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58-436: See text. Osedax is a genus of deep-sea siboglinid polychaetes , commonly called boneworms , zombie worms , or bone-eating worms . Osedax is Latin for "bone-eater". The name alludes to how the worms bore into the bones of whale carcasses to reach enclosed lipids , on which they rely for sustenance. They utilize specialized root tissues for bone-boring. It is possible that multiple species of Osedax reside in

116-503: A 2023 study. Different genera in this order are found in Osedax at different points during the whale's degradation: The Sulfurimonas genus in particular protects the Osedax worms from potentially harmful by-products produced at >140 months of the whale fall degradation. The Sulfurimonas bacteria house the type II and IV sulfide:quinone oxidoreductase genes that encode enzymes to oxidize and assimilate sulfide. These reactions prevent

174-418: A broad biogeographic range and is surprisingly diverse. One hypothesis advanced to explain this seeming paradox is that Osedax are able to colonize a variety of vertebrate remains besides whalebones. One study documented 14 new Osedax species successfully colonizing the bones of teleost fish, sea turtles, seals, cows, and turkeys, in addition to whales, while a later study documented a new species feeding on

232-457: A common bioerosion mechanism in which secreted acid is produced by anaerobic respiration . This process works with a demineralization mechanism in which oxygen is carried from seawater to the roots and HCO − 3   is secreted into the seawater. The epidermis also plays key roles in bone deterioration and nutrient uptake. This process of bone deterioration occurs through a symbiotic relationship with an endosymbiotic bacteria. The cells in

290-407: A genus is determined by taxonomists . The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including the idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of

348-643: A later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg. ; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the "valid taxon" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is " correct name " or "current name" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split. Prokaryote and virus codes of nomenclature also exist which serve as

406-621: A long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776. Within the same kingdom, one generic name can apply to one genus only. However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera. For example,

464-409: A reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of "names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature". An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for

522-427: A taxon; however, the names published in suppressed works are made unavailable via the relevant Opinion dealing with the work in question. In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's "available name" is a validly published name . An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval. ; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej. ;

580-478: A time. They are already fertilized when they are released from the female worm. The worms' endosymbionts, species of bacteria in the order Oceanospirillales , were not observed in the spawned oocytes, which suggests that they are acquired after the worms settle on the bones. In the adult, the bacteria are localised in the root-like structures that grow into the whale bone. This worm appears to be highly fecund and reproduces continuously. This may help explain why Osedax

638-455: A total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. "Official" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no "official" standing such as Index Fungorum for fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and

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696-691: A wider range of foods. In a study of the boring morphological diversity of Osedax, it was shown that the species difference of bone-boring is highly variable; within the same species, the boring morphology is only consistent in a particular bone, but not consistent in different bones. It was also suggested that multiple species of Osedax can co-exist in the same bone and in an incomplete spatial niche differentiation . The presence of Osedax and their borings welcome other species such as Stephonyx amphipods, Paralomis crabs, and Rubyspira gastropods. As Osedax worms break down bone and lipid layers, fauna take advantage and colonize these bone matrices. Overall,

754-596: Is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants , there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance, A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG). The type genus forms

812-495: Is revealed by genomic streamlining, where increased functional groups were observed despite the loss of some gene families. Six incomplete pathways were discovered in the Osedax worm genome which were supplemented by the endosymbionts. In particular, the Osedax worm lacks specific gene families involved in bone lipid and carbohydrate metabolism . This function is complemented by the Oceanospirillales symbionts, which utilize

870-534: Is significant because the bone matrix is integral in maintaining the worm's position while in direct contact with a bone. Osedax males are notably smaller than their female counterparts. Between 50 and 100 microscopic dwarf males live inside the tube surrounding a single female and never develop past the larval stage; they produce sperm from yolk reserves. Male dwarfism prevents competition with female Osedax worms for food and space. Conditions that favour dwarfism in male Osedax are: Interestingly, Osedax priapus lack

928-460: Is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be "similar", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists about whether enormous, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance,

986-621: Is such a diverse genus, despite the rarity of whale falls in the ocean. Male Osedax are microscopic dwarfs that live as "harems" inside the lumen of the gelatinous tube that surrounds each female. An individual female can house hundreds of these males in her tube. Following its discovery in 2002 by researchers at the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, the genus was announced in Science in 2004. In late 2005, an experiment by Swedish marine biologists resulted in

1044-474: Is the type species , and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed. In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as "available" or "unavailable". Available names are those published in accordance with

1102-411: Is the primary organic component in bone. Collagen is degraded using a family of endopeptidases called matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) , which facilitates nutrient absorption by the Osedax . The roots of the Osedax express high amounts of V-ATPase and carbonic anhydrase enzymes , which allows the Osedax to dissolve and absorb collagen and lipids . Once dissolved, the nutrients are either used by

1160-712: The Cambridge Greensand , England, likely reworked from late Albian (c. 100 million years old) sediments and a rib and costal plate from a sea turtle found in Cenomanian (100–93 million years ago) aged sediments of the Chalk Group , England. Further material is known from the Campanian and Maastrichtian. Following the extinction of almost all large marine reptiles at the end of the Cretaceous, Osedax likely persisted on

1218-621: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ; the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the " valid " (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question. Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time; which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. "Unavailable" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to

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1276-799: The International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names for zoological names. Totals for both "all names" and estimates for "accepted names" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom: The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists "uncertain" names (not researched therein) in addition to known "accepted" names;

1334-488: The Osedax , or transported to the symbionts for further catabolism. As the endosymbionts lack secreted M9 peptidase, they rely on the Osedax worm to source extracellular collagen. The symbionts in the Oceanospirillales order have then been observed to further process the collagen using collagenolytic enzymes. Sequencing of the Osedax worm genome has suggested an evolved dependency on its endosymbionts. This

1392-426: The glyoxylate cycle to catabolize nutrients from whale bones and convert fatty acids into carbohydrates . The Osedax are then able to take up and store the end products as glycogen . Bacteriocytes are present in the Osedax lower trunk subepidermal connective tissue, and there are additional genes in the bacteriocytes that encode amino acids and glucose and aid in digestion and absorption of proteins into

1450-419: The nomenclature codes , which allow each species a single unique name that, for animals (including protists ), plants (also including algae and fungi ) and prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ), is Latin and binomial in form; this contrasts with common or vernacular names , which are non-standardized, can be non-unique, and typically also vary by country and language of usage. Except for viruses ,

1508-404: The platypus belongs to the genus Ornithorhynchus although George Shaw named it Platypus in 1799 (these two names are thus synonyms ) . However, the name Platypus had already been given to a group of ambrosia beetles by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1793. A name that means two different things is a homonym . Since beetles and platypuses are both members of the kingdom Animalia,

1566-464: The California coast. Annelid sex is typically determined by genetic factors, however models of environmental sex determination have been proposed for Osedax , in which larvae that settle on bones mature into females, while larvae that settle on female Osedax do not fully develop and mature into males. O. japonicus in particular has showcased an environmental form of sex determination. Symbionts are

1624-482: The Oceanospirillales are metabolically and morphologically diverse, with some able to grow in the presence of oxygen and others requiring an anaerobic environment. Members of the Oceanospirillales can be halotolerant or halophilic and require high salt concentrations to grow. While they grow in diverse niches, all Oceanospirillales derive their energy from the breakdown of various organic products. Bacteria in

1682-479: The Oceanospirillales are motile except for those in the genus Alcanivorax . Bacteria in the Oceanospirillales include hydrocarbon-degrading groups such as Oleispira antarctica , Thalassolituus oleivorans , and Oleiphilus messinensis , which were found in the indigenous microbial community in deep waters after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010. They are also common members of bacterial communities in

1740-442: The base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name Canidae ("Canids") based on Canis . However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is Carnivora ("Carnivores"). The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of

1798-569: The bones of a decaying gray whale in the Monterey Canyon , at a depth of 2,893 m (9,491 ft). Osedax are colorful tubeworms that have no mouth, anus, or gut. The body is divided into different regions: trunk, ovisac, and root. They range in length between 2.5 to 7 cm (0.98 to 2.76 in), although this varies between species (cite). Sexual dimorphism is observed in Osedax with females >20,000 times larger than males. Osedax rely on symbiotic species of bacteria that aid in

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1856-437: The bones of alligators. Osedax have also been observed colonizing terrestrial mammal bones mixed in with galley waste from a surface vessel. Other scientists have countered this hypothesis by pointing out how the cow bone experiment does not match any natural habitat and also the low probability of terrestrial mammal bones arriving at the ocean floor in significant quantities. They also point out other cases of food falls in which

1914-450: The bones of sea turtles and fish. Given that Osedax have the generalist ability to feed on different vertebrates (fishes, marine birds, whale bones). In terms of evolutionary history research, the Osedax could have had negative impact in preserving fossil record because its appearance at the shelf-depth combined with its ability to efficiently break down marine vertebrates skeletons. Selected species: Genus The composition of

1972-417: The borings made by Osedax have shown to enhance biodiversity and the worms should, therefore, be considered ecosystem engineers . The downside of the deterioration caused by Osedax is that it speeds up the process of erosion, therefore only allowing this new fauna their new habitats for a temporary period. The oldest trace fossils on bones characteristic of Osedax are from a plesiosaur humerus from

2030-415: The digestion of whale proteins and lipids and release nutrients that the worms can absorb. Osedax have colorful feathery plumes that also act as gills and unusual root-like structures that absorb nutrients. The Osedax secrete acid (rather than rely on teeth) to bore into bone to access the nutrients. High concentrations of carbonic anhydrase are found in the roots of Osedax. This serves as evidence of

2088-686: The discovery of a species of the worm in the North Sea off the west coast of Sweden . In the experiment, a minke whale carcass that had been washed ashore had been sunk to a depth of 120 m (390 ft) and monitored for several months. Biologists were surprised to find that, unlike the previous discoveries, the new species, colloquially known as "bone-eating snot flower" after its scientific name ( Osedax mucofloris ), lived in relatively shallow waters. In November 2009, researchers reported finding as many as 15 species of boneworms living in Monterey Bay on

2146-451: The epidermis of the Osedax root region are responsible for the secretion of digestive enzymes. The epidermis also has an expanded microvillus border which increases the surface area. Through the use of X-ray CT technology, scans showed that borings made by Osedax mucofloris were hemi-ellipsoidal in shape. Boring depths varied depending on which bone was colonized by the O. mucofloris . Deeper borings were found in radius bone compared to

2204-446: The form "author, year" in zoology, and "standard abbreviated author name" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as " Canis Linnaeus, 1758" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus , also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply " Hibiscus L." (botanical usage). Each genus should have a designated type , although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this

2262-419: The frequently observed male dwarfism. Males live freely and compete for space and food with females. Being larger, they produce and carry more sperm. However, sexual size dimorphism is still observed in O. priapus : most males are one-third the volume of females. Female Osedax worms have been observed spawning both in the wild and in laboratory aquaria. Osedax rubiplumus can spawn hundreds of oocytes at

2320-727: The generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, Canis lupus lupus for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics . The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example,

2378-403: The host from absorbing toxic by-products across the epithelial barrier . The role of Osedax in the degradation of marine vertebrate remains controversial. Some scientists think that Osedax is a specialist on whalebones while others think that it is more of a generalist. This controversy is due to a biogeographic paradox: despite the rarity and ephemeral nature of whale falls , Osedax has

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2436-628: The largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae). By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 "accepted" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups. The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles , which have about 1180 genera,

2494-495: The lizard genus Anolis has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets. Oceanospirillales Alcanivoracaceae Balneatrichaceae Endozoicomonadaceae Hahellaceae Halomonadaceae Kangiellaceae Litoricolaceae Oceanospirillaceae Oleiphilaceae Saccharospirillaceae The Oceanospirillales are an order of Pseudomonadota with ten families. Bacteria in

2552-403: The most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus , contains over 3,000 species. Which species are assigned to a genus

2610-428: The name could not be used for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach published the replacement name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called "homonyms". Although this

2668-547: The primary providers of nutrition for Osedax. However, these symbionts also possess genes , secretion systems , and toxins that disrupt the Osedax membrane and facilitate recurrent infections of adult Osedax through the root tips. There is ongoing debate in the literature over whether the symbiosis in Osedax roots is commensal or mutualistic . The symbiotic relationship between Osedax and its accompanying bacteria may be transferred either via vertical or horizontal transmission . Osedax species use collagen, which

2726-526: The provisions of the ICZN Code, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated. According to "Glossary" section of the zoological Code, suppressed names (per published "Opinions" of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature) remain available but cannot be used as the valid name for

2784-420: The remains disappeared too swiftly for Osedax colonization and the lack of any observed colonization in similar cases. The true role of Osedax in the degradation of marine vertebrate remains is important to marine vertebrate taphonomy . Burrows closely similar to those made by Osedax species have been found in the bones of ancient marine birds and plesiosaurs , suggesting that the genus may once have had

2842-412: The roots. The Oceanospirillales symbionts are found in the specialized roots of all Osedax species,  and play a major role in accelerating the degradation process of bones, as well as facilitating nutrient uptake for the Osedax . Oceanospirillales are known for their ability to degrade complex organic compounds. Campylobacterales are abundant along the trunk of the Osedax according to

2900-597: The same bone. Osedax worms are also known to feed on the collagen itself by making holes in the whale's skeletal structure. These holes can also serve as a form of protection from nearby predators. Scientists from the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute using the submarine ROV Tiburon first discovered the genus in Monterey Bay , California , in February 2002. The worms were found living on

2958-466: The same kind as other (analogous) genera. The term "genus" comes from Latin genus , a noun form cognate with gignere ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum , but the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered "the founder of the modern concept of genera". The scientific name (or

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3016-408: The scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name ; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature , the system of naming organisms , where it is combined with the scientific name of a species : see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology) . The rules for the scientific names of organisms are laid down in

3074-497: The specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus , a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany . When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example, C. lupus in place of Canis lupus . Where species are further subdivided,

3132-412: The standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf 's scientific name is Canis lupus , with Canis ( Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and lupus (Latin for 'wolf') being

3190-403: The taxon is termed a synonym ; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural code, and rejected or suppressed names. A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for

3248-424: The ulna and vertebrae. Osedax roots are covered by a mucus sheath that helps protect the worm's trunk. Some studies support the theory that this sheath plays a role in dissolving the bone. This sheath could also play an important role in reducing the damage to Osedax skin by absorbing harmful acid. Another potential function of the mucus sheath is that it could inhibit the breakdown of the worm's bone matrix. This

3306-566: The values quoted are the mean of "accepted" names alone (all "uncertain" names treated as unaccepted) and "accepted + uncertain" names (all "uncertain" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes. Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda , with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up

3364-429: The virus species " Salmonid herpesvirus 1 ", " Salmonid herpesvirus 2 " and " Salmonid herpesvirus 3 " are all within the genus Salmonivirus ; however, the genus to which the species with the formal names " Everglades virus " and " Ross River virus " are assigned is Alphavirus . As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in

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