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The Orstkhoy , historically commonly known under their exonyms : Karabulaks , Balsu , Baloy , are a historical ethnoterritorial society among the Chechen and Ingush peoples. Their homeland is in the upper reaches of the Assa and Fortanga rivers in the historical region of Orstkhoy-Mokhk (the Sernovodsky District and the border part of the Achkhoy-Martanovsky District of the Chechen Republic , Russia , as well as most of the Sunzhensky District of Ingushetia ). In the tradition of the Chechen ethno-hierarchy, it is considered one of the nine historical Chechen tukkhums , in the Ingush tradition as one of the seven historical Ingush shahars .

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77-435: The name Orstkhoy in their native language ( Chechen or Ingush ) is " Орстхой ", written as " Orstxoj " in the old Latin writing system. Different theories exist around the origin of the word: There's some other variants of the name such as Arshte , Arshtkhoy , Arstkhoy , Oarshtkhoy , Oarstkhoy , Ärshtkhoy or Ershtkhoy : Аьрстхой Эрштхой Арштхой Ärstkhoy Ershtkhoy Arshtkhoy The first descriptions of

154-441: A department of defence or defense , is the part of a government responsible for matters of defence and military forces , found in states where the government is divided into ministries or departments. Such a department usually includes all branches of the military, and is usually controlled by a defence minister or secretary of defense . The role of a defence minister varies considerably from country to country; in some

231-514: A glottal stop before a " pharyngealized " (actually epiglottalized) vowel. However, it does not have the distribution constraints characteristic of the anterior pharyngealized (epiglottalized) consonants . Although these may be analyzed as an anterior consonant plus / ʢ / (they surface for example as [dʢ] when voiced and [ pʰʜ ] when voiceless ), Nichols argues that given the severe constraints against consonant clusters in Chechen, it

308-403: A consonant; as a consonant, it has an allophone [ v ] before front vowels. Approximately twenty pharyngealized consonants (marked with superscript ˤ ) also appear in the table above. Labial , alveolar and postalveolar consonants may be pharyngealized, except for ejectives . Except when following a consonant, / ʢ / is phonetically [ ʔˤ ] , and can be argued to be

385-550: A destroyed and no longer existent historical treasury of writings. The Chechen diaspora in Jordan , Turkey , and Syria is fluent but generally not literate in Chechen except for individuals who have made efforts to learn the writing system. The Cyrillic alphabet is not generally known in these countries, and thus for Jordan and Syria, they most use the Arabic alphabet, while in Turkey they use

462-539: A feature of the vowels. However, Nichols argues that this does not capture the situation in Chechen well, whereas it is more clearly a feature of the vowel in Ingush : Chechen [tsʜaʔ] "one", Ingush [tsaʔˤ] , which she analyzes as /tsˤaʔ/ and /tsaˤʔ/ . Vowels have a delayed murmured onset after pharyngealized voiced consonants and a noisy aspirated onset after pharyngealized voiceless consonants. The high vowels /i/, /y/, /u/ are diphthongized, [əi], [əy], [əu] , whereas

539-404: A great final step in creating a modified Arabic script that represents Chechen consonants. However, the Arabic alphabet still was not suitable in representing Chechen vowel sounds. Arabic script itself is an impure abjad , meaning that most but not all vowels are shown with diacritics , which are in most cases left unwritten. The process of transforming Arabic script into a full alphabet for use by

616-612: A large number of postpositions to indicate the role of nouns in sentences. Word order is consistently left-branching (like in Japanese or Turkish ), so that adjectives , demonstratives and relative clauses precede the nouns they modify. Complementizers and adverbial subordinators , as in other Northeast and in Northwest Caucasian languages , are affixes rather than independent words. Chechen also presents interesting challenges for lexicography , as creating new words in

693-559: A non-Arabic language has been a common occurrence, and has been done in Uyghur , Kazakh , Kurdish and several more Arabic-derived scripts. Thus a final revision on Chechen Arabic script occurred, in which vowel sounds were standardized. Table below lists the 41 letters of the final iteration of Chechen Arabic Alphabet, as published by Chechen Authorities at the time, prior to 1925, their IPA values, and their Cyrillic equivalents. The single letters and digraphs that count as separate letters of

770-602: A result of long-distance assimilation between vowel sounds. Additionally, the Himoy dialect preserves word-final, post-tonic vowels as a schwa [ə]. Literary Chechen is based on Plains Chechen, spoken around Grozny and Urus-Martan . According to the Russian Census of 2020 , 1,490,000 people reported being able to speak Chechen in Russia. Chechen is an official language of Chechnya . Chechens in Jordan have good relations with

847-524: A separate nation whose language was closer to Chechen. The Orstkhoy themselves according to Volkova identified closer to "Nokhchi" (self-name of Chechens) and saw themselves as one nation with Chechens. The Orstkhoy also said that no one considers them Ingush but that they were written down as Ingush on their passports. The inhabitants of over 20 native highland villages of Orstkhoy: Tsecha-Akhke, Meredzhi , Gerite, Muzhgan, Yalkharoy , Galai etc. were all ethnic Chechens according to 5 censuses conducted before

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924-454: A specific prefix with which the verb or an accompanying adjective agrees. The verb does not agree with person or number, having only tense forms and participles. Among these are an optative and an antipassive . Some verbs, however, do not take these prefixes. Chechen is an ergative , dependent-marking language using eight cases ( absolutive , genitive , dative , ergative , allative , instrumental , locative and comparative ) and

1001-490: A vowel use when needed to avoid confusions. This modification did not persist in Chechen Alphabet. otherwise, the 1910 iteration of the Arabic script continued being used until 1920. In 1920, two Chechen literaturists, A. Tugaev and T. Eldarkhanov, published a document. In this document they proposed new modifications, which were the addition of two new consonants: These modifications by A. Tugaev and T. Eldarkhanov were

1078-698: Is a Northeast Caucasian language spoken by approximately 1.8 million people, mostly in the Chechen Republic and by members of the Chechen diaspora throughout Russia and the rest of Europe , Jordan , Austria , Turkey , Azerbaijan , Ukraine , Central Asia (mainly Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan ) and Georgia . Before the Russian conquest , most writings in Chechnya consisted of Islamic texts and clan histories, written usually in Arabic but sometimes also in Chechen using Arabic script. The Chechen literary language

1155-481: Is completely unknown to the Chechens themselves. They call themselves Nakhche, i.e. "people" and this refers to the entire people who speak the Chechen language and its dialects. The mentioned names were given to them either from auls, like Tsori, Galgaï, Shatoi, etc., or from rivers and mountains, like Michikovtsy and Kachkalyks. It is very likely that sooner or later all or most of the names we have given will disappear and

1232-492: Is followed by a front vowel. The trill / r / is usually articulated with a single contact, and therefore sometimes described as a tap [ ɾ ] . Except in the literary register , and even then only for some speakers, the voiced affricates / dz / , / dʒ / have merged into the fricatives / z / , / ʒ / . A voiceless labial fricative / f / is found only in European loanwords . / w / appears both in diphthongs and as

1309-459: Is found in handwriting. Usually, palochka uppercase and lowercase forms consistent in print or upright, but only upper-case ⟨Ӏ⟩ is normally used in computers. In 1992, with the de facto secession of Chechen Republic of Ichkeria from Russia, a new Latin Chechen alphabet was introduced and used in parallel with the Cyrillic alphabet. This was the second time a Latin-based orthography

1386-421: Is found. Furthermore, all variants except the ejective are subject to phonemic pharyngealization. Nearly any consonant may be fortis because of focus gemination, but only the ones above are found in roots . The consonants of the t cell and / l / are denti-alveolar ; the others of that column are alveolar . / x / is a back velar , but not quite uvular . The lateral / l / may be velarized , unless it

1463-467: Is more useful to analyze them as single consonants. Unlike most other languages of the Caucasus, Chechen has an extensive inventory of vowel sounds, putting its range higher than most languages of Europe (most vowels being the product of environmentally conditioned allophonic variation, which varies by both dialect and method of analysis). Many of the vowels are due to umlaut , which is highly productive in

1540-613: Is recorded how half of the Orstkhoy took an act of oath to the Endirey Kumyk prince Adji-Murtazali, and under the conditions they would accept Islam , settled in the plain area under Endirey (modern day Aukh region, Dagestan). Accordingly, since the Endirey Ullubii was already vassal of Russia, it was believed that the Orstkhoy were passing under the protection of Russia. In 1771, Orstkhoy took act of oath to Russian Empire. However it

1617-571: Is the Cyrillic alphabet. This script was created and adopted in 1938, replacing the Latin script prior to it. Up until 1992, only the Cyrillic script was used for Chechen. After the collapse of the Soviet Union and the de facto secession of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria from Russia, a new Latin script was devised and was used parallel to Cyrillic until the dissolution of the separatist state . Modern alphabet: Lower-case palochka , ⟨ӏ⟩ ,

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1694-711: Is the duty of men. You should obey the one who is placed over you, and he is our faithful brother Muhammadmirza. " In 1858, Orstkhoy, together with the Nazranians , the Galashians and the inhabitants of the Tarskaya Valley , took part in one of the episodes of the Great Caucasian War, the Nazran uprising , which was suppressed by Russia and its leaders executed or exiled. After the end of Caucasian War, Orstkhoy were part of

1771-593: Is worth saying that even after the oath of individual Caucasian society or clans, their relations remained the same. In fact, both sides took these type of oaths as a conclusion union treaties. In 1782, due to a request of Ossetians and Orstkhoy, the Russian Empire built a fortress near Tatartup  [ ru ] to protect the Ossetians and Orstkhoy from the raids conducted by Kabardians and mountain Chechens . In

1848-522: The Arabic script was introduced for Chechen, along with Islam . The Chechen Arabic alphabet was first reformed during the reign of Imam Shamil , and then again in 1910, 1920 and 1922. At the same time, the alphabet devised by Peter von Uslar , consisting of Cyrillic, Latin, and Georgian letters, was used for academic purposes. In 1911 it too was reformed but never gained popularity among the Chechens themselves. The current official script for Chechen language

1925-671: The Ingushskiy Okrug as part of the Karabulakskiy Uchastok . In 1865, several thousand Orstkhoys were evicted/resettled in Turkey , in particular 1366 families, in fact, the majority of them. The Karabulakskiy Uchastok itself was abolished due to the mass eviction of its inhabitants. In the ESBE it was even reported that the Orstkhoy are a tribe that "completely moved to Turkey". John F. Baddeley noted in his work The Russian Conquest of

2002-502: The Merzhoy  [ ru ] clan ( teip ), is connected by some authors to the toponym Merezi mentioned in the documents of Russian Empire in the 1600s. The ethnonym Mereſchey mentioned in 1705 by Nicolaes Witsen is connected by some authors to Merzhoy as well. In the document of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs signed by M. I. Vorontsov and A. M. Golitsyn dated 1763, it

2079-500: The Salishan languages of North America, as well as a large vowel system resembling those of Swedish and German . The Chechen language has, like most indigenous languages of the Caucasus , a large number of consonants : about 40 to 60 (depending on the dialect and the analysis), far more than most European languages . Typical of the region, a four-way distinction between voiced , voiceless , ejective and geminate fortis stops

2156-494: The diphthongs /je/, /wo/ undergo metathesis , [ej], [ow] . Chechen permits syllable-initial clusters /st px tx/ and non-initially also allows /x r l/ plus any consonant, and any obstruent plus a uvular of the same manner of articulation . The only cluster of three consonants permitted is /rst/ . Numerous inscriptions in the Georgian script are found in mountainous Chechnya, but they are not necessarily in Chechen. Later,

2233-491: The minister is only in charge of general budget matters and procurement of equipment, while in others they are also an integral part of the operational military chain of command . Historically, such departments were referred to as a ministry of war or department of war , although they generally had authority only over the army of a country, with a separate department governing other military branches. Prior to World War II , most "ministries of war" were army ministries, while

2310-496: The 1780s, Sheikh Mansur tried to fully convert the semi-pagan Orstkhoy to Islam and bring them to his side against the Russians, he had some successes as the Orstkhoy at times joined his movement and promised to fulfill his demands. In the end Sheikh Mansur failed to fully bring the Orstkhoy to his side and due to that there were often clashes and raids. In mid-June, having gathered 1,000 fighters, Mansur moved to Orstkhoy-Mokhk , with

2387-399: The Arabic script was well established among the speakers of Chechen. However, the Arabic alphabet, without modifications, would not be suitable for Chechen, and modifications would be needed. The Arabic alphabet underwent various iterations, improvements and modifications for the Chechen language. Within Chechen society, these modifications were not without controversy. The Muslim clergy and

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2464-682: The Caucasians, wrote about the Orstkhoy as an Ingush tribe alongside Galashians, Kists and others. Adolf Berge in his work "Chechnya and Chechens" gave the following nomenclature of the Ingush: Nazranians, Karabulaks, Galashians, Dzherakh, Kists Galgai, Tsorins and Akkins. V. A. Volkonsky stated that the Ingush people consist of societies to which he added Orstkhoy and one of the subgroups of Orstkhoy – Merzhoy  [ ru ] . A. Rzhevusky in his work "Tertsy" wrote about Karabulaks and Galashians as

2541-2524: The Caucasus : " After Shamil's fall, a large numbers of the Ingoushee, and notably the clan known as the Karaboulaks, who have left their names to the Cossack stanitsa, took part in the emigration of the Muhammadan tribes to Turkey, while those who remained have since acquired an evil reputation as the most daring highway robbers and assassins in the Caucasus. " "Кисты сами себя называют попеременно Кисты, Галга, Ингуши, и одно названiе вместо другаго употребляютъ." "...следовательно можно было бы разделить Кистинскую область на две части: то есть на обитаемую Кистами в теснейшемъ смысле, подъ именемъ коихъ разумеются Ингуши, Карабулаки и прочiе колена, и на область Чеченскую" "Въ земле Ингушей или Карабулаковъ есть соляной ключъ, изъ подъ горы выходящій, коего разсолъ такъ силенъ, что изъ двухъ меръ разсола выходитъ одна мера соли. Сей ключъ, по сказаніямъ впадаетъ посредствомъ другого ручья въ Фартамъ..." "Въ 1810-м году мы Ингушевскій народъ вольный и ни отъ кого независимый поселясь около урочища Назрана (отъ [котораго] приняли названіе Назрановцевъ) по приглашенію Россійскаго Генералъ Майора Дель Поццо чрезъ посредство почетнѣйшихъ Старшинъ нашихъ рѣшились добровольно и единодушно вступить въ подданство Россійскаго Императора..." "Къ племени Ингушей, занимающихъ плоскость и котловины Кавказских горъ съ правой стороны Терека до верхних частей Аргуна и до теченія Фартанги, принадлежатъ: 1) Назрановцы с Комбулейскимъ обществомъ, 2) Джераховцы, 3) Карабулаки , 4) Цоринцы, 5) Ближніе Кистинцы с небольшимъ обществомъ Малхинцевъ вновь покорившимся, 6) Галгай, 7) Галашевцы, 8) дальніе Кисты…" "Ингушевское племя состояло изъ слѣдующихъ обществъ: кистинскаго, джераховскаго, назрановскаго, карабулакскаго (впослѣдствіи назвавшегося галашевскимъ), галгаевскаго, цоринскаго, акинскаго и мереджинскаго ; всѣ эти общества вмѣстѣ имѣли свыше тридцати тысячъ душъ." "...а всѣ остальные народы были кистинскаго племени и говорили на кистинскомъ, т. е. ингушевскомъ языкѣ. Изъ нихъ карабулаки, галашевцы и алхонцы принадлежали къ колѣну арштхоевъ и жили по сосѣдству съ чеченцами." Chechen language Chechen ( / ˈ tʃ ɛ tʃ ɛ n / CHETCH -en , / tʃ ə ˈ tʃ ɛ n / chə- CHEN ; Нохчийн мотт , Noxçiyn mott , [ˈnɔxt͡ʃĩː muɔt] )

2618-610: The Chechen Republic. The dialects of the northern lowlands are often referred to as " Oharoy muott " (literally "lowlander's language") and the dialect of the southern mountain tribes is known as " Laamaroy muott " (lit. "mountainer's language"). Oharoy muott forms the basis for much of the standard and literary Chechen language, which can largely be traced to the regional dialects of Urus-Martan and contemporary Grozny . Laamaroy dialects include Chebarloish, Sharoish, Itum-Qalish, Kisti, and Himoish. Until recently, however, Himoy

2695-561: The Chechens will retain one common name. The military historian A. L. Zisserman, who served 25 years in the Caucasus, also mentions the Karabulaks in his book, stating "All this valley up to the right bank of the Terek River is inhabited…. Karabulaks and Chechens, etc., belonging by language and customs, with insignificant differences and shades, to one Chechen tribe (Nachkhė)." In the Bulletin of

2772-652: The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and are able to practice their own culture and language. Chechen language usage is strong among the Chechen community in Jordan. Jordanian Chechens are bilingual in both Chechen and Arabic, but do not speak Arabic among themselves, only speaking Chechen to other Chechens. Some Jordanians are literate in Chechen as well, having managed to read and write to people visiting Jordan from Chechnya. Some phonological characteristics of Chechen include its wealth of consonants and sounds similar to Arabic and

2849-536: The Imperial Russian Geographical Society for 1859, Karabulaki-Orstkhois are noted as Chechens. 19th Century Caucasian military historian V. A. Potto also attributed the Karabulaks to the Chechen people. Historian N. F. Dubrovin in 1871 in his historical work History of war and dominion of Russians in the Caucasus states the following: in addition to these societies, the Chechen tribe is divided into many generations, which are named by Russians by

2926-496: The Ingush population of the Vladikavkazsky okrug . Later in the 20th-21th centuries, the Orstkhoy as one of the Ingush societies were indicated by I. Pantyukhov, John F. Baddeley , G. K. Martirosian, E. I. Krupnov, N. A. Sotavov, M. S. Meyer and O. S. Pavlova. In Soviet times, Orstkhoy were also officially included in the Ingush, as reflected on their passports. In Great Soviet Encyclopedia , Orstkhoy are indicated as Ingush. In

3003-594: The Ingush. Just like Güldenstädt, S. M. Bronevsky also mentioned many Orstkhoy ancestral villages as Ingush in 1823. General Staff I.I. Nordenstamm in his "Brief Military statistical description" compiled from information collected during the expedition in 1832 stated that "the Kara-Bulakh language is similar to the Galash dialect, and the latter is similar to the Galgai and Kist dialects." Platon Zubov and Nikolay Danilevsky stated that

3080-572: The Karabulaks (Orstkhoy) are classified more as Chechens than Ingush in the scientific circles, without denying their proximity to the Ingush. Soviet ethnographers like the famous N.G Volkova who interviewed Vainakh people noted that from her interviews in 1973 the Chechen highlanders identify Orstkhoy as "Nokhchi" (self-name of Chechens) but that Chechens living on the Martan river brought them closer to Ingush people . The Ingush however identified Orstkhoy as

3157-453: The Karabulaks (Orstkhoy), Chechens, Atakhizs and also Tavlins in the territory of "Kumytskaya or Sandy land", also referred by him as the "Chechen land". J. A. Güldenstädt mentions that Karabulaks speak in a Chechen or Midzheg dialect of the Kistin language and that Chechens are often understood as the whole Kistin nation (in this case Nakh Peoples ). In 1781, L.L. Städer, while making notes about

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3234-408: The Karabulaks specifically come from the Ingush ( Ghalghaï ). The German geographer and statistician Georg Hassel , in his geographical description of the Russian Empire and Dshagatai mentioned Orstkhoy as an Ingush tribe and also some of Orstkhoy ancestral villages as Ingush when enlisting the territorial division of the Ingush. Subsequently, S.M. Bronevsky confirmed the identity of the Orstkhoy with

3311-484: The Karabulaks, mentions that the Chechens share with them one origin and language. Johann Gottlieb Georgi also mentions that the Karabulak language consists of Kistin and Chechen dialects." Many Russian and European authors noted during the early and late 19th century that the Orstkhoy tribe was part of the Chechen nation, among them Baron R. F. Rozen who in 1830 believed that the Chechens are divided … into societies under

3388-660: The Kists, Ingush and Karabulaks all speak the same language. Nikolay Danilevsky also noted that the Chechen dialect differed from the root language. In 1842, Nazranians and part of Karabulaks made an appeal to the Russian administration where they called themselves "Ingush people". In the Russian Empire , on the basis of scientific, statistical and ethnographic data, the Orstkhoy were officially classified as Ingush alongside Galashians , Nazranians and other Ingush societies. In "Overview of

3465-529: The Latin alphabet. Chechen is the most-spoken Northeast Caucasian language . Together with the closely related Ingush , with which there exists a large degree of mutual intelligibility and shared vocabulary, it forms the Vainakh branch . There are a number of Chechen dialects: Aukh , Chebarloish, Malkhish, Nokhchmakhkakhoish, Orstkhoish, Sharoish, Shuotoish, Terloish, Itum-Qalish and Himoish. Dialects of Chechen can be classified by their geographic position within

3542-507: The Orstkhoys by European authors in the second half of the 18th century identified them with the Ingush. The first author was J. A. Güldenstädt , who mentions the majority of Orstkhoy villages among other Ingush proper and opposes all of them together to the Chechens. Ten years later, L. L. Shteder, making notes about Karabulaks, gives an almost textbook description of the unique details of typical Ingush vestments, cited by travelers and authors of

3619-489: The alphabet, along with their correspondences, are as follows. Those in parentheses are optional or only found in Russian words: In addition, several sequences of letters for long vowels and consonants, while not counted as separate letters in their own right, are presented here to clarify their correspondences: Chechen is an agglutinative language with an ergative–absolutive morphosyntactic alignment . Chechen nouns belong to one of several genders or classes (6), each with

3696-578: The censuses conducted before the Deportation , the vast majority of population of the tribal villages Sagopshi , Dattykh, Alkun , Sarali Opiev, Bamut, Gandalbos was Ingush. The first descriptions of the Orstkhoys by European authors in the second half of the 18th century identified them with the Chechens. The first author was the German cartographer and printmaker Jacob von Staehlin  [ de ] who in his work "Geographical menology for 1772" included

3773-518: The deportation (1874-1926). The Orstkhoy formed from settlers that came from the mountain region, with the date of the formation ranging from second half of the 16th to beginning of 18th century. They are said to be the first ones to master the plains in the region. The Orstkhoy first become known under the name Karabulaks in the document of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs signed by M. I. Vorontsov and A. M. Golitsyn dated 1763 in connection with

3850-407: The dialect. /æ/, /æː/ and /e/, /eː/ are in complementary distribution ( /æ/ occurs after pharyngealized consonants, whereas /e/ does not and /æː/ —identical with /æ/ for most speakers—occurs in closed syllables, while /eː/ does not) but speakers strongly feel that they are distinct sounds. Pharyngealization appears to be a feature of the consonants, though some analyses treat it as

3927-609: The goal of converting the remaining pagan Orstkhoy. He was forced to leave after the arrival of Russian detachments, however. During the Caucasian War , Orstkhoy bitterly resisted the Russian expansion in the region and were commonly referred as "un-ruly" or "half-conquered" by the Russian Empire , as they never really did bow under the Russian rule and continued on making raids on Russian royal fortifications and settlements. In 1822, Ingush and Karabulaks together with Chechens participated in two Uprisings of Chechnya , which happened in

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4004-571: The head of the Caucasus Governorate ) – General G. A. Emmanuel . Emmanuel was rewarded the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky for this accession because accordingly, it was "made not by force of arms, but smart orders". In March 1840, the Galashian and Orstkhoy societies participated in the uprising of Chechnya and with their deputies together with Chechens solemnly swore allegiance to Imam Shamil in

4081-466: The land Karabulaks inhabit on as Chechnya. Russian colonels such as Baron Stahl mentioned the Orstkhoy by the Chechen self name "Nakhche" in 1849. The Russian-German general A.P. Berger in 1859 also connected the Chechen self name "Nakhche" to the Orstkhoy: “Here is the calculation of all the tribes into which it is customary to divide the Chechens. In the strict sense, however, this division has no basis. It

4158-573: The language relies on fixation of whole phrases rather than adding to the end of existing words or combining existing words. It can be difficult to decide which phrases belong in the dictionary, because the language's grammar does not permit the borrowing of new verbal morphemes to express new concepts. Instead, the verb dan (to do) is combined with nominal phrases to correspond with new concepts imported from other languages. Chechen nouns are divided into six lexically arbitrary noun classes . Morphologically, noun classes may be indexed by changes in

4235-578: The large center village of Lesser Chechnya, Urus-Martan , thus becoming part of the Caucasian Imamate . The Orstkhoy district ( naibstvo ) of Imamate was known as Vilayet Arshtkhoy and it existed up until 1851, when it was disestablished after being conquered by Russian Empire. As the letter of Muhammad Amin Asiyalav dating back to October 1848 states, the Naib of Vilayet Arshtkhoy (Arshtinskoe Naibstvo )

4312-411: The late 18th-19th centuries, often replicated on the images of that era. The German scientist Professor Johann Gottlieb Georgi , in his fundamental encyclopedic Description of all the peoples living in the Russian state wrote about Karabulaks stating that, "Before anything they were called Yugush (Ingush), but they call themselves Arshtas", while another German scientist, P. S. Pallas , also states that

4389-581: The letters ص ‎ ( ṣād/sād ) and ض ‎ ( zād/ḍād ) had their usage limited to Arabic loanwords but were not eliminated due to opposition from Clergy and conservative segments of Chechen society. In another short-lasting modification, Sugaip Gaisunov proposed adding a overline (◌ٙ) ( U+0659 ) over letters that can be read as either a consonant or a vowel, namely the letters و ‎ ( waw ) (equivalent to Cyrillic letter "В" or to letters "О, Оь, У, Уь") and ی ‎ ( yāʼ ) (equivalent to Cyrillic letter "Й" or to letter "И"). The overbar signified

4466-534: The literature. Classed adjectives are listed with the d-class prefix in the romanizations below: Whereas Indo-European languages code noun class and case conflated in the same morphemes , Chechen nouns show no gender marking but decline in eight grammatical cases , four of which are core cases (i.e. absolutive , ergative , genitive , and dative ) in singular and plural. Below the paradigm for "говр" (horse). Minister of War A ministry of defence or defense (see spelling differences ), also known as

4543-637: The modifications in Chechen were done independently from these two nearby and influential literary traditions and were focused on needs of Chechen language. Initially, the Chechen Arabic alphabet looked like this. ي ﻻ ه و ن م ل ڮ ك ڨ ق ف غ ع ظ ط ض ص ش س ز ر ذ د خ ح ج ث ت ب ا In this alphabet, two additional letters were added to the base Arabic script: In 1910, Sugaip Gaisunov proposed additional reforms that brought Arabic alphabet closer to Chechen's phonetic requirements. Sugaip Gaisunov introduced four additional consonants: In Sugaip Gaisunov's reforms,

4620-493: The more conservative segments of Chechen society initially resisted any changes to the Arabic script, with the belief that this script was sacred due to its association with Islam, and was not to be changed. The clergy and Islamic educational institutions opposed each and every iteration of proposed reforms in the Arabic script. While modifications to the Arabic script to match local languages had been common practice for centuries, for languages such as Persian and Ottoman Turkish ,

4697-446: The name of Chechens themselves or Mechigiz, Kachkalyks, Mechikovites, Aukhites and Karabulaks (Orstkhoy) …" Nordenstam also remarked in 1834 that "Karabulaki (Orstkhoy), Aukhites and Kachkalyk people speak dialects of the Chechen language". Also of note is Nikolay Danilevsky who in 1846 noted that the Karabulaks are a subgroup of the Chechen nation. Ivanov connected a part of Karabulaks with the "Peaceful Chechens" and Kolenati referred to

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4774-418: The names of auls, or mountains, or rivers, in the direction of which their auls were located. For example, Karabulaki (Orstkhoevtsy), on a plain irrigated by the rivers Assa, Sunzha, and Fortanga, etc. Several encyclopedias of the late 19th and early 20th centuries attribute the Karabulaks (Orstkhoys) to the Chechen people In 1862 after the Caucasus war several Orstkhoy villages (Meredzhi, Yalkharoy, Galai and

4851-637: The political state of the Caucasus" in 1840 as well as in the "Military Statistical Review of the Russian Empire" in 1851, the Orstkhoy are indicated as Ingush. The Orstkhoy were perceived as Ingush by Imperial Russia, as well as in the Imamate of Imam Shamil . I. Ivanov, in his article "Chechnya" published in the Moskvityanin magazine, wrote that Chechnya borders on the west with the Ingush tribes Tsori , Galgai , Galash and Karabulak. The Czech-German biologist and botanist Friedrich Kolenati in his work about

4928-469: The prefix of the accompanying verb and, in many cases, the adjective too. The first two of these classes apply to human beings, although some grammarians count these as two and some as a single class; the other classes however are much more lexically arbitrary. Chechen noun classes are named according to the prefix that indexes them: When a noun denotes a human being, it usually falls into v- or y-Classes (1 or 2). Most nouns referring to male entities fall into

5005-463: The prefixes before the nouns indicates grammatical gender; thus: [vоsha] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script ( help ) ' brother ' → yisha ' sister ' . Some nouns denoting human beings, however, are not in Classes 1 or 2: bēr ' child ' , for example, is in class 3. Only a few of Chechen's adjectives index noun class agreement, termed classed adjectives in

5082-408: The resettlement of a part of the Orstkhoys to the plain in the region of Aukh , modern day Dagestan . Later on, in the 70-90s of the same century, Orstkhoy are mentioned in the works of famous Western European and Russian authors such as J. A. Güldenstädt , L. L. Shteder, P. S. Pallas and others. Although the Orstkhoy were first mentioned in 1762 as Karabulaks , one of the sub-group of Orstkhoy,

5159-467: The restless and militant Ingush societies. According to V. Chudinov, the Karabulaks, Galashians and Alkhons are Ingush who belong to the Arshtkhoy tribe. According to Vasily Potto , Nazranians and Orstkhoy are Ingush societies who once formed one rather a significant and powerful tribe. Russian Count and Minister of War Dmitry Milyutin wrote in his memorials that the Orstkhoy are Ingush who made up part of

5236-596: The same year, against the Russian Empire. During the beginning of 19th century, there was number of punitive expeditions made against Orstkhoy by the Russian Empire: In 1827, Orstkhoy swore allegiance to Russia (i. e. recognized Russian citizenship) along with some other North Caucasian peoples , thanks to the actions of the commander of the troops on the Caucasian Line , in the Black Sea and Astrakhan (as well as

5313-477: The scientific community in the second half of the 20th to the early 21st century, the ethnicity of the Orstkhoy is defined as one of the Ingush societies. The Soviet historian and ethnographer E.I Krupnov in 1971 wrote in his book "Medieval Ingushetia" that the remaining Karabulaks (Orstkhoy) who don't consider themselves Chechens live in Ingushetia in villages such as Arshty , Dattykh , Bamut , Sagopshi . In

5390-764: The standard dialect. None of the spelling systems used so far have distinguished the vowels with complete accuracy. All vowels may be nasalized . Nasalization is imposed by the genitive , infinitive , and for some speakers the nominative case of adjectives . Nasalization is not strong, but it is audible even in final vowels, which are devoiced. Some of the diphthongs have significant allophony : /ɥø/ = [ɥø], [ɥe], [we] ; /yø/ = [yø], [ye] ; /uo/ = [woː], [uə] . In closed syllables , long vowels become short in most dialects (not Kisti ), but are often still distinct from short vowels (shortened [i] , [u] , [ɔ] and [ɑ̈] vs. short [ɪ] , [ʊ] , [o] , and [ə] , for example), although which ones remain distinct depends on

5467-469: The v-class, whereas Class 2 contains words related to female entities. Thus lūlaxuo ' a neighbour ' is normally considered class 1, but it takes v- if referring to a male neighbour and y- if a female. This is similar to the Spanish word estudiante ' student ' , where el estudiante refers to a male student, and la estudiante refers to a female student. In a few words, changing

5544-562: The villages surrounding them) were put into the Ingushskiy Okrug until 1866 when they were ceded to the Argunskiy Okrug  [ ru ] due to them belonging to the same nation as the locals (Chechen) and geographically closer to the central governance of the Okrug. The Soviet historian and ethnographer E.I Krupnov in 1971 noted in his book "Medieval Ingushetia" that at present time,

5621-515: Was created after the October Revolution , and the Latin script began to be used instead of Arabic for Chechen writing in the mid-1920s. The Cyrillic script was adopted in 1938. Almost the entire library of Chechen medieval writing in Arabic and Georgian script about the land of Chechnya and its people was destroyed by Soviet authorities in 1944, leaving the modern Chechens and modern historians with

5698-538: Was created for Chechen. But after the defeat of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria government by the Russian Armed Forces , the Cyrillic alphabet was restored. The first time that the Latin alphabet was introduced , was in 1925, replacing Arabic alphabet. Further minor modifications in 1934, unified Chechen orthography with Ingush. But the Latin alphabet was abolished in 1938, being replaced with Cyrillic. The first, most widespread modern orthography for Chechen

5775-406: Was selected Muhammad-Mirza Anzorov, a Kabardian naib , who also at the time ruled Minor Chechnya as the district of Imamate: " From the knowledgeable mudir, adherent of Islam Muhammadamin to his generous brothers and glorious friends, the valiant, zealous, brave inhabitants of Kalai and Arashdi – salam is constant. And then – obedience to the imam is the duty of every person, and helping Islam

5852-567: Was the Arabic script, adopted in the 19th century. Chechen was not a traditionally written language, but due to the public's familiarity with the Arabic script - as the script of instruction in the region's Islamic and Quranic schools - the Arabic alphabet was first standardized and adopted for Chechen during the reign of Imam Shamil . Islam has been the dominant religion in Chechnya since the 16th century, and there were 200 religious schools as well as more than 3000 pupils in Chechnya and Ingushetia. Thus

5929-407: Was undocumented and was considered a branch of Sharoish, as many dialects are also used as the basis of intertribal (teip) communication within a larger Chechen " tukkhum ". Laamaroy dialects such as Sharoish, Himoish and Chebarloish are more conservative and retain many features from Proto-Chechen. For instance, many of these dialects lack a number of vowels found in the standard language which were

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