member Gastone Valente "Enea". Toffanin immediately shot them and subtracted correspondences, weapons and supplies. Later, all the other Osoppo partisan, including Guido Pasolini (elder brother of Pier Paolo ), were killed except two who accepted to join the GAP. The massacre had judiciary consequences with a long trial which ended with severe penalties. In March, the Osoppo brigades operated with five divisions and included: The followings are

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5544-459: The Garibaldi Brigades was the contrast attempt to transform the partisan formations into an avant-garde and constitutive element of the process of involving the populations in the active anti-fascism, with a continuous effort of integration between the armed fight and the civil mobilisation through their representatives. With a further organizational effort, communist leaders of Milan created in June 1944

5676-412: The Garibaldi Brigades was the contrast attempt to transform the partisan formations into an avant-garde and constitutive element of the process of involving the populations in the active anti-fascism, with a continuous effort of integration between the armed fight and the civil mobilisation through their representatives. With a further organizational effort, communist leaders of Milan created in June 1944

5808-429: The Garibaldi partisans, there were distrust and fear of the return of reactionary forces, and only about 60% of the weapons were actually given, while communist partisans kept a conspicuous number of light weapons, caps, jackets, red handkerchiefs, backpacks and cartridge boxes. The hiding of weapons was partially allowed by some Garibaldi leaders of the north in sight of a possible reprise of the liberation war; during all

5940-429: The Garibaldi partisans, there were distrust and fear of the return of reactionary forces, and only about 60% of the weapons were actually given, while communist partisans kept a conspicuous number of light weapons, caps, jackets, red handkerchiefs, backpacks and cartridge boxes. The hiding of weapons was partially allowed by some Garibaldi leaders of the north in sight of a possible reprise of the liberation war; during all

6072-503: The Garibaldi, reported also by Bolla at the Udine NLC, provoked the reation of the communist members of the Committee who ordered the GAP members of the zone to attack the Osoppo headquarter. About a hundred gappisti were then sent to the place under the command of Mario Toffanin "Giacca", a highly ideological and extremist partisan who captured "Bolla" and other Osoppo commanders, including

6204-607: The Karst carves. This event, known as Foibe massacres , occurred in September 1943 and led to the death of more than a thousand of Italians, before the conclusion of a precarious agreement of antifascist collaboration between Italian Garibaldi Brigades and Yugoslav partisans . According to the Operation Achse as wanted by Hitler and German commanders, the province of Udine and the whole Venezia Giulia were immediately included into

6336-464: The OSS command of Caserta . However, the head of the criticized mission, Suhling, severely rejected the accusations, turning them over Nicholson and Smith, claiming that they were the ones who gave a political connotation to their action in order to "unify formations of different ideological origins", thus contributing to interpret allied action as a "political pressure" and claiming to "influence if not to lead"

6468-460: The OSS was relying on a "mercenary puppet" completely under the control of "the most violent communist" in northern Italy. At the same time, Michelagnoli sent reports to the OSS in which he praised the Garibaldi Brigades for their "fighting spirit" and "sure anti-fascism", while he accused the Osoppo of having numerous ex-fascists and politically compromised personalities among their members, while remarking that there were no noteworthy incidents between

6600-658: The Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral, (OZAL) administrated by Supreme Commissar Friedrich Rainer to whom was flanked for the repression by SS Gruppenführer Odilo Globočnik , previously the coordinator of German extermination camps in Poland. On 9 October 1943, the Julian provinces (Gorizia, Trieste, Pola, Fiume), as well as Friuli, were merged into the OZAL and subordinated to the German military administration, subtracting them from

6732-689: The Osoppo Division took part with the Friuli Garibaldi Division to the liberation of Carnia and the establishment of a " partisan republic "; after conflicts and little battles, partisan (almost 3,500 men) occupied a zone of 2,500 km with 78,900 inhabitants and 37 comuni. The council of the Free Republic of Carnia was established on 26 September in Ampezzo and tried to develop projects regarding administration, economy, justice and education. In

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6864-465: The Osoppo partisans, heavily defeated, lost most of their equipment. The passage of the Natisone under Slovenian command marked the occupation of the whole area by the 9th Corpss which, according to MacPherson, declared the Italian language illegal there, imposing the use of Slovene in every sphere, and organized some annexation "plebiscites" with voting papers opened under the threat of weapons. Men of

6996-618: The Resistance. On 20 September 1944, the general command of Slovenian PLA abolished unilaterally the agreements with the NLC done in April of the same year, which provided an Italian-Slovenian "equal command" on the formations. Consequently, most of the Italian units fell under the control of the Slovenian PLA and ceased to be formations of the Corpo Volontari della Libertà d'Italia . The commander and

7128-413: The Resistance. On 20 September 1944, the general command of Slovenian PLA abolished unilaterally the agreements with the NLC done in April of the same year, which provided an Italian-Slovenian "equal command" on the formations. Consequently, most of the Italian units fell under the control of the Slovenian PLA and ceased to be formations of the Corpo Volontari della Libertà d'Italia . The commander and

7260-550: The Tagliamento river (which constituted a true natural border with a large gravel bed about one kilometre wide) the situation was even more difficult, as this territory was openly claimed by the Yugoslav partisans. These combined a strongly hostile policy towards the Osoppo with a continuous pressure so that the Garibaldini were placed directly at their dependencies. An allied agent sent to the area, led by Major Thomas MacPherson, wrote

7392-459: The action of partisans. Detailed plans were designed in order to enter into the cities, protect factories and plants and to prevent the run of nazi-fascist forces. The insurrection began then on 24 and 25 April in the main cities of the north, after that the regional commands spread the codified message "Aldo dice 26x1" ("Aldo says 26x1"). During this final phase, the Garibaldini formations, organized in "Divisions" and "Groups of Divisions" (like

7524-459: The action of partisans. Detailed plans were designed in order to enter into the cities, protect factories and plants and to prevent the run of nazi-fascist forces. The insurrection began then on 24 and 25 April in the main cities of the north, after that the regional commands spread the codified message "Aldo dice 26x1" ("Aldo says 26x1"). During this final phase, the Garibaldini formations, organized in "Divisions" and "Groups of Divisions" (like

7656-534: The actual action, the development of the partisan organization and struggle. The organization was structured by PCI direction. The use of the name "brigade" indicated the overcoming of the "band" and the traditional military-like organization. It was also a reference to the International Brigades of the Spanish Civil War . The partisan organization was named after general Giuseppe Garibaldi , one of

7788-411: The actual action, the development of the partisan organization and struggle. The organization was structured by PCI direction. The use of the name "brigade" indicated the overcoming of the "band" and the traditional military-like organization. It was also a reference to the International Brigades of the Spanish Civil War . The partisan organization was named after general Giuseppe Garibaldi , one of

7920-757: The agent concluded, the Osoppo Brigades were fighting against seven enemies at once: the Germans, the Russians (serving the Germans), the RSI Fascists, the Slovenians, the Garibaldi partisans, the civil spies and the winter. In November 1944, the Garibaldi Natisone division passed under the direct dependence of Slovenians, closing each contact with the Osoppo. MacPherson, solicited also by the Allied command of Caserta tried to do

8052-432: The agitation of peasants in some zones and the infiltration among schools and universities, supporting also the recruitment and the flow of volunteers to combatant formations on mountains. During the Resistance, the separation between the two sides had never been irreversible and militants switched from an activity to another one, also if in some provinces a separation occurred between the "political work" of local leaders and

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8184-432: The agitation of peasants in some zones and the infiltration among schools and universities, supporting also the recruitment and the flow of volunteers to combatant formations on mountains. During the Resistance, the separation between the two sides had never been irreversible and militants switched from an activity to another one, also if in some provinces a separation occurred between the "political work" of local leaders and

8316-413: The autonomous of Ossopo, including Elda Turchetti, a militant killed and reputed by communists as an X MAS spy. If the Osoppo members were based on principles of defence of national interests, which should have been discussed only after the end of the war, Garibaldi partisans were also very doubtful given the political positions and authoritarian methods adopted by Slovenian in their territories. [...] It

8448-715: The biggest division was engaged in Ljubljana and entered into the city on 20 May, because an order of the Slovenian Communist Party hindered the participation of Italian partisan formations to the liberation of Trieste. After the end of the military operations during the first days of May in 1945, Allies and NLC ordered the consignment of weapons and the dismantle of partisan units. Garibaldi Brigades, as other partisan formations, were formally disbanded and gave to Allies 215,000 rifles, 12,000 submachine guns, 5,000 machine guns, 5 000 handguns and 760 bazookas. However, among

8580-596: The biggest division was engaged in Ljubljana and entered into the city on 20 May, because an order of the Slovenian Communist Party hindered the participation of Italian partisan formations to the liberation of Trieste. After the end of the military operations during the first days of May in 1945, Allies and NLC ordered the consignment of weapons and the dismantle of partisan units. Garibaldi Brigades, as other partisan formations, were formally disbanded and gave to Allies 215,000 rifles, 12,000 submachine guns, 5,000 machine guns, 5 000 handguns and 760 bazookas. However, among

8712-654: The borderlands but then they ended (completely ousted by Rainer, who did not tolerate any fascist "interference" in the territories he administered) to dedicate themselves in the repression of Garibaldi and Osoppo Brigades, while some members of the republican police, like Gaetano Collotti and Giuseppe Gueli , organized in Trieste violent and aggressive police apparatus against partisans and their supporters. In this tough and intricate situation, characterized by inter-ethnic hatreds, spirit of vengeance, opposite nationalisms and ideological extremes, repressions, internments and roundups,

8844-456: The brigades, Giancarlo Pajetta ("Luca", deputy commander); Giorgio Amendola ("Palmieri"), Antonio Carini ("Orsi", killed in March 1944), Francesco Leone, Umberto Massola, Antonio Roasio, Francesco Scotti and Eugenio Curiel (killed on 24 February 1945). Those leaders developed the Garibaldi resistance movements and spread the communist influence in northern Italy. Along with Longo, Secchia and

8976-408: The brigades, Giancarlo Pajetta ("Luca", deputy commander); Giorgio Amendola ("Palmieri"), Antonio Carini ("Orsi", killed in March 1944), Francesco Leone, Umberto Massola, Antonio Roasio, Francesco Scotti and Eugenio Curiel (killed on 24 February 1945). Those leaders developed the Garibaldi resistance movements and spread the communist influence in northern Italy. Along with Longo, Secchia and

9108-543: The city of Osoppo resisted for seven months against the Austrian troops. After the 8 September, the Italian divisions of the 2ª Armata , already involved in an harsh repression and anti-guerrilla struggle in Slovenia against the Yugoslav partisan units and the indigenous population, broke up. In Trieste and Gorizia , general Alberto Ferrero left the command without any order. In Fiume general Gastone Gambara (commander of

9240-480: The combatants to prepare themselves for the general insurrection in all the northern Italy in order to precede the Allied troops and cooperate for the defeat of nazi-fascist forces. The general command of the brigades and the Communist Party emphasized to the maximum the importance of the insurrection which had to be done at any costs, without accepting any agreements, proposals, truces with the enemy that could limit

9372-422: The combatants to prepare themselves for the general insurrection in all the northern Italy in order to precede the Allied troops and cooperate for the defeat of nazi-fascist forces. The general command of the brigades and the Communist Party emphasized to the maximum the importance of the insurrection which had to be done at any costs, without accepting any agreements, proposals, truces with the enemy that could limit

9504-482: The command headquartered in the Castello Ceconi of Pielungo (comune of Vito d'Asio ), was formed by seven battalions led by Candido Grassi with Don Ascanio De Luca as political commissar. Battalions were dislocated as follows: On 19 July 1944, the headquarter of Pielungo was put on fire by Germans and a situation of instability occurred in the command after divergences between militants of Giustizia e Libertà and

9636-527: The communists, from the working class of Eastern Veneto, and the rural populations and bourgeois, firmly anchored to the Catholic Church , both united by the anti-German hate but divided by ideologies, while the socialist and Action formations were particularly weak. On November–December 1943, the Osoppo Brigades were formed with the merger between the socialist and Action formations with the catholic ones. The purpose of Osoppo Brigades, in which converged also

9768-526: The completion of the territorial occupation by the German armed forces between 9 September and 12 October. On 2 October 1943, German troops went to the offensive and launched the Operation Wolkenbruch ("Cloudburst") with three SS divisions and two infantry divisions that repelled the 9th Corps and destroyed the houses used by Yugoslavs as support bases; the operation ended with the German victory on 15 October 1943. On 1 October 1943, Germans established

9900-536: The creation of the Divisione Garibaldi "Ateo Garemi" . Some monarchical officers also joined the BGs and obtained the command of detachments, battalions or even entire brigades, for their military preparation, like captain Ugo Ricci (among the first promoters of the resistance in the province of Como , killed in action during the battle of Lenno ) and lieutenant count Luchino Dal Verme , who commanded as "Maino"

10032-426: The creation of the Divisione Garibaldi "Ateo Garemi" . Some monarchical officers also joined the BGs and obtained the command of detachments, battalions or even entire brigades, for their military preparation, like captain Ugo Ricci (among the first promoters of the resistance in the province of Como , killed in action during the battle of Lenno ) and lieutenant count Luchino Dal Verme , who commanded as "Maino"

10164-459: The defence field, contrasts between Osoppo and Garibaldi Brigades of Carnia and Friuli did not allow instead the formation of a unified command. The following repression conducted by over 40,000 men, between Germans, Social Republicans, X MAS , ethnic formations and cossacks, dismantled the Carnia Republic and caused heavy losses to defenders and civil population; nazi-fascist forces devastated

10296-587: The end of July, a coordination command was formed between the Osoppo of Sinistra Tagliamento and the Natisone Garibaldi Brigade. In Destra Tagliamento, instead, the Osoppo Garibaldi was formed at the end of August from the "Ippolito Nievo" unified divisions of plain and mountain while the 2ª divisione Osoppo Territoriale was created in September. The Unified Command was solicited also by the Allies, who did not want any political issues as hinder to

10428-432: The enemy lines) already active in the zone, who did not know when consider the initiatives of Gozzer as adopted in his qualify as representative of Americans or in that of communist partisan commander. On the other hand, there was not any specific coordination between the missions of OSS and SOE and this situation generated "the most complete confusion", putting in involuntary competition the missions started independently on

10560-613: The enemy side and take refuge into the plain. The Gruppo Brigata Osoppo dell'Est (Group of East Osoppo Brigade), a unified command with the Divisione Garibaldi Natisone , did not accept to pass east of the Isonzo river and to be subordinated to the Slovenian 9th Corps of the National Liberation Army of Yugoslavia led by Josip Broz Tito . On 22 November 1944, the Italian Communist Party (and not

10692-675: The fight against nazis; despite difficulties caused by ideological differences, the Unified Command was efficient in the brief experience of the Free Republic of Carnia (August–September 1944). Despite contrasts, the Unified Command was established, with the bond of unanimity decisions, in a free zone of Sinistra Tagliamento and Collio , formed by Garibaldi Mario Fantini "Sasso" (Commander) and Giovanni Padoan "Vanni" (Political commissar) of Garibaldi Brigades, together with Francesco De Gregori (Deputy commander) and Alfredo Berzanti (Deputy commissar) of Osoppo. From August to September 1944

10824-763: The first partisan formations were formed near Udine against the Nazi Germany and collaborationist RSI, with the autonomists of Mario Cencigh, communists of Giacinto Calligaris and Mario Lizzero, militants of the Action Party led by Fermo Solari. In Venezia Giulia there were the Brigata Proletaria ("Proletarian Brigade", destroyed in Gorizia by Germans) and other communist formations were created in Tarnova , Trieste and Istria. The two main groups of Resistance in those regions were

10956-649: The free part of Italy. In conclusion, a democratic situation will be created. The disposition provided that "all the Italian units of the zone [the Friulian Adriatic Littoral] must operate only under the command of the 9th Army Corps of Tito", adding that whoever refused this order would be considered as fascist and imperialist; the command of Osoppo Brigades repealed the requested saying pai nostris fogolârs in Friulan ("For our homes"). Over 3,500 communist partisans of Garibaldi-Natisone division accepted but not

11088-422: The general command of BG issued a document ( Direttive d'attacco , "Attack Directives") in line with the political directives of PCI in favour of the organization and intensification of the partisan war, characterized by a claim for legality and a call to a resolute fight against Germans and militants of the fascist RSI. In November 1943, Pietro Secchia wrote an article on PCI journal La nostra lotta defining

11220-422: The general command of BG issued a document ( Direttive d'attacco , "Attack Directives") in line with the political directives of PCI in favour of the organization and intensification of the partisan war, characterized by a claim for legality and a call to a resolute fight against Germans and militants of the fascist RSI. In November 1943, Pietro Secchia wrote an article on PCI journal La nostra lotta defining

11352-693: The general command of Garibaldi Brigades was formed by nine divisions in Piedmont (15,000 members), three in Lombardy (4,000 members), four in Veneto (10,000), three in Emilia (12,000) and four divisions (10,000) in Liguria. As a military force, the BGs were the most numerous group which was organized with 575 formations; they took part to most of fights and suffered the most number of losses, with over 42,000 killed in action or after

11484-443: The general command of Garibaldi Brigades was formed by nine divisions in Piedmont (15,000 members), three in Lombardy (4,000 members), four in Veneto (10,000), three in Emilia (12,000) and four divisions (10,000) in Liguria. As a military force, the BGs were the most numerous group which was organized with 575 formations; they took part to most of fights and suffered the most number of losses, with over 42,000 killed in action or after

11616-516: The general command of the Brigate d'assalto Garibaldi (Garibaldi Assault Brigades) under the leadership of Longo and Secchia. This early management structure, initially equipped with poor means, began immediately its activity in order to overcome every "wait and see" attitudes and constantly potentiate of the military activities against the occupying power (the Nazi Germany ) and the fascist structures of

11748-415: The general command of the Brigate d'assalto Garibaldi (Garibaldi Assault Brigades) under the leadership of Longo and Secchia. This early management structure, initially equipped with poor means, began immediately its activity in order to overcome every "wait and see" attitudes and constantly potentiate of the military activities against the occupying power (the Nazi Germany ) and the fascist structures of

11880-534: The general command, had relations with the Yugoslav partisans supporting the need to postpone the territorial revendications until the end of the war, in order to fight together against the common enemy. Frausin and Gigante were captured by the German Sicherheitsdienst on 28 August and 15 November 1944 respectively, interned and killed in the camp of Risiera di San Sabba . A typical characteristic of

12012-417: The general command, had relations with the Yugoslav partisans supporting the need to postpone the territorial revendications until the end of the war, in order to fight together against the common enemy. Frausin and Gigante were captured by the German Sicherheitsdienst on 28 August and 15 November 1944 respectively, interned and killed in the camp of Risiera di San Sabba . A typical characteristic of

12144-457: The grouping of Valsesia, Verbano and Ossola led by Moscatelli and Gastone), had a central role in fights among the various cities of northern Italy. Mountain partisan brigades went to the plains and marched on the main centres, while the insurrection strike was proclaimed in the urban nuclei and GAP and SAP divisions began to fight. In Liguria , the Divisions of "Chichero" played an important role in

12276-405: The grouping of Valsesia, Verbano and Ossola led by Moscatelli and Gastone), had a central role in fights among the various cities of northern Italy. Mountain partisan brigades went to the plains and marched on the main centres, while the insurrection strike was proclaimed in the urban nuclei and GAP and SAP divisions began to fight. In Liguria , the Divisions of "Chichero" played an important role in

12408-411: The internal politics of the freed countries. However, the appeal was vain. In his report written after the end of the war, MacPherson thought that the Garibaldi partisans had accepted the advice of a unified command with the Osoppo Brigades only in order to obtain in exchange an increase of launches of supplies by the Allies, then bagging most of them.that they preserved during the German fall attack, while

12540-561: The liberation of Genoa and impede the destruction of the harbour, accepting the surrender of German forces led by general Günther Meinhold . In Piedmont, Garibaldi Divisions of Pompeo Colajanni "Barbato", Vincenzo Modica and Giovanni Latilla "Nanni" entered in Turin together with the autonomous of "Mauri", while the Divisions "Pajetta" and "Fratelli Varalli" of Gastone and Moscatelli, after liberating Novara , entered in Milan on 28 April, already reached in

12672-465: The liberation of Genoa and impede the destruction of the harbour, accepting the surrender of German forces led by general Günther Meinhold . In Piedmont, Garibaldi Divisions of Pompeo Colajanni "Barbato", Vincenzo Modica and Giovanni Latilla "Nanni" entered in Turin together with the autonomous of "Mauri", while the Divisions "Pajetta" and "Fratelli Varalli" of Gastone and Moscatelli, after liberating Novara , entered in Milan on 28 April, already reached in

12804-401: The main contributors to the Italian unification . Size of brigades was different for each operative context. The structure set by PCI provided, beside a military commander, a political commissar with equal military powers but involved also in propaganda and formation of partisans; this structure was replicated also within squads, battalions and other subgroups. The word assalto ("assault")

12936-401: The main contributors to the Italian unification . Size of brigades was different for each operative context. The structure set by PCI provided, beside a military commander, a political commissar with equal military powers but involved also in propaganda and formation of partisans; this structure was replicated also within squads, battalions and other subgroups. The word assalto ("assault")

13068-559: The occupation and the harsh repression and the Italianization on the eastern border and in Yugoslavia, did violent retaliations against the Italian minority and those considered as nationalists or fascists. The merciless attitude of Italian troops and commands during the two years of occupation in Slovenia, Croatia and Montenegro, characterized by harsh repressive measures and a high number of killings, devastations and deportations, provoked

13200-861: The organization; since the beginning, structures of the party had decided that at least the 10% of the cadres and the 15% of the subscribers had to be sent to the mountains in order to create the fundamental nucleus of aggregation and cohesion around which the units had to be developed. Moreover, Brigate Garibaldi had their representatives in the regional commands of CVL, who were Giordano Pratolongo and then Francesco Scotti (Piedmont); Pietro Vergani (Lombardy), Liguria Luigi Pieragostini and Carlo Farini (Liguria) after his arrest on 27 December 1944, Ilio Barontini (Emilia-Romagna), Pratolongo and then Aldo Lampredi (Veneto), Luigi Gaiami and then Francesco Leone and Antonio Roasio (Tuscany), Alessandro Vaia (Marche) and Celso Ghini (Umbria). In Trieste there were Luigi Frausin and Vincenzo Gigante who, in connection with

13332-861: The organization; since the beginning, structures of the party had decided that at least the 10% of the cadres and the 15% of the subscribers had to be sent to the mountains in order to create the fundamental nucleus of aggregation and cohesion around which the units had to be developed. Moreover, Brigate Garibaldi had their representatives in the regional commands of CVL, who were Giordano Pratolongo and then Francesco Scotti (Piedmont); Pietro Vergani (Lombardy), Liguria Luigi Pieragostini and Carlo Farini (Liguria) after his arrest on 27 December 1944, Ilio Barontini (Emilia-Romagna), Pratolongo and then Aldo Lampredi (Veneto), Luigi Gaiami and then Francesco Leone and Antonio Roasio (Tuscany), Alessandro Vaia (Marche) and Celso Ghini (Umbria). In Trieste there were Luigi Frausin and Vincenzo Gigante who, in connection with

13464-552: The other Osoppo members. On 21 August 1944, the Osoppo Brigade was reformed into five brigades between Carnia , Carnic and Julian Prealps and the plain. The Osoppo Brigades were coordinate, for a brief period of 1944, by the Unified Divisional Military Commands to the Garibaldi Brigades ( Comandi Militari unificati di Divisione alle Brigate Garibaldine ), despite having still the organizational autonomy. At

13596-410: The other members of the general command, other important figures were active in the regional coordination like Antonio Roasio ("Paolo"), who controlled the brigades in Veneto and Emilia, Francesco Scotti ("Fausto" or "Grossi"), who led the formations in Piedmont and Liguria, and Pietro Vergani ("Fabio"), responsible in Lombardy. The Italian Communist Party had a decisive role in the strengthening and

13728-410: The other members of the general command, other important figures were active in the regional coordination like Antonio Roasio ("Paolo"), who controlled the brigades in Veneto and Emilia, Francesco Scotti ("Fausto" or "Grossi"), who led the formations in Piedmont and Liguria, and Pietro Vergani ("Fabio"), responsible in Lombardy. The Italian Communist Party had a decisive role in the strengthening and

13860-409: The partisan organizations. Suhling concluded by proposing the removal of Smith. The tiring but largely unsuccessful attempts of pacification and unification of the Osoppo and Garibaldi Brigades conducted by British agents during the summer of 1944 failed definitively when the area was subjected to violent raids by Germans. Nicholson could only acknowledge that, among the Garibaldi, the hostility towards

13992-481: The partisans awarded with the Italian Gold Medal of Military Valour . Garibaldi Brigades The Brigate Garibaldi or Garibaldi Brigades were partisan units aligned with the Italian Communist Party active in the armed resistance against both German and Italian fascist forces during World War II . The Brigades were mostly made up of communists , but also included members of other parties of

14124-460: The political commissar adhered to the political and national solution of Yugoslavia and the political office of PCI supported that choice which involved only the communist militants. A the moment of the final insurrection, the "Trieste" formation, aggregated to the Divisione Garibaldi "Natisone" since 27 February 1945, participated to the fights and one group of it entered in Trieste on 7 May, while

14256-411: The political commissar adhered to the political and national solution of Yugoslavia and the political office of PCI supported that choice which involved only the communist militants. A the moment of the final insurrection, the "Trieste" formation, aggregated to the Divisione Garibaldi "Natisone" since 27 February 1945, participated to the fights and one group of it entered in Trieste on 7 May, while

14388-427: The political-military project adopted by BGs: he claimed the importance of the immediate military action in order to "shorten the war" and reduce the period of the German occupation, saving people and villages; in order to demonstrate to Allies the will of the Italian people to fight for their own freedom and democracy; to contrast the nazi-fascist policy of terror, to make the occupation unstable and to stimulate, through

14520-427: The political-military project adopted by BGs: he claimed the importance of the immediate military action in order to "shorten the war" and reduce the period of the German occupation, saving people and villages; in order to demonstrate to Allies the will of the Italian people to fight for their own freedom and democracy; to contrast the nazi-fascist policy of terror, to make the occupation unstable and to stimulate, through

14652-552: The position of the SOE was not changed in an anti-communist sense and, indeed, it was concerned to keep clear that the positions expressed by its agents were to be attributed exclusively to themselves, and not to the service. Therefore, at the beginning of February 1945, SOE informed its agents that it was not possible to intervene in any way on the Slovenes, and that the agents were required to stay out of any clash between Slovenes and non-communist partisans. The Osoppo Brigades were involved in

14784-568: The previous day by the Garibaldini of Oltrepò pavese led by Italo Pietra and Luchino Dal Verme . In Lombardy, the 2ª Divisione Garibaldi "Redi" (commanded by Aldo Aniasi "Comandante Iso") and the Divisioni "Lombardia" , coordinated by Pietro Vergani ("Fabio", deputy commander of CVL) blocked the Alpine passes and occupied the Valtellina , preventing the run of fascist hierarchs . Benito Mussolini

14916-418: The previous day by the Garibaldini of Oltrepò pavese led by Italo Pietra and Luchino Dal Verme . In Lombardy, the 2ª Divisione Garibaldi "Redi" (commanded by Aldo Aniasi "Comandante Iso") and the Divisioni "Lombardia" , coordinated by Pietro Vergani ("Fabio", deputy commander of CVL) blocked the Alpine passes and occupied the Valtellina , preventing the run of fascist hierarchs . Benito Mussolini

15048-409: The regime. In autumn 1943, the general command defined the command structure of brigades with the political commissar and the officers for the military command and chief of staff. While the 50% of PCI militants was directly involved in the military activity with the brigades, the other half was dedicated to conspiracy in the cities, organizing and developing the struggle of workers among factories, to

15180-409: The regime. In autumn 1943, the general command defined the command structure of brigades with the political commissar and the officers for the military command and chief of staff. While the 50% of PCI militants was directly involved in the military activity with the brigades, the other half was dedicated to conspiracy in the cities, organizing and developing the struggle of workers among factories, to

15312-464: The same territory, and provoking inefficiency and undue dangers for the Allies agents themselves. Moreover, the different approach of the Allied missions did not provide to partisans a coherent figure of the Anglo-American alliance and made their military action less efficient. The scarcity of material sent by air by the Allies (always subordinated to the needs of war on other fronts and starting from

15444-406: The so-called "insurrection triumvirates" ( triumvirati insurrezionali ) at regional level, in order to coordinate the political struggle of the party among the occupied cities and in the workplaces through the concrete action of partisan mountain groups in view of a general insurrection. On 10 April 1945, the general command of Brigate Garibaldi issued the "directive no. 16" which warned all

15576-406: The so-called "insurrection triumvirates" ( triumvirati insurrezionali ) at regional level, in order to coordinate the political struggle of the party among the occupied cities and in the workplaces through the concrete action of partisan mountain groups in view of a general insurrection. On 10 April 1945, the general command of Brigate Garibaldi issued the "directive no. 16" which warned all

15708-447: The supplies did not reach the brigades, or few came, partisans often tended to believe that this was due to the fact that "the British and American armies were still instruments of two capitalist and imperialist powers and imperialist". Agent Nicholson of the British service, who also supported the Garibaldi groups in negotiations with the Osoppo Brigades, assessed the work of Gozzer with extreme harshness, stigmatizing how, in his opinion,

15840-487: The territory, made roundups and deportations; a formation of Osoppo was decimated along with the Garibaldi Brigades, but on 27 November, a chosen Osoppo group was still able to repeal an attack of German mountain troops. After new clashes in a harsh and inhospitable territory, the Osoppo Commander Candido Grassi ("Verdi") ordered the conversion of his troops into plain formations who succeeded to pass through

15972-566: The two formations. A different version was given by reports of another OSS mission - led by the American Major Lloyd Smith - sent to the area and controlled by a section of the service different from the one responsible for the Chicago-Texas . Lloyd Smith, in his reports, indicated Gozzer as an active communist propagandist, consciously committed to sabotaging peace attempts between various partisan groups in which Lloyd Smith himself

16104-481: The use of the radio of the secret service by the party in order to communicate with their leaders in the territories occupied by nazi-fascists. However, Gozzer, although he headed a mission of the Allies, began soon the chief of staff of the Brigata Garibaldi-Friuli , generating uncertainties among the members of Special Operations Executive (SOE, one of the British secret services for the operation behind

16236-457: The whole region and, after the dissolution of the Italian administration, the Yugoslav formations, already located and active in the lands on the border since 1941, took initiative. The situation was particularly confused: beside the Italian disbanded troops left alone without orders and the coming German divisions, the 9th Corps of the 4th Yugoslav Army penetrated in the area shortly after the 8 September with more than 50,000 soldiers who crossed

16368-488: Was a political choice which aimed to remove uncertainties regarding the possibility of fight and to overcome doubts in the struggle against fascists. Therefore, it was also a reference to the "assault units" of World War I . The establishment of brigades was based on the harshness conspiracy, discipline and motivation of communist cadres but mostly on the openness and availability in recruiting volunteers, including youth, former soldiers or members of organization dismantled by

16500-488: Was a political choice which aimed to remove uncertainties regarding the possibility of fight and to overcome doubts in the struggle against fascists. Therefore, it was also a reference to the "assault units" of World War I . The establishment of brigades was based on the harshness conspiracy, discipline and motivation of communist cadres but mostly on the openness and availability in recruiting volunteers, including youth, former soldiers or members of organization dismantled by

16632-441: Was assigned to the various regions with the task to control the partisan activity of brigades and to develop their political-military activity. Members of the general command were later decentralised, the main leadership was located in Milan and detached delegations were formed in each region under the guide by a command member with wide decisional powers. After the war declaration to Germany by Badoglio I Cabinet on 13 October 1943,

16764-441: Was assigned to the various regions with the task to control the partisan activity of brigades and to develop their political-military activity. Members of the general command were later decentralised, the main leadership was located in Milan and detached delegations were formed in each region under the guide by a command member with wide decisional powers. After the war declaration to Germany by Badoglio I Cabinet on 13 October 1943,

16896-499: Was captured by the 52ª Brigata Garibaldi "Luigi Clerici" of commander "Pedro" ( Pier Luigi Bellini delle Stelle ), subordinate to the 1ª Divisione Garibaldi Lombardia , and shot by envoys of the Garibaldi command of Milan, Walter Audisio and Aldo Lampredi ; other hierarchs were instead captured and killed in Dongo by partisans of the 3ª Divisione Garibaldi Lombardia , under the orders of Alfredo Mordini "Riccardo". In Veneto,

17028-452: Was captured by the 52ª Brigata Garibaldi "Luigi Clerici" of commander "Pedro" ( Pier Luigi Bellini delle Stelle ), subordinate to the 1ª Divisione Garibaldi Lombardia , and shot by envoys of the Garibaldi command of Milan, Walter Audisio and Aldo Lampredi ; other hierarchs were instead captured and killed in Dongo by partisans of the 3ª Divisione Garibaldi Lombardia , under the orders of Alfredo Mordini "Riccardo". In Veneto,

17160-423: Was engaged. Lloyd Smith unsuccessfully asked his command to be given the necessary authority to impose his point of view - that it was the political one on the Allied side, considering the pacification and coordination between Osoppo and Garibaldi as useful and necessary - arriving at threaten the withdrawal of their mission. In November 1944 similar protests of the British side, relating to the same situation, came to

17292-524: Was named after the small town of Osoppo which resisted to an Austrian siege lasted 168 days in 1848. The group decided to be autonomous on the operative field, as requested by the non-communist members during the NLC session of 25 November 1943. The Osoppo accepted instead the political direction of NLC of Udine, refused by the Garibaldi Brigades . In the spring of 1944, the Brigata Osoppo , with

17424-586: Was the command of the Gruppo delle Brigate Est della Divisione Osoppo ("Group of the Eastern Brigades of the Osoppo Divisio") led by Alpini commander Francesco De Gregori , known as "Bolla". His autonomous formation operated in region dominated by Garibaldi formations of Slovenian 9th Corps. The Osoppo partisans, with their continuous protests against the Yugoslav nationalist aims and the collaborationist policy of

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