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138-518: While Osmanya gained reasonably wide acceptance in Somalia and quickly produced a considerable body of literature, it proved difficult to spread among the population mainly due to stiff competition from the long-established Arabic script as well as the emerging Somali Latin alphabet developed by a number of leading scholars of Somali , including Musa Haji Ismail Galal , B. W. Andrzejewski and Shire Jama Ahmed . As nationalist sentiments grew and since

276-871: A parliamentary vote-based presidential election . Abdiweli Mohamed Ali , Mohamed's former Minister of Planning and International Cooperation, was later named permanent prime minister. Backed by the United Nations, the African Union , as well as the United States, the TFG battled Al Shabaab insurgents to assume full control of the southern part of the country. By August 2011, the government, under President Sharif Sheikh Ahmed and its AMISOM (African Union Mission in Somalia) allies managed to secure control over all of Mogadishu . In February 2012, Somali government officials met in

414-406: A popular referendum , was ratified popularly by the people of Somalia under Italian trusteeship, Most of the people from the former Somaliland Protectorate did not participate in the referendum, although only a small number of Somalilanders who participated the referendum voted against the new constitution , which was first drafted in 1960. In 1967, Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister,

552-569: A British protectorate was declared over part of Somalia, on the African coast opposite South Yemen. Initially, this region was under the control of the Indian Office, and so administered as part of the Indian Empire; in 1898 it was transferred to control by London. In 1889, the protectorate and later colony of Italian Somalia was officially established by Italy through various treaties signed with

690-595: A CIA backed alliance of warlords fighting the rising Islamic Courts Union (ICU) in Mogadishu. After the ICU defeated the warlords, the TFG fired the ministers who had been apart of the alliance. In Baidoa, the TFG enjoyed the support of the warlord who controlled the city and had earlier prevented the government from entering. According to an Africa Research Specialist from the US Congressional Research Service ,

828-583: A Somali who had campaigned for a 'yes' vote in the referendum of 1976, eventually became Djibouti's first president (1977–1999). On 1 July 1960, five days after the former British Somaliland protectorate obtained independence as the State of Somaliland, the territory united with the Trust Territory of Somaliland to form the Somali Republic , albeit within boundaries drawn up by Italy and Britain. A government

966-512: A draft constitution after several days of deliberation. The National Constituent Assembly overwhelmingly passed the new constitution on 1 August, with 96% voting for it, 2% against it, and 2% abstaining. The Transitional Federal Government (TFG) constituted the executive branch of government, with the TFP serving as the legislative branch. The government was headed by the President of Somalia , to whom

1104-458: A full audit of government property and vehicles is being put into place. On the war front, the new government and its AMISOM allies also managed to secure control of Mogadishu by August 2011. According to the African Union and Prime Minister Mohamed, with increasing troop strength the pace of territorial gains is expected to greatly accelerate. In June 2011, following the Kampala Accord ,

1242-469: A large scale insurgency that led to the rise of Al-Shabaab , resulted in an Ethiopian military withdrawal and the resignation of President Yusuf two years later. As the insurgency escalated, a conference between rebel forces and the TFG was opened in Djibouti during 2008. Elements of the insurgency were merged into the TFG parliament in late 2008. Soon after Sharif Ahmed , former head of the ICU and leader of

1380-468: A lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and from Arabia, India, Venetia , Persia, Egypt, Portugal, and as far away as China. Vasco da Gama , who passed by Mogadishu in the 15th century, noted that it was a large city with houses several storeys high and large palaces in its centre, in addition to many mosques with cylindrical minarets. The Harla , an early Hamitic group of tall stature who inhabited parts of Somalia, Tchertcher and other areas in

1518-678: A new 225 member bicameral parliament would be formed, consisting of an upper house seating 54 Senators as well as a lower house; b) 30% of the National Constituent Assembly (NCA) is earmarked for women; c) the President is to be appointed via a constitutional election; and d) the Prime Minister is selected by the President and he/she then names his/her Cabinet. On 23 June 2012, the Somali federal and regional leaders met again and approved

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1656-550: A number of chiefs and sultans; Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid first sent a request to Italy in late December 1888 to make his Sultanate of Hobyo an Italian protectorate before later signing a treaty in 1889. The Dervish movement successfully repulsed the British Empire four times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region. The Darawiish defeated the Italian, British, Abyssinian colonial powers on numerous occasions, most notably,

1794-427: A position to which he was appointed by Shermarke. Egal would later become the President of the autonomous Somaliland region in northwestern Somalia. On the 15th of October, while president Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke was touring drought-stricken Las Anood, his personal bodyguard shot and killed him. Former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger concluded that the bodyguard was acting of his own accord. Six days later, on

1932-591: A protectorate of Britain until 1960. To the extent that Italy held the territory by UN mandate, the trusteeship provisions gave the Somalis the opportunity to gain experience in Western political education and self-government. These were advantages that British Somaliland, which was to be incorporated into the new Somali state, did not have. Although in the 1950s British colonial officials attempted, through various administrative development efforts, to make up for past neglect,

2070-471: A series of probes soon morphed into a significant insurgent offensive against Ethiopian and TFG forces. The TFG suffered further serious internal divisions in this period. During 2008, TFG President Abdullahi Yusuf began undermining the new prime minister, Nur Hassan Hussein . PM Nur had replaced PM Ali Gedi in November 2007, who was widely viewed as corrupt and an impediment to the reconciliation process. Much of

2208-755: Is a member of the United Nations , the Arab League , African Union , Non-Aligned Movement , East African Community , and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation . Somalia was likely one of the first lands to be settled by early humans due to its location. Hunter-gatherers who would later migrate out of Africa likely settled here before their migrations. During the Stone Age, the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished here. The oldest evidence of burial customs in

2346-600: Is believed to have been domesticated in the Horn region sometime between the 2nd and 3rd millennium BCE. From there, it spread to Egypt and the Maghreb . During the classical period, the Barbara city-states of Mosylon , Opone , Mundus , Isis , Malao , Avalites , Essina , Nikon and Sarapion developed a lucrative trade network, connecting with merchants from Ptolemaic Egypt , Ancient Greece , Phoenicia , Parthian Persia , Saba ,

2484-625: Is from left to right. Letter names are based on the names of letters in Arabic , and the long vowels uu and ii are represented by the letters waaw and yaa , respectively. Osmanya was added to the Unicode Standard in April 2003 with the release of version 4.0. The Unicode block for Osmanya is U+10480–U+104AF: Somalia Somalia , officially the Federal Republic of Somalia ,

2622-554: Is the easternmost country in continental Africa . The country is located in the Horn of Africa and is bordered by Ethiopia to the west, Djibouti to the northwest, Kenya to the southwest, the Gulf of Aden to the north, and the Indian Ocean to the east. Somalia has the longest coastline on Africa's mainland. Somalia has an estimated population of 18.1 million, of which 2.7 million live in

2760-860: The Adal Sultanate was governed by local Somali dynasties and its realm encompassed the geographical area between the Bab el Mandeb and Cape Guardafui. It was thus flanked to the south by the Ajuran Empire and to the west by the Abyssinian Empire . Throughout the Middle Ages, Arab immigrants arrived in Somaliland, a historical experience which would later lead to the legendary stories about Muslim sheikhs such as Daarood and Ishaaq bin Ahmed (the purported ancestors of

2898-458: The African Union released a statement declaring the insurgency controlled most the country. That month President Yusuf resigned after stating that he had lost control of the country to Islamist insurgents. The TFG failed to make any meaningful impact on the ground during is tenure and presided over one of the bloodiest periods in modern Somali history. During January 2009, the first Transitional Federal Government collapsed and Al-Shabaab overran

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3036-758: The Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia (ARS) was elected president at the start of 2009. Four years later the TFG transitioned to the Federal Government of Somalia . During early 1991, the government of the Somali Democratic Republic collapsed as the Somali Rebellion transitioned into the full scale Somali Civil War . Between 1991 and 2000, no central government existed in Somalia. During 2000,

3174-635: The Darod and Isaaq clans, respectively) travelling from Arabia to Somalia and marrying into the local Dir clan. In 1332, the Zeila-based King of Adal was slain in a military campaign aimed at halting Abyssinian emperor Amda Seyon I 's march toward the city. When the last Sultan of Ifat, Sa'ad ad-Din II , was also killed by Emperor Dawit I in Zeila in 1410, his children escaped to Yemen, before returning in 1415. In

3312-550: The Federal Government of Somalia was formed and a period of reconstruction began in Mogadishu, despite al-Shabaab frequently carrying out attacks there . Somalia is among the least developed countries in the world, as evidenced by its ranking in metrics such as GDP per capita , Human Development Index , and the Fragile States Index . It has maintained an informal economy mainly based on livestock, remittances from Somalis working abroad , and telecommunications. It

3450-770: The Guled dynasty , the Habr Yunis Sultanate led by the Ainanshe dynasty , the Sultanate of the Geledi (Gobroon dynasty), the Majeerteen Sultanate (Migiurtinia), and the Sultanate of Hobyo (Obbia). They continued the tradition of castle-building and seaborne trade established by previous Somali empires. Sultan Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim , the third Sultan of the House of Gobroon, started

3588-806: The Nabataean Kingdom , and the Roman Empire . They used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the beden to transport their cargo. After the Roman conquest of the Nabataean Empire and the Roman naval presence at Aden to curb piracy, Arab and Somali merchants agreed with the Romans to bar Indian ships from trading in the free port cities of the Arabian peninsula to protect the interests of Somali and Arab merchants in

3726-581: The Ogaden region. Prior to his presidency, Yusuf had been part of an Ethiopian-backed coalition of warlords that had disrupted the earlier Transitional National Government (TNG) formed in 2000. After taking office, Yusuf appointed Ali Mohammed Gedi as Prime Minister. However, on 11 December 2004, parliament passed a vote of no confidence in Gedi’s government, declaring his appointment unconstitutional. Despite this, Yusuf reappointed Gedi only two days later, though by

3864-525: The Ogaden War broke out after Barre's government used a plea for national unity to justify an aggressive incorporation of the predominantly Somali-inhabited Ogaden region of Ethiopia into a Pan-Somali Greater Somalia , along with the rich agricultural lands of south-eastern Ethiopia, infrastructure, and strategically important areas as far north as Djibouti. In the first week of the conflict, Somali armed forces took southern and central Ogaden and for most of

4002-528: The Organisation of African Unity (OAU), the predecessor of the African Union (AU). In July 1976, Barre's SRC disbanded itself and established in its place the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP), a one-party government based on scientific socialism and Islamic tenets. The SRSP was an attempt to reconcile the official state ideology with the official state religion by adapting Marxist precepts to local circumstances. Emphasis

4140-692: The Portuguese India blockade ( and later the Omani interference), used the Somali ports of Merca and Barawa (which were out of the two powers' direct jurisdiction) to conduct their trade in safety and without interference. In the early modern period, successor states to the Adal Sultanate and Ajuran Sultanate began to flourish in Somalia. These included the Hiraab Imamate , the Isaaq Sultanate led by

4278-653: The Potsdam Conference , the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland as the Trust Territory of Somaliland , on the condition first proposed by the Somali Youth League (SYL) and other nascent Somali political organizations, such as Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali (HDMS) and the Somali National League (SNL)—that Somalia achieve independence within ten years. British Somaliland remained

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4416-730: The Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), together with the non-violent political oppositions of the Somali Democratic Movement (SDM), the Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA) and the Somali Manifesto Group (SMG). As the moral authority of Barre's government was gradually eroded, many Somalis became disillusioned with life under military rule. By the mid-1980s, resistance movements supported by Ethiopia's communist Derg administration had sprung up across

4554-592: The Somaliland region to introduce free primary schools, with teachers receiving their salaries from the Puntland administration. Several universities in Somalia, including Mogadishu University , were ranked among the 100 best universities in Africa despite the harsh environment, which was hailed as a triumph for grass-roots initiatives. The Ministry of Health headed the country's healthcare system. The Minister of Health

4692-618: The Transitional National Government (TNG) was formed. Another attempt was in Kenya during 2004 led to the formation of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG). In October 2004, Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed was elected President of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) with strong backing from Ethiopia. The Ethiopian government supported Yusuf, anticipating that he would abandon Somalia’s long-standing claim to

4830-514: The Wargaade Wall , are evidence of an old civilization that once thrived in the Somali peninsula. This civilization enjoyed a trading relationship with ancient Egypt and Mycenaean Greece since the second millennium BCE, supporting the hypothesis that Somalia or adjacent regions were the location of the ancient Land of Punt . The Puntites native to the region traded myrrh , spices, gold, ebony, short-horned cattle, ivory and frankincense with

4968-399: The carpet bombing of neighborhoods. President Abdullahi Yusuf announced in a radio address that “any place from which a bullet is fired, we will bombard it, regardless of whoever is there.” The presence of Ethiopian troops reinforced the authoritarian behavior of the TFG. Time magazine reported that the battles raging in the Mogadishu at the time were 'some of the most savage fighting'

5106-558: The "tallest and handsomest of all men". The Macrobians were warrior herders and seafarers. According to Herodotus' account, the Persian Emperor Cambyses II , upon his conquest of Egypt in 525 BC, sent ambassadors to Macrobia, bringing luxury gifts for the Macrobian king to entice his submission. The Macrobian ruler, who was elected based on his stature and beauty, replied instead with a challenge for his Persian counterpart in

5244-441: The 1903 victory at Cagaarweyne commanded by Suleiman Aden Galaydh , forcing the British Empire to retreat to the coastal region in the early 1900s. The Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 by British airpower. The dawn of fascism in the early 1920s heralded a change of strategy for Italy, as the north-eastern sultanates were soon to be forced within the boundaries of La Grande Somalia (" Greater Somalia ") according to

5382-492: The 1991 collapse of the Siad Barre regime and the ensuing Somali Civil War . After being formed in Kenya during 2004, the TFG saw two presidents during its tenure: Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed from 2004 and Sharif Sheikh Ahmed from 2009 until the transition to the FGS in 2012. In 2005, the government relocated to Somalia from Kenya and made Baidoa its capital. During mid-2006 the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) rose to power after defeating an alliance of Somali warlords , becoming

5520-501: The 21st of October, General Siad led a military coup and successfully overthrew the parliamentary government. Modern political analysts assert that the coup was motivated by corruption in the parliamentary government. The bodyguard was tried, tortured and executed by the Supreme Revolutionary Council . He came from the same clan background as the President who he killed. Alongside Barre, the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) that assumed power after President Sharmarke's assassination

5658-414: The 275-strong parliament - led by Speaker Sharif Hassan Aden - chose to move to Mogadishu , stating they would try to restore stability to the capital. On the other hand President Abdullahi Yusuf, Prime Minister Ali Gedi and their supporters set up base in Jowhar , 90 km north of Mogadishu, citing insecurity in the capital. Internal divisions were so serious that open warfare almost broke out between

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5796-500: The Abyssinian empire. This 16th-century campaign is historically known as the Conquest of Abyssinia ( Futuh al-Habash ). During the war, Imam Ahmad pioneered the use of cannons supplied by the Ottoman Empire, which he imported through Zeila and deployed against Abyssinian forces and their Portuguese allies led by Cristóvão da Gama . During the Ajuran Sultanate period, the city-states and republics of Merca , Mogadishu , Barawa , Hobyo and their respective ports flourished and had

5934-404: The British. A British force, including troops from several African countries, launched the campaign in January 1941 from Kenya to liberate British Somaliland and Italian-occupied Ethiopia and conquer Italian Somaliland. By February most of Italian Somaliland was captured and, in March, British Somaliland was retaken from the sea. The forces of the British Empire operating in Somaliland comprised

6072-405: The East African coast. In Somaliland , the Isaaq Sultanate was established in 1750. The Isaaq Sultanate was a Somali kingdom that ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It spanned the territories of the Isaaq clan, descendants of the Banu Hashim clan, in modern-day Somaliland and Ethiopia . The sultanate was governed by the Rer Guled branch established by

6210-520: The Egyptians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Indians, Chinese and Romans through their commercial ports. An Egyptian expedition sent to Punt by the 18th dynasty Queen Hatshepsut is recorded on the temple reliefs at Deir el-Bahari , during the reign of the Puntite King Parahu and Queen Ati. In the classical era , the Macrobians , who may have been ancestral to Somalis, established a powerful kingdom that ruled large parts of modern Somalia. They were reputed for their longevity and wealth, and were said to be

6348-402: The Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to the 4th millennium BCE. The stone implements from the Jalelo site in the north were also characterized in 1909 as important artifacts demonstrating the archaeological universality during the Paleolithic between the East and the West. According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic -speaking populations arrived in the region during

6486-403: The Horn, also erected various tumuli . These masons are believed to have been ancestral to ethnic Somalis. In the 16th century, Duarte Barbosa noted that many ships from the Kingdom of Cambaya in modern-day India sailed to Mogadishu with cloth and spices, for which they in return received gold, wax and ivory. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit on

6624-435: The ICU fragment into various rebel factions, including the hardline group al-Shabaab , which waged a protracted conflict against Ethiopian forces. al-Shabaab soon began asserting territorial control for the first time, and by late 2008 the insurgency had driven the Ethiopian army out of much of Somalia. In 2009, a new TFG government was established. By mid-2012, al-Shabaab lost most of its territories during fighting against

6762-436: The Isaaq Sultanate for centuries starting from the 13th century. The last Tolje'lo ruler Garad Dhuh Barar ( Somali : Dhuux Baraar ) was overthrown by a coalition of Isaaq clans. The once strong Tolje'lo clan were scattered and took refuge amongst the Habr Awal with whom they still mostly live. In the late 19th century, after the Berlin Conference of 1884, European powers began the Scramble for Africa . In that year,

6900-416: The Islamic Courts Union, and despite moving much of the government in January to Mogadishu, many ministers chose to remain in Baidoa . Several high ranking figures of the TFG, including ex-speaker Sharif Hassan Sheikh Aden , were fired for calling for a compromise with the ICU. Members of the TFG present in Nairobi were threatened with expulsion by the Kenyan foreign minister after they publicly called for

7038-426: The Middle Ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade, including the Ajuran Sultanate , Adal Sultanate , and the Sultanate of the Geledi . In the late 19th century, Somali sultanates were colonized by the Italian and British Empires, who merged all of these tribal territories into two colonies : Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland . In 1960, the two territories united to form

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7176-404: The Roman and Greek world; the Romans and Greeks believed the source to have been the Somali peninsula. The collusive agreement among Somali and Arab traders inflated the price of Indian and Chinese cinnamon in North Africa, the Near East, and Europe, and made the cinnamon trade a very profitable revenue generator, especially for the Somali merchants. Islam was introduced to the area early on by

7314-469: The Somali coast in exchange for grain and wood. Trading relations were established with Malacca in the 15th century, with cloth, ambergris and porcelain being the main commodities of the trade. Giraffes, zebras and incense were exported to the Ming Empire of China, which established Somali merchants as leaders in the commerce between East Asia and the Horn. Hindu merchants from Surat and Southeast African merchants from Pate , seeking to bypass both

7452-414: The Somali language had long lost its ancient script, the adoption of a universally recognized writing script for the Somali language became an important point of discussion. After independence, little progress was made on the issue, as opinion was divided over whether the Arabic or Latin scripts should be used instead. In October 1972, because of the Latin script's simplicity, its ability to cope with all of

7590-475: The Somali political arena. In its first 50 days in office, Prime Minister Mohamed's new administration completed its first monthly payment of stipends to government soldiers, and initiated the implementation of a full biometric register for the security forces within a window of four months. Additional members of the Independent Constitutional Commission were also appointed to engage Somali constitutional lawyers, religious scholars and experts in Somali culture over

7728-400: The Somalis in 1884 and 1886) and the Somali Region to Ethiopia, based on a treaty they signed in 1897 in which the British ceded Somali territory to the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik in exchange for his help against possible advances by the French. Britain included the conditional provision that the Somali residents would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over

7866-418: The TFG and African Union troops . That same year, al-Shabaab pledged allegiance to Al-Qaeda . The insurgents still control much of central and southern Somalia, and wield influence in government-controlled areas, with the town of Jilib acting as the de facto capital for the insurgents. A new provisional constitution was passed in August 2012, reforming Somalia as a federation . The same month,

8004-422: The TFG of human rights abuses and war crimes including murder, rape, assault, and looting. The report also states that the TFG police force were implicated in arbitrary arrests of ordinary civilians in order to extort ransoms from their families. During June a faction of the ARS and the TFG signed a ceasefire agreement after months of talks in Djibouti . The agreement was met with resistance from elements within

8142-425: The TFG president only offering military answers to serious political issues. By November 2008, the Islamist insurgency fighting against the Ethiopian army and TFG had effectively won. The majority of south and central Somalia, along with the capital was under the control of Islamist factions. Ethiopia had redeployed much of its army out of Somalia by the end of the year. Due to rampant and pervasive corruption within

8280-531: The TFG to behave as "we prepare you for your return home". Public opinion in Kenya turned against the TFG, as many citizens accused it of remaining in Kenya for per diem payments. Under heavy pressure from Kenya , the government prepared to move into Somalia. During June 2005, the TFG moved into Somalia for the first time and promised to establish its authority across the country. Instead it quickly devolved into infighting, and serious internal divisions arose. A seat of power could not be agreed on. 100 members of

8418-405: The TFG was deeply divided over the issue of a possible deployment of foreign troops in Somalia. Various prominent Somali leaders and groups threatened to forcefully oppose such an intervention. In March 2005, a debate on deploying foreign troops, including Ethiopian forces, to Somalia led to violence after the resolution was rejected by a vote of 156 to 55. A brawl was initiated by some opposing

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8556-419: The TFG was dysfunctional from its inception and "failed miserably" as a functioning government. The new Transitional Federal Government under the Presidency of Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed wished to establish authority over Somalia , and sought assistance from Ethiopian troops who also sought to forcibly depose the Islamic Courts Union. In a move widely opposed by many TFG parliamentarians, President Yusuf made

8694-429: The TFG" as MPs had not simply rubber stamped proposals. Despite these serious deficiencies in capacity, Günther Schlee observes that, "the idea that the TFG was the government of Somalia still persisted in legal fiction and in the ambitions of the Ethiopians." In February 2006, the TFG struck a deal with the warlord in control of Baidoa city, and moved the seat of government there. Several TFG ministers were members of

8832-424: The TFG, chiefly President Abdullahi Yusuf. The Djibouti Peace Process called for the withdrawal of Ethiopian troops from Somalia. At the time the TFG was crippled by infighting and largely under the control of warlords as insurgent attacks worsened by the day. By mid-2008, President Yusuf had lost all the support he had accumulated in the international community. His primary backer, Ethiopia, had also become tired of

8970-524: The United States enabled it to build the largest army in Africa. A new constitution was promulgated in 1979 under which elections for a People's Assembly were held. However, Barre's Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party politburo continued to rule. In October 1980, the SRSP was disbanded, and the Supreme Revolutionary Council was re-established in its place. By that time, Barre's government had become increasingly unpopular. Many Somalis had become disillusioned with life under military dictatorship. The regime

9108-435: The aid of Ethiopia's communist Derg regime. By 1978, the Somali troops were ultimately pushed out of the Ogaden. This shift in support by the Soviet Union motivated the Barre government to seek allies elsewhere. It eventually settled on the Soviets' Cold War arch-rival, the United States , which had been courting the Somali government for some time. Somalia's initial friendship with the Soviet Union and later partnership with

9246-399: The area. This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to buy back the Somali lands it had turned over. Britain also granted administration of the almost exclusively Somali-inhabited Northern Frontier District (NFD) to Kenyan nationalists. This was despite a plebiscite in which, according to a British colonial commission, almost all of the territory's ethnic Somalis favored joining

9384-422: The cabinet reported through the prime minister . Alongside the national constitution, the Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic (TFC) laid out the basic way in which the government was to operate. The Transitional Federal Parliament elected the president and prime minister, and had the authority to pass and veto laws. It was also in charge of governance and administration of Mogadishu . Each of

9522-411: The capital and largest city, Mogadishu . Around 85% of its residents are ethnic Somalis and the official languages of the country are Somali and Arabic , though the former is the primary language. Somalia has historic and religious ties to the Arab world . As such the people in Somalia are Muslims , the majority of them Sunni . In antiquity, Somalia was an important commercial center. During

9660-461: The capital had ever experienced. European Union ambassador to Somalia Walter J. Lindner sent a letter to President Yusuf condemning the deliberate blockade the delivery of urgently needed humanitarian supplies relief and the bombardment of civilian areas sanctioned by the government. The TFG and the Ethiopians had little public support, and Ethiopian troops rarely conducted patrols due to frequent losses to Somali insurgents. The government lacked

9798-434: The city. In an effort to suppress the growing insurgency, the Ethiopian army resorted to heavy-handed military tactics, including the use of white phosphorus munitions and heavy artillery on civilian areas. This greatly intensified resentment and distrust of the TFG-Ethiopia alliance from Somali citizens. During the fierce fighting in Mogadishu between ENDF/TFG forces and the insurgency, the Ethiopians reportedly engaged in

9936-644: The claims, indicating in particular that a $ 3 million payment from the Government of Oman had gone toward legitimate government expenses, including loans, security forces and parliament. Ahmed also asserted that the SEMG paper had been "timed to coincide with the end of [the] transition period in order to discredit the TFG," and that the Monitoring Group was the "wrong approach for Somalia's peace and development." On 14 October 2010, diplomat Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed

10074-538: The coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants. Mogadishu, the center of a thriving textile industry known as toob benadir (specialized for the markets in Egypt, among other places ), together with Merca and Barawa, also served as a transit stop for Swahili merchants from Mombasa and Malindi and for the gold trade from Kilwa . Jewish merchants from the Hormuz brought their Indian textile and fruit to

10212-402: The control of the government. In many instances these security forces were hostile to one another. Ethiopia, the TFG's closes ally at the time, took the lead in training and integrating a Somali army but failed. Between 2004 and 2008, over 10,000 Ethiopian trained TFG soldiers deserted or defected to the insurgency. When Ethiopian forces withdrew from Somalia in 2008, the task of forming a new army

10350-666: The country declared its independence as the Republic of Somaliland in May 1991. Although de facto independent and relatively stable compared to the tumultuous south, it has not been recognized by any foreign government. Transitional Federal Government of Somalia [REDACTED] Member State of the Arab League The Transitional Federal Government ( TFG ) ( Somali : Dowladda Federaalka Kumeelgaarka , Arabic : الحكومة الاتحادية الانتقالية )

10488-496: The country was slipping to the insurgency and "raised the prospect his government could completely collapse." Ethiopia announced it would withdraw its troops from Somalia by the end of 2008 on 28 November. To shore up his rule in Mogadishu, Yusuf deployed thousands of his own troops from Puntland to Mogadishu. Financial support for this effort was provided by the autonomous region's government. This left little revenue for Puntland's own security forces and civil service employees, leaving

10626-419: The country. Barre responded by ordering punitive measures against those he perceived as locally supporting the guerrillas, especially in the northern regions. The clampdown included bombing of cities, with the northwestern administrative centre of Hargeisa , a Somali National Movement (SNM) stronghold, among the targeted areas in 1988. The clampdown initiated by Barre 's government extended its reach beyond

10764-752: The credibility, legitimacy, and capacity to rule effectively. It continually refused to consider any new power arrangement that would broaden its governing base throughout 2007. By the beginning of 2008, insurgent pressure had mounted on the Ethiopian and TFG troops in the south-central regions of Somalia. The Shabeelle , the Jubba Valley along with the Bay and Bakool regions in particular became hot spots. Islamist fighters gained strength and were able to move from different towns with little resistance as they had accrued significant public support. What had at first seemed to be

10902-417: The criminality in south Somalia during 2008 was linked to TFG security forces. In April 2008, Oxford Analytica observed that the TFG was 'little more' than a collection of armed rival groups. Abattle erupted in Mogadishu after TFG forces began robbing a marketplace, resulting Islamist insurgents inflicting heavy losses on the TFG forces after they came defend the merchants. Human Rights Watch report accused

11040-400: The earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback. The rock art is dated to 1,000 to 3,000 BCE. Additionally, between the towns of Las Khorey and El Ayo in northern Somalia lies Karinhegane , the site of numerous cave paintings, which collectively have been estimated to be around 2,500 years old. Ancient pyramidical structures, mausoleums , ruined cities and stone walls, such as

11178-531: The early 15th century, Adal's capital was moved further inland to the town of Dakkar , where Sabr ad-Din II , the eldest son of Sa'ad ad-Din II, established a new base after his return from Yemen. Adal's headquarters were again relocated the following century, this time southward to Harar . From this new capital, Adal organised an effective army led by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmad "Gurey" or "Gran"; both meaning "the left-handed") and his closest top general Garad Hirabu "Emir Of The Somalis that invaded

11316-402: The economy. A thriving black market existed in the centre of the city as banks experienced shortages of local currency for exchange. Harsh exchange control regulations were introduced to prevent export of foreign currency. Although no travel restrictions were placed on foreigners, photographing many locations was banned. During daytime in Mogadishu, the appearance of any government military force

11454-587: The end of the year, Gedi had not reconstituted his cabinet. According to I.M. Lewis , Yusuf's election as president and his appointment of Gedi, who had ties to Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi , were heavily influenced by Ethiopia. These connections played a key role in the Ethiopian invasion of Somalia two years later. The New York Times reported that PM Gedi’s rise to power had been effectively of Ethiopian creation. In 2004, Yusuf made his first foreign visit as President when he travelled to Ethiopia. During

11592-515: The ensuing Neolithic period from the family's proposed urheimat ("original homeland") in the Nile Valley , or the Near East . The Laas Geel complex on the outskirts of Hargeisa in northwestern Somalia dates back approximately 5,000 years, and has rock art depicting both wild animals and decorated cows. Other cave paintings are found in the northern Dhambalin region, which feature one of

11730-562: The first Muslims of Mecca fleeing prosecution during the first Hejira with Masjid al-Qiblatayn in Zeila being built before the Qiblah towards Mecca . It is one of the oldest mosques in Africa. In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Somali seaboard. He also mentioned that the Adal Kingdom had its capital in the city. According to Leo Africanus ,

11868-468: The first political entity to control Mogadishu since 1991. After several merger talks in Khartoum during the following months failed over the issues of foreign military forces in Somalia and ICU expansion out of the capital, US backed Ethiopian troops launched a full-scale invasion in late 2006 and installed the TFG under President Abdullahi Yusuf in Mogadishu. The invasion and foreign occupation sparked

12006-602: The first sultan, Sultan Guled Abdi , of the Eidagale clan. According to oral tradition, prior to the Guled dynasty the Isaaq clan-family were ruled by a dynasty of the Tolje'lo branch starting from, descendants of Ahmed nicknamed Tol Je'lo, the eldest son of Sheikh Ishaaq 's Harari wife. There were eight Tolje'lo rulers in total, starting with Boqor Harun ( Somali : Boqor Haaruun ) who ruled

12144-509: The form of an unstrung bow: if the Persians could manage to draw it, they would have the right to invade his country; but until then, they should thank the gods that the Macrobians never decided to invade their empire. The Macrobians were a regional power reputed for their advanced architecture and gold wealth, which was so plentiful that they shackled their prisoners in golden chains. The camel

12282-469: The former Minister of Finance and a well-regarded figure in the international community, was put in charge of a consolidated Ministry of Finance and Treasury; and Dr. Mohamud Abdi Ibrahim remained the minister of Commerce and Industry. Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a , a moderate Sufi group and an important military ally of the TFG, was also accorded the key Interior and Labour ministries. The remaining ministerial positions were largely assigned to technocrats new to

12420-627: The four major clans held 61 seats, while an alliance of minority clans held 31 seats. After an alliance with the Islamic Courts Union and other Islamist groups, the Islamists were awarded 200 seats. Representatives of citizens' groups and representatives of the Somali diaspora held 75 seats. By law, at least 12% of all representatives had to be women. Members of parliament are selected through traditional clan leaders or shura councils. A President

12558-714: The golden age of the Gobroon Dynasty. His army came out victorious during the Bardheere Jihad, which restored stability in the region and revitalized the East African ivory trade . He also had cordial relations and received gifts from the rulers of neighbouring and distant kingdoms such as the Omani, Witu and Yemeni Sultans. Sultan Ibrahim's son Ahmed Yusuf succeeded him as one of the most important figures in 19th-century East Africa, receiving tribute from Omani governors and creating alliances with important Muslim families on

12696-543: The government was mired in a severe internal crisis and at risk of collapse. Government soldiers began defecting over to the ICU. Professor Abdi Ismail Samatar observes that the Ethiopians had complete control over the TFG headquarters and had begun arming warlords defeated by the ICU. After the Ethiopian National Defence Force seized control of Mogadishu in the last days of 2006, the TFG announced that

12834-473: The government, salaries went unpaid. More than 80% of TFG military and security forces, nearly 15,000 personnel, deserted the government by the end of 2008. Rife with infighting and serious divisions, the TFG was once again on the brink of collapse by November 2008. On 26 October, a ceasefire agreement was signed between the Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia and the TFG. It was to go into effect on 5 November. President Abdullahi Yusuf admitted that

12972-561: The help of a small team of African Union troops, the coalition government also began a counteroffensive in February 2009 to retake control of the southern half of the country. To solidify its control of southern Somalia, the TFG formed an alliance with the Islamic Courts Union, other members of the Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia , and Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a , a moderate Sufi militia. Furthermore, Al-Shabaab and Hizbul Islam ,

13110-599: The independent Somali Republic under a civilian government. Siad Barre of the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) seized power in 1969 and established the Somali Democratic Republic , brutally attempting to squash the Somaliland War of Independence in the north of the country. The SRC collapsed in 1991 with the onset of the Somali Civil War . The Transitional National Government of Somalia (TNG)

13248-475: The initial bombings in the north to encompass various regions across the country. This reproduction of aggressive strategies aimed at stifling descent and retaining authority over the populace was a hallmark of the government's repressive actions in the South. One of the most notable instances occurred in 1991, when Barre's regime initiated a ruthless arial assault that led to the deaths of numerous innocent individuals in

13386-419: The judicial systems of previous Somali administrations. These similarities in civil law included: The Ministry of Education was officially responsible for education in Somalia, with about 15% of the government's budget being spent on education. However, in practice, the education system was largely private. In 2006, the autonomous Puntland region in the northeast was the second territory in Somalia after

13524-462: The literacy rate. The Somali Democratic Republic achieved a literacy rate of 70%, one of the highest in Africa at the time. In addition to a nationalization program of industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with the Arab world , eventually joining the Arab League in February, 1974. That same year, Barre also served as chairman of

13662-559: The lucrative commerce between the Red and Mediterranean Seas. However, Indian merchants continued to trade in the port cities of the Somali peninsula, which was free from Roman interference. For centuries, Indian merchants brought large quantities of cinnamon to Somalia and Arabia from Ceylon and the Spice Islands . The source of the cinnamon and other spices is said to have been the best-kept secret of Arab and Somali merchants in their trade with

13800-508: The mandates of the President, the Parliament Speaker, and Deputies were extended until August 2012. On 19 June 2011, Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed resigned from his position as Prime Minister of Somalia as part of the controversial Kampala Accord's conditions. The agreement would also see the mandates of the President, the Parliament Speaker and Deputies extended until August 2012, after which point new elections are to be organized, including

13938-489: The nation's upcoming new constitution, a key part of the government's Transitional Federal Tasks. In addition, high level federal delegations were dispatched to defuse clan-related tensions in several regions. According to the prime minister of Somalia, to improve transparency, Cabinet ministers fully disclosed their assets and signed a code of ethics . An Anti-Corruption Commission with the power to carry out formal investigations and to review government decisions and protocols

14076-492: The newly formed Somali Republic. A referendum was held in neighbouring Djibouti (then known as French Somaliland ) in 1958, on the eve of Somalia's independence in 1960, to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, largely due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans. There

14214-505: The northeastern town of Garowe to discuss post-transition arrangements. After extensive deliberations attended by regional actors and international observers, the conference ended in a signed agreement between TFG President Sharif Sheikh Ahmed, Prime Minister Abdiweli Mohamed Ali, Speaker of Parliament Sharif Adan Sharif Hassan, Puntland President Abdirahman Mohamed Farole , Galmudug President Mohamed Ahmed Alim and Ahlu Sunnah Wal Jama'a representative Khalif Abdulkadir Noor stipulating that: a)

14352-530: The plan of Fascist Italy. With the arrival of Governor Cesare Maria De Vecchi on 15 December 1923, things began to change for that part of Somaliland known as Italian Somaliland . The last piece of land acquired by Italy in Somalia was Oltre Giuba , present-day Jubaland region, in 1925. The Italians began local infrastructure projects, including the construction of hospitals, farms and schools. Fascist Italy , under Benito Mussolini , attacked Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935, with an aim to colonize it. The invasion

14490-399: The population of the city opposed the TFG and perceived it to be a puppet government. The military occupation was marked by indiscriminate violence towards civilians by the Ethiopian army and TFG. Homes were raided in search of ICU loyalists, with lootings, beatings and executions of suspected collaborators commonplace. The TFG soon began to run into increasing opposition from remnants of

14628-653: The prevalence of corruption in a country's public sector. A World Bank report also alleged that about $ 130 million that the coalition government had received over this 2009 and 2010 period was unaccounted for. In July 2012, a report by the UN Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea (SEMG) submitted to the UN Security Council alleged that between 2009 and 2010, around 70 percent of funds that had been earmarked for development and reconstruction in Somalia were unaccounted for. President Sharif Sheikh Ahmed rebuked

14766-518: The previous Yusuf administration, to losing control of over 80% of the disputed territory to the Islamist insurgents. During the coalition government's brief tenure, Somalia topped the Fund For Peace 's Failed States Index for three consecutive years. In 2009, Transparency International ranked the nation in last place on its annual Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI), a metric that purports to show

14904-544: The protectorate stagnated in political administrative development. The disparity between the two territories in economic development and political experience would later cause serious difficulties integrating the two parts. Meanwhile, in 1948, under pressure from their World War II allies and to the dismay of the Somalis, the British returned the Haud (an important Somali grazing area that was presumably protected by British treaties with

15042-440: The result, injuring several MPs, and the vote was declared invalid thereafter. By insisting on the deployment of foreign troops from countries bordering Somalia, President Abdullahi Yusuf and his Prime Minister Ali Gedi disregarded the views of their cabinet, a clear majority of transitional parliament, and much of the public. Kenya, which had been hosting the conference, called the events disrespectful to its government and warned

15180-467: The rivaling Islamic forces had been defeated and that no further major fighting was expected to take place. The Islamic Courts Union splintered into several different insurgent factions. Some of the more radical elements, including Al-Shabaab , regrouped to wage an insurgency against the Ethiopian military presence in Somalia and the TFG. The TFG proved to be incapable of controlling Mogadishu, or of surviving on its own without Ethiopian troops. Most of

15318-450: The seat of the government in Baidoa . Between 31 May and 9 June 2008, representatives of Somalia's federal government and the moderate Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia (ARS) group of Islamist rebels participated in peace talks in Djibouti brokered by the former United Nations Special Envoy to Somalia, Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah . The conference ended with a signed agreement calling for

15456-463: The security forces even resulted in shootouts between units as they fought over control of revenue from illegal checkpoints. At the start of 2007, the TFG imposed martial law . It issued directives which included a ban on public meetings, attempts to organize political campaigns and major media outlets, which were enforced by Ethiopian troops. Warlord militia checkpoints began reappearing on Mogadishu roads and insecurity started once again returning to

15594-518: The sounds in the language, and the widespread existence of machines and typewriters designed for its use, President Mohamed Siad Barre required it for writing Somali instead of the Arabic or Osmanya scripts. Barre's administration subsequently launched a massive literacy campaign designed to ensure its sole adoption, which led to a sharp decline in use of Osmanya. The direction of reading and writing in Osmanya

15732-415: The territory vulnerable to piracy and terrorist attacks. In December 2008, the TFG parliament moved to impeach President Abdullahi Yusuf , accusing him of being a dictator and an obstacle to peace. After TFG prime minister Nur Hassan had blamed Yusuf for the TFG's failures, Yusuf had fired him without the required approval of parliament. The TFG once again found itself based largely out of Baidoa and

15870-478: The three divisions of South African, West African, and East African troops. They were assisted by Somali forces led by Abdulahi Hassan with Somalis of the Isaaq , Dhulbahante , and Warsangali clans prominently participating. The number of Italian Somalis began to decline after World War II, with fewer than 10,000 remaining in 1960. Following World War II, Britain retained control of both British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland as protectorates. In 1945, during

16008-436: The town of Beledwene , situated in southern Somalia. The cruelty and magnitude of this atrocity highlighted the degree to which the government was prepared to go to quash any sort of opposition or resistance, displaying a blatant disregard for human rights and the worth of human life. Another notable instance of Barre 's repressive policies occurred in the city of Baidoa , which earned the nickname 'the city of death' due to

16146-498: The tragic events that unfolded there during the famine and civil war . Hundreds of thousands of individuals lost their lives as a consequence of governmental strategies specifically aimed at the Rahanweyn community residing in these areas. During 1990, in the capital city of Mogadishu, the residents were prohibited from gathering publicly in groups greater than three or four. Fuel shortages, inflation, and currency devaluation impacted

16284-408: The trip to Addis Ababa he requested 20,000 Ethiopian troops to back his government. The majority of Somali society, including much of the newly formed TFG, deeply opposed any foreign military intervention on Somali soil. An African Union fact finding mission to Somalia in 2005 found that the overwhelming majority of Somalis rejected troops from neighboring states entering the country. During 2005

16422-545: The two TFG factions in September 2005, coming dangerously close to a major conflict. Neither parliament or the full cabinet had met since the March fight in Kenya. No progress was made in establishing a minimally functional government or creating a civil service. For the remainder of 2005 the TFG remained deeply divided. So little was achieved over 2005 that some observers argued that the March fighting had been "the only high point for

16560-470: The two main Islamist groups in opposition, began to fight amongst themselves in mid-2009. As a truce, in March 2009, Somalia's coalition government announced that it would re-implement Shari'a as the nation's official judicial system. However, conflict continued in the southern and central parts of the country. Within months, the coalition government had gone from holding about 70% of south-central Somalia's conflict zones, territory which it had inherited from

16698-515: The war, the Somali army scored continuous victories on the Ethiopian army and followed them as far as Sidamo . By September 1977, Somalia controlled 90% of the Ogaden and captured strategic cities such as Jijiga and put heavy pressure on Dire Dawa , threatening the train route from the latter city to Djibouti. After the siege of Harar, a massive unprecedented Soviet intervention consisting of 20,000 Cuban forces and several thousand Soviet experts came to

16836-420: The widely unpopular decision to invite Ethiopian troops to prop up his administration. As an institution, the TFG did not consent to or approve of the Ethiopian military intervention. No parliamentary approval was given for a decision openly opposed by a significant portion of the government. During late July 2006, over a dozen TFG parliamentarians resigned in protest of the Ethiopian invasion, and by August 2006

16974-436: The withdrawal of Ethiopian troops in exchange for the cessation of armed confrontation. Parliament was subsequently expanded to 550 seats to accommodate ARS members, which then elected Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed , the former ARS chairman, to office. President Sharif shortly afterwards appointed Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke , the son of slain former president Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke , as the nation's new prime minister. With

17112-593: The withdrawal of Ethiopian troops. In the year after the invasion, the TFG parliament was purged of opposition figures and represented a narrow coalition of Somali society. For much of 2007 the government was besieged and dysfunctional, with virtually no progress being made for political transition. It was plagued with charges of corruption and abuse, including the obstruction of relief aid deliveries. The TFG security forces, both police and military, were notoriously undisciplined, committing numerous acts of murder and sexual violence against civilians. Internal hostilities within

17250-478: Was Qamar Adan Ali . The autonomous Puntland region had its own local Ministry of Health, which is headed by Dr. Mohamed Bashir Ali Bihi , as did the Somaliland region in northwestern Somalia, with its Ministry of Health led by Osman Bile Ali . The Transitional Federal Government's Ministry of Defense was officially responsible for the Somali National Army (SNA). In addition, a new police force

17388-457: Was also established so as to more closely monitor all activities by public officials. Furthermore, unnecessary trips abroad by members of government were prohibited, and all travel by ministers now require the Premier's consent. A budget outlining 2011's federal expenditures was also put before and approved by members of parliament, with the payment of civil service employees prioritized. In addition,

17526-565: Was also widespread vote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls. The majority of those who voted 'no' were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi , Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later. Djibouti finally gained independence from France in 1977, and Hassan Gouled Aptidon ,

17664-498: Was appointed the new prime minister of Somalia after the resignation of Premier Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke. Per the Transitional Federal Government's (TFG) Charter , Prime Minister Mohamed named a new Cabinet on 12 November 2010, which has been lauded by the international community. The allotted ministerial positions were reduced from 39 to 18. Only two Ministers from the previous Cabinet were reappointed: Hussein Abdi Halane,

17802-519: Was condemned by the League of Nations , but little was done to stop it or to liberate occupied Ethiopia. In 1936, Italian Somalia was integrated into Italian East Africa , alongside Eritrea and Ethiopia, as the Somalia Governorate . On 3 August 1940, Italian troops, including Somali colonial units, crossed from Ethiopia to invade British Somaliland , and by 14 August, succeeded in taking Berbera from

17940-689: Was elected by Parliament. The President was head of government, and chose the Prime Minister, who would lead the cabinet. The Cabinet, formally known as the Council of Ministers, at first comprised 42 offices, but was later slimmed down to 31 portfolios during a period of contention in 2006. In 2010, it was further scaled down to 18 posts. The Council of Ministers was appointed by the prime minister . The government posts and ministerial positions were as follows: Despite some significant political differences between them, all of these administrations shared similar legal structures, much of which were predicated on

18078-641: Was established in 2000, followed by the formation of the Transitional Federal Government of Somalia (TFG) in 2004, which reestablished the Somali Armed Forces . At the end of 2006, a US-backed Ethiopian invasion overthrew the Islamic Courts Union (ICU), leading to the installation of the TFG in Mogadishu under an Ethiopian military occupation . The subsequent insurgency which emerged saw

18216-536: Was extremely rare. Alleged late-night operations by government authorities, however, included "disappearances" of individuals from their homes. In 1991, the Barre administration was ousted by a coalition of clan-based opposition groups, backed by Ethiopia's then-ruling Derg regime and Libya . Following a meeting of the Somali National Movement and northern clans' elders, the northern former British portion of

18354-469: Was formed by Abdullahi Issa and Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal with other members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments, with Abdulcadir Muhammed Aden as President of the Somali National Assembly , Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as President of the Somali Republic, and Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister (later to become president from 1967 to 1969). On 20 July 1961 and through

18492-410: Was internationally recognized as a provisional government of the Somalia from 14 October 2004 until 20 August 2012, when its tenure officially ended and the Federal Government of Somalia (FGS) was inaugurated. Succeeding the Transitional National Government (TNG) that had been formed in 2000, the TFG was the second interim administration aiming to restore national institutions to Somalia after

18630-813: Was led by Brigadier General Mohamed Ainanshe Guled , Lieutenant Colonel Salaad Gabeyre Kediye and Chief of Police Jama Korshel . Kediye officially held the title "Father of the Revolution", and Barre shortly afterwards became the head of the SRC. The SRC subsequently renamed the country the Somali Democratic Republic, dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution. The revolutionary government established large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and rural literacy campaign, which helped dramatically increase

18768-530: Was placed on the Muslim principles of social progress, equality and justice, which the government argued formed the core of scientific socialism and its own accent on self-sufficiency, public participation and popular control, as well as direct ownership of the means of production. While the SRSP encouraged private investment on a limited scale, the administration's overall direction was essentially communist . In July 1977,

18906-417: Was re-established to maintain law and order. The first police academy to be built in Somalia for several years opened on 20 December 2005 at Armo, 100 kilometres south of Bosaso . The Somali police also had a criminal investigations department in Mogadishu . From 2004 to 2009, the TFG security forces were essentially uniformed clan militia who were loyal to their individual commander and only nominally under

19044-569: Was weakened further in the 1980s as the Cold War drew to a close and Somalia's strategic importance was diminished. The government became increasingly authoritarian , and resistance movements , encouraged by Ethiopia, sprang up across the country, eventually leading to the Somali Civil War . Among the militia groups were the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF), United Somali Congress (USC), Somali National Movement (SNM) and

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