118-697: Orange juice usually refers to the fruit juice obtained from squeezing orange. Orange Juice may also refer to: Orange juice Orange juice is a liquid extract of the orange tree fruit, produced by squeezing or reaming oranges. It comes in several different varieties, including blood orange , navel oranges , valencia orange , clementine , and tangerine . As well as variations in oranges used, some varieties include differing amounts of juice vesicles , known as "pulp" in American English, and "(juicy) bits" in British English. These vesicles contain
236-462: A Brix reading of at least 9.7, excluding the sweetening ingredients, and contain between 0.5 and 1.8 percent of acid by weight calculated as anhydrous citric acid. Added orange essences, orange oils and orange pulp adjusted in accordance with good manufacturing practice is permitted. Orange juice is also permitted to contain sugar, invert sugar, dextrose in dry form, glucose solids, a Class II preservative, amylase , cellulase and pectinase . In
354-472: A clear serum. A serum is the clear supernatant after the precipitation of the cloud through centrifugation . The previously mentioned cloud makes up a large part of the suspension. If the suspension in orange juice is not stable, the cloud particles can flocculate which causes the suspension to physically decompose. The cloud can break apart and the citrus juice will clarify if the suspension becomes unstable. The activity of pectin methyl esterase increased
472-448: A cofactor for the following enzymes : As an antioxidant, ascorbate scavenges reactive oxygen and nitrogen compounds, thus neutralizing the potential tissue damage of these free radical compounds. Dehydroascorbate, the oxidized form, is then recycled back to ascorbate by endogenous antioxidants such as glutathione . In the eye, ascorbate is thought to protect against photolytically generated free-radical damage; higher plasma ascorbate
590-516: A concentrate with the addition of water to reach a specific single strength brix level. The processing of SSOJ also begins with the selection of orange. The most common types of orange used to produce orange juice are the Pineapple orange, Valencia orange, and Washington Navel oranges from Florida and California. The manufacturing journey begins when oranges are delivered to processing plants by trucks holding about 35,000 to 40,000 pounds of fruit. The fruit
708-404: A deficiency state, and any enzyme cofactor or other physiological function affected by administration of vitamin C, orally or injected, in excess of normal requirements. At normal physiological concentrations, vitamin C serves as an enzyme substrate or cofactor and an electron donor antioxidant. The enzymatic functions include the synthesis of collagen , carnitine , and neurotransmitters ;
826-471: A definitive role in treating scurvy, which is a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency. Beyond that, a role for vitamin C as prevention or treatment for various diseases is disputed, with reviews often reporting conflicting results. No effect of vitamin C supplementation reported for overall mortality. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines and on
944-628: A desirable taste, and prevent diseases such as scurvy. The US federal government and the Florida Department of Citrus worked with a group of scientists to develop a product superior to the canned orange juice available in the 1940s. The result was frozen concentrated orange juice; this was not until three years after the war had ended. By 1949, orange juice processing plants in Florida were producing over 10 million gallons of concentrated orange juice. Consumers liked concentrated canned orange juice as it
1062-403: A food sample such as fruit juice can be calculated by measuring the volume of the sample required to decolorize a solution of dichlorophenolindophenol (DCPIP) and then calibrating the results by comparison with a known concentration of vitamin C. Plasma vitamin C is the most widely applied test for vitamin C status. Adequate levels are defined as near 50 μmol/L. Hypovitaminosis of vitamin C
1180-567: A gene for a synthesis enzyme has mutations that render it dysfunctional. Vitamin C was discovered in 1912, isolated in 1928, and in 1933, was the first vitamin to be chemically produced . Partly for its discovery, Albert Szent-Györgyi was awarded the 1937 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . The name "vitamin C" always refers to the l -enantiomer of ascorbic acid and its oxidized form, dehydroascorbate (DHA). Therefore, unless written otherwise, "ascorbate" and "ascorbic acid" refer in
1298-484: A high structural content of neutral sugar branches interacts with hesperidin more tightly and strongly than that of a low content of neutral sugar branches. The interaction between pectin and hesperidin is one of the factors that enable the colloidal suspension in orange juice to be stable. According to industry data, U.S. orange juice consumption has been steadily decreasing. In the 2008-2009 crop year, Americans consumed approximately 865,000 metric tons of orange juice. By
SECTION 10
#17328733517031416-560: A multi-vitamin/mineral supplement that included vitamin C, and that for these people total consumption was between 300 and 400 mg/d. In 2000, the Institute of Medicine of the US National Academy of Sciences set a Tolerable upper intake level (UL) for adults of 2,000 mg/day. The amount was chosen because human trials had reported diarrhea and other gastrointestinal disturbances at intakes of greater than 3,000 mg/day. This
1534-539: A number of functional properties in food products including emulsifying, thickening, coating, gelling, and stabilization. The main reason hydrocolloids are used in foods is their capability to modify the rheology of food systems. Hydrocolloids impact viscosity through flow behavior and mechanical solid properties like texture. Some common hydrocolloids that are used to stabilize juice products include gellan gum, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, xanthan, guar gum, and gum Arabic. The aforementioned hydrocolloids are generally used in
1652-456: A result, some government nutritional advice has been adjusted to encourage substitution of orange juice with raw fruit, which is digested more slowly, and limit daily consumption. During World War II , American soldiers rejected vitamin C -packed lemon crystals because of their unappetizing taste. Thus the US government searched for a food that would fulfill the nutritional needs of the soldiers, have
1770-423: A rotary brush washer and subsequently rinsed with potable water. Throughout the processing stages, there are multiple points with facilities that inspect oranges and discard damaged fruit. The oranges then go through roller conveyors, which expose all sides of the fruit. The roller conveyors are efficiently built as they are well lighted, installed at a convenient height, and width to ensure all inspectors can reach
1888-406: A screw-type design that comprises a conical helical screw enclosed in a cylindrical screen with perforations the size of 0.020 to 0.045 inches. Thereafter, the finished orange juice flows through blending tanks where the juice is tested for acid and soluble solids. At this stage, sugar can be added to the juice depending on if the product will be a sweetened or unsweetened beverage. Following blending,
2006-427: A sequence of enzyme -driven steps, which convert monosaccharides to vitamin C. Yeasts do not make l -ascorbic acid but rather its stereoisomer , erythorbic acid . In plants, synthesis is accomplished through the conversion of mannose or galactose to ascorbic acid. In animals, the starting material is glucose . In some species that synthesize ascorbate in the liver (including mammals and perching birds ),
2124-409: A short time afterward from an evolutionary perspective, the infraorder Tarsiiformes , whose only remaining family is that of the tarsier ( Tarsiidae ), branched off from the other haplorrhines. Since tarsiers also cannot make vitamin C, this implies the mutation had already occurred, and thus must have occurred between these two marker points (63 to 58 million years ago). It has also been noted that
2242-424: A similar effect in food despite their lack of efficacy in humans. They include erythorbic acid and its sodium salt (E315, E316). Pharmacodynamics is the study of how the drug – in this instance vitamin C – affects the organism, whereas pharmacokinetics is the study of how an organism affects the drug. Pharmacodynamics includes enzymes for which vitamin C is a cofactor, with function potentially compromised in
2360-430: A vital role on pulp volume, cloud stability, serum turbidity , and serum viscosity . Heat treatment stabilizes the cloud through enzyme inactivation and enhances the turbidity of a stable cloud formation. The increase in serum viscosity is due to the extraction of pectic substances into the serum. Based on Stokes' law, the increase in serum viscosity is the cause for the enhanced cloud stability. In relation to pulp volume,
2478-419: A year. Removing the oxygen also strips out flavor-providing compounds, and so manufacturers add a flavor pack in the final step, which Cook's Illustrated magazine describes as containing "highly engineered additives." Flavor pack formulas vary by region, because consumers in different parts of the world have different preferences related to sweetness, freshness and acidity. According to the citrus industry,
SECTION 20
#17328733517032596-426: Is canned . Canned orange juice retains vitamin C much better than bottled juice. The canned product loses flavor, however, when stored at room temperature for more than 12 weeks. In the early years of canned orange juice, the acidity of the juice caused the juice to have a metallic taste. In 1931, Dr. Philip Phillips developed a flash pasteurization process that eliminated this problem and significantly increased
2714-426: Is pasteurized and filtered before being evaporated under vacuum and heat. After removal of most of the water, this concentrate , about 65% sugar by weight, is then stored at about 10 °F (−12 °C). Essences, Vitamin C , and oils extracted during the vacuum concentration process may be added back to restore flavor and nutrition ( see below ). When water is added to freshly thawed concentrated orange juice, it
2832-480: Is a product of concentrated fruit juice with the addition of water. Any lost flavour or pulp of the orange juice during the initial concentration process may be restored in the final product to be equivalent to an average type of orange juice of the same kind. Any restored flavour or pulp must come from the same species of orange. Sugar may be added to the orange juice for regulating the acidic taste or sweetening, but must not exceed 150g per litre of orange juice. Across
2950-405: Is a specific interaction between pectin and hesperidin through the sugar moieties in the hesperidin molecule. Through acid hydrolysis, the rhamnose and glucose sugar moieties are removed from hesperidin, which breaks the interaction between hesperidin and pectin. Hydrogen bonding plays a role in the specific interaction of neutral sugars of pectin and the sugar moiety of hesperidin. A polymer that has
3068-527: Is a well-established mechanism of iron reduction and a step obligatory for iron uptake. All plants synthesize ascorbic acid. Ascorbic acid functions as a cofactor for enzymes involved in photosynthesis, synthesis of plant hormones, as an antioxidant and regenerator of other antioxidants. Plants use multiple pathways to synthesize vitamin C. The major pathway starts with glucose, fructose or mannose (all simple sugars) and proceeds to l - galactose , l -galactonolactone and ascorbic acid. This biosynthesis
3186-437: Is absorbed in the body by both active transport and passive diffusion. Approximately 70%–90% of vitamin C is active-transport absorbed when intakes of 30–180 mg/day from a combination of food sources and moderate-dose dietary supplements such as a multi-vitamin/mineral product are consumed. However, when large amounts are consumed, such as a vitamin C dietary supplement, the active transport system becomes saturated, and while
3304-403: Is also a generic prescription medication and in some countries is sold as a non-prescription dietary supplement . As a therapy, it is used to prevent and treat scurvy , a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency . Vitamin C is an essential nutrient involved in the repair of tissue , the formation of collagen , and the enzymatic production of certain neurotransmitters . It is required for
3422-659: Is as ascorbic acid and metabolites. The fraction that is excreted as unmetabolized ascorbic acid increases as intake increases. In addition, ascorbic acid converts (reversibly) to DHA and from that compound non-reversibly to 2,3-diketogulonate and then oxalate. These three metabolites are also excreted via urine. During times of low dietary intake, vitamin C is reabsorbed by the kidneys rather than excreted. This salvage process delays onset of deficiency. Humans are better than guinea pigs at converting DHA back to ascorbate, and thus take much longer to become vitamin C deficient. Most animals and plants are able to synthesize vitamin C through
3540-453: Is associated with lower risk of cataracts. Ascorbate may also provide antioxidant protection indirectly by regenerating other biological antioxidants such as α-tocopherol back to an active state. In addition, ascorbate also functions as a non-enzymatic reducing agent for mixed-function oxidases in the microsomal drug-metabolizing system that inactivates a wide variety of substrates such as drugs and environmental carcinogens. Ascorbic acid
3658-446: Is at 200–300 μmol/L. The known coenzymatic functions of ascorbic acid do not require such high concentrations, so there may be other, as yet unknown functions. A consequence of all this high concentration organ content is that plasma vitamin C is not a good indicator of whole-body status, and people may vary in the amount of time needed to show symptoms of deficiency when consuming a diet very low in vitamin C. Excretion (via urine)
Orange juice (disambiguation) - Misplaced Pages Continue
3776-418: Is canned using steam injection methods to sterilize the lid and develop a vacuum in the can. The cans then undergo final freezing where they are conveyed on a perforated belt in an air blast at -40 °F. After freezing, the product is stored at 0 °F in a refrigerated warehouse. Single strength orange juice (SSOJ) can either be "not from concentrate" (NFC) orange juice or juice that is reconstituted from
3894-426: Is defined as less than 23 μmol/L, and deficiency as less than 11.4 μmol/L. For people 20 years of age or above, data from the US 2017–18 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey showed mean serum concentrations of 53.4 μmol/L. The percent of people reported as deficient was 5.9%. Globally, vitamin C deficiency is common in low and middle-income countries, and not uncommon in high income countries. In
4012-478: Is essential in the juice. A high zeta potential will inhibit particle-particle agglomeration and maintain the free flowing nature as well as uniform dispersion in orange juice. The oil globules adsorbed to the cloud particles stabilize the suspension by decreasing the average density of particles to bring it closer to that of the serum. However, large amounts of oil can be problematic as they cause complete breakdown of suspensions by causing cloud particles to float to
4130-429: Is favored when pH is greater than pKa. Ionic character relies on free carboxyl content, the presence of cations, and is favored at a high water activity. Charge-charge repulsions along with the presence of neutral side chains are essential in inhibiting intermolecular association among pectin molecules. The methyl ester content in orange juice determines hydrophobic character, which is favored at low water activity. There
4248-438: Is is largely destroyed by the heat used when it is cooked. For example, raw chicken liver contains 17.9 mg/100 g, but fried, the content is reduced to 2.7 mg/100 g. Vitamin C is present in human breast milk at 5.0 mg/100 g. Cow's milk contains 1.0 mg/100 g, but the heat of pasteurization destroys it. Vitamin C chemically decomposes under certain conditions, many of which may occur during
4366-424: Is less than 25 mv in magnitude. Zeta potential is a measure of the magnitude of electrostatic forces between particles, which affect repulsion, and attraction between particles. A low zeta value signifies that the repulsive forces will not be able to overcome Van der Waals attractions between cloud particles and thus begin to agglomerate. Agglomeration of cloud particles will prevent free flow characteristics, which
4484-448: Is low, as cells rapidly reduce DHA to ascorbate. SVCTs are the predominant system for vitamin C transport within the body. In both vitamin C synthesizers (example: rat) and non-synthesizers (example: human) cells maintain ascorbic acid concentrations much higher than the approximately 50 micromoles/liter (μmol/L) found in plasma. For example, the ascorbic acid content of pituitary and adrenal glands can exceed 2,000 μmol/L, and muscle
4602-444: Is naturally found in the orange. Some also include other nutrients. Often, additional vitamin C is added to replace that destroyed in pasteurization. Additional calcium may be added. Vitamin D , not found naturally in oranges, may be added as well. Sometimes omega-3 fatty acids from fish oils are added to orange juice. Low-acid varieties of orange juice also are available. FCOJ producers generally use evaporators to remove much of
4720-536: Is of concern because this is one of the most labile vitamins in foods. Its main loss during processing and storage is from oxidation, which is accelerated by light, oxygen, heat, increased pH, high moisture content (water activity), and the presence of copper or ferrous salts. To reduce oxidation, the vitamin C used in commodity fortification is coated with ethyl cellulose (2.5 percent). Oxidative losses also occur during food processing and preparation, and additional vitamin C may be lost if it dissolves into cooking liquid and
4838-412: Is permitted. Deoiling through the use of vacuum distillation is the mechanism used to regulate the amount of peel oil in the juice. Condensation separates the oil and the aqueous distillate, which is returned to the juice. The next step is one of the most vital in the processing of orange juice. Pasteurization is important in destroying naturally occurring enzymes that are associated with deterioration of
Orange juice (disambiguation) - Misplaced Pages Continue
4956-453: Is reduced to a primary alcohol using the enzyme glucuronate reductase and the cofactor NADPH, yielding l -gulonic acid. This is followed by lactone formation—utilizing the hydrolase gluconolactonase —between the carbonyl on C1 and hydroxyl group on C4. l -Gulonolactone then reacts with oxygen, catalyzed by the enzyme L-gulonolactone oxidase (which is nonfunctional in humans and other Haplorrhini primates; see Unitary pseudogenes ) and
5074-602: Is regulated following a diurnal rhythm . Enzyme expression peaks in the morning to supporting biosynthesis for when mid-day sunlight intensity demands high ascorbic acid concentrations. Minor pathways may be specific to certain parts of plants; these can be either identical to the vertebrate pathway (including the GLO enzyme), or start with inositol and get to ascorbic acid via l -galactonic acid to l -galactonolactone. Vitamin C can be produced from glucose by two main routes. The no longer utilized Reichstein process , developed in
5192-528: Is said to be reconstituted . The product was developed in 1948 at the University of Florida's Citrus Research and Education Center. Since, it has emerged as a soft commodity , and futures contracts have traded in New York since 1966. Options on FCOJ were introduced in 1985. From the late 1950s to the mid-1980s, the product had the greatest orange juice market share, but not-from-concentrate juices surpassed FCOJ in
5310-450: Is that inhalation of smoke causes oxidative damage, depleting this antioxidant vitamin. The US Institute of Medicine estimated that smokers need 35 mg more vitamin C per day than nonsmokers, but did not formally establish a higher RDA for smokers. The US National Center for Health Statistics conducts biannual National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) to assess the health and nutritional status of adults and children in
5428-422: Is the enzyme responsible for hydrolyzing carboxymethyl esters and liberating free carboxyl groups and methyl alcohols. The free carboxyl groups interact with cations to form insoluble pectic acid divalent metal ion complexes. These metal ion complexes precipitate in the juice and carry all the colloids in orange juice with it. The enzyme would flocculate the cloud and clarify the orange juice. Thus, in order to keep
5546-444: Is the portion of suspended particles that range in size from 0.05 micrometers to a few hundred micrometers in orange juice. The cloud is responsible for several sensory attributes in orange juice including color, aroma, texture, and taste. The continuous medium of the cloud consists of a solution of sugars, pectin, and organic acids while the dispersed matter is formed through cellular tissue comminuted in fruit processing. Specifically,
5664-552: Is then discarded." Ascorbic acid and some of its salts and esters are common additives added to various foods, such as canned fruits, mostly to slow oxidation and enzymatic browning . It may be used as a flour treatment agent used in breadmaking . As food additives, they are assigned E numbers , with safety assessment and approval the responsibility of the European Food Safety Authority . The relevant E numbers are: The stereoisomers of Vitamin C have
5782-414: Is unloaded at the plant for inspection and grading to remove unsuitable fruit before the oranges enter the storage bins. An automatic sampler removes oranges for determination of acid and soluble solids. The bins are organized based on ratio of soluble solids to acids in order to blend oranges appropriate to produce juice with uniform flavor. After the fruit leaves the bins, they are scrubbed with detergent on
5900-557: Is used to determine vitamin status. For research purposes, concentrations can be assessed in leukocytes and tissues, which are normally maintained at an order of magnitude higher than in plasma via an energy-dependent transport system, depleted slower than plasma concentrations during dietary deficiency and restored faster during dietary repletion, but these analysis are difficult to measure, and hence not part of standard diagnostic testing. Recommendations for vitamin C intake by adults have been set by various national agencies: In 2000,
6018-460: The Daily Value (DV) of vitamin C , with moderate amounts (11-19% DV) of potassium , thiamin , and folate (table). Because of its citric acid content, orange juice is acidic, with a typical pH of around 3.5. As of 2020, consumption of orange juice was under preliminary research for the potential to improve nutrition and affect cardiovascular diseases . Commercial squeezed orange juice
SECTION 50
#17328733517036136-669: The Food and Drug Administration does not require the contents of flavor packs to be detailed on a product's packaging . One common component of flavor packs is ethyl butyrate , a natural aroma that people associate with freshness, and which is removed from juice during pasteurization and storage. Cook's Illustrated sent juice samples to independent laboratories, and found that while fresh-squeezed juice naturally contained about 1.19 milligrams of ethyl butyrate per liter, juice that had been commercially processed had levels as high as 8.53 milligrams per liter. A small fraction of fresh orange juice
6254-565: The recommended dietary intake for people who are not considered vitamin C deficient. Vitamin C is generally well tolerated. Large doses may cause gastrointestinal discomfort , headache, trouble sleeping, and flushing of the skin. The United States Institute of Medicine recommends against consuming large amounts. Most animals are able to synthesize their own vitamin C . However, apes (including humans) and monkeys (but not all primates ), most bats , most fish, some rodents, and certain other animals must acquire it from dietary sources because
6372-680: The 1930s, used a single fermentation followed by a purely chemical route. The modern two-step fermentation process, originally developed in China in the 1960s, uses additional fermentation to replace part of the later chemical stages. The Reichstein process and the modern two-step fermentation processes both use glucose as the starting material, convert that to sorbitol , and then to sorbose using fermentation. The two-step fermentation process then converts sorbose to 2-keto-l-gulonic acid (KGA) through another fermentation step, avoiding an extra intermediate. Both processes yield approximately 60% vitamin C from
6490-430: The 1980s. Orange juice that is pasteurized and then sold to consumers without having been concentrated is labeled as "not from concentrate". Just as "from concentrate" processing, most "not from concentrate" processing reduces the natural flavor from the juice. The largest producers of "not from concentrate" use a production process where the juice is placed in aseptic storage , with the oxygen stripped from it, for up to
6608-446: The 2022-2023 crop year, this figure had fallen to around 500,000 metric tons, representing an average annual decline of approximately 4%. Factors contributing to this decline include rising prices for orange juice and adverse weather conditions affecting orange harvests. Vitamin C Vitamin C (also known as ascorbic acid and ascorbate ) is a water-soluble vitamin found in citrus and other fruits, berries and vegetables. It
6726-467: The U.S., the major orange juice brand is Tropicana Products (owned by PAI Partners and PepsiCo Inc. ), which possesses nearly 65% of the market share. Tropicana also has a large presence in Latin America, Europe, and Central Asia. Competing products include Minute Maid (of The Coca-Cola Company ) and Florida's Natural Growers (a Floridian agricultural cooperative that differentiates itself from
6844-742: The UK, the final orange juice from concentrate product must contain a minimum Brix level of 11.2, excluding the additional sweetening ingredients. Vitamins and minerals may be added to the orange juice in accordance with Regulation (EC) 1925/2006. On a molecular level, orange juice is composed of organic acids, sugars, and phenolic compounds. The main organic acids found in orange juice are citric, malic, and ascorbic acid. The major sugars found in orange juice are sucrose, glucose, and fructose. There are approximately 13 phenolic compounds in orange juice including hydroxycinnamic acids, flavanones, hydroxybenzoic acids, hesperidin , narirutin , and ferulic acid. The cloud
6962-649: The ULs for adults. For the European Union, the EFSA set higher recommendations for adults, and also for children: 20 mg/day for ages 1–3, 30 mg/day for ages 4–6, 45 mg/day for ages 7–10, 70 mg/day for ages 11–14, 100 mg/day for males ages 15–17, 90 mg/day for females ages 15–17. For pregnancy 100 mg/day; for lactation 155 mg/day. Cigarette smokers and people exposed to secondhand smoke have lower serum vitamin C levels than nonsmokers. The thinking
7080-699: The United States provides rations to international food relief programs, later under the auspices of the Food for Peace Act and the Bureau for Humanitarian Assistance. Vitamin C is added to corn-soy blend and wheat-soy blend products at 40 mg/100 grams. (along with minerals and other vitamins). Supplemental rations of these highly fortified, blended foods are provided to refugees and displaced persons in camps and to beneficiaries of development feeding programs that are targeted largely toward mothers and children. The report adds: "The stability of vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid)
7198-620: The United States, orange juice is regulated and standardized by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA or USFDA) of the United States Department of Health and Human Services . According to the FDA, orange juice from concentrate is a mixture of water with frozen concentrated orange juice or concentrated orange juice for manufacturing. Additional ingredients into the mixture may include fresh/frozen/pasteurized orange juice from mature oranges, orange oil, and orange pulp. Furthermore, one or more of
SECTION 60
#17328733517037316-512: The United States. Due to the importance of oranges to the economy of Florida, "the juice obtained from mature oranges of the species Citrus sinensis and hybrids thereof" was adopted as the official beverage of Florida in 1967. A cup serving (250 millilitres or 8 ounces) of fresh orange juice is 88% water and contains 26 grams of carbohydrates (including 21 grams of sugar), two grams of protein , and 0.5 grams each of dietary fiber and fat (table). One cup supplies 112 calories and 149% of
7434-458: The United States. Some results are reported as What We Eat In America. The 2013–2014 survey reported that for adults ages 20 years and older, men consumed on average 83.3 mg/d and women 75.1 mg/d. This means that half the women and more than half the men are not consuming the RDA for vitamin C. The same survey stated that about 30% of adults reported they consumed a vitamin C dietary supplement or
7552-594: The World Health Organization's Model Forumulary. In 2021, it was the 255th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 1 million prescriptions. Scurvy is a disease resulting from a deficiency of vitamin C. Without this vitamin, collagen made by the body is too unstable to perform its function and several other enzymes in the body do not operate correctly. Early symptoms are malaise and lethargy, progressing to shortness of breath, bone pain and susceptibility to bruising. As
7670-411: The ability to internally synthesize vitamin C in either the kidney or the liver. In all of the cases where genomic analysis was done on an ascorbic acid auxotroph , the origin of the change was found to be a result of loss-of-function mutations in the gene that encodes L -gulono-γ-lactone oxidase, the enzyme that catalyzes the last step of the ascorbic acid pathway outlined above. One explanation for
7788-614: The ability to make vitamin C. Synthesis does not occur in some species in the rodent family Caviidae , which includes guinea pigs and capybaras , but does occur in other rodents, including rats and mice . Synthesis does not occur in most bat species, but there are at least two species, frugivorous bat Rousettus leschenaultii and insectivorous bat Hipposideros armiger , that retain (or regained) their ability of vitamin C production. A number of species of passerine birds also do not synthesize, but not all of them, and those that do not are not clearly related; it has been proposed that
7906-404: The ability was lost separately a number of times in birds. In particular, the ability to synthesize vitamin C is presumed to have been lost and then later re-acquired in at least two cases. The ability to synthesize vitamin C has also been lost in about 96% of extant fish (the teleosts ). On a milligram consumed per kilogram of body weight basis, simian non-synthesizer species consume
8024-681: The amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For vitamin C labeling purposes, 100% of the Daily Value was 60 mg, but as of May 27, 2016, it was revised to 90 mg to bring it into agreement with the RDA. A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake . European Union regulations require that labels declare energy, protein, fat, saturated fat, carbohydrates, sugars, and salt. Voluntary nutrients may be shown if present in significant amounts. Instead of Daily Values, amounts are shown as percent of Reference Intakes (RIs). For vitamin C, 100% RI
8142-595: The appearance of the first primates, yet sometime after the split of early primates into the two major suborders Haplorrhini (which cannot make vitamin C) and its sister suborder of non-tarsier prosimians, the Strepsirrhini ("wet-nosed" primates), which retained the ability to make vitamin C. According to molecular clock dating, these two suborder primate branches parted ways about 63 to 60 million years ago. Approximately three to five million years later (58 million years ago), only
8260-572: The chapter on Vitamin C in the North American Dietary Reference Intake was updated to give the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) as 90 milligrams per day for adult men, 75 mg/day for adult women, and setting a Tolerable upper intake level (UL) for adults of 2,000 mg/day. The table (right) shows RDAs for the United States and Canada for children, and for pregnant and lactating women, as well as
8378-411: The cloudiness of the juice is caused by pectin, protein, lipid, hemicellulose, cellulose, hesperidin, chromoplastids, amorphous particles, and oil globules. In particular the chemical composition of the cloud consists of 4.5-32% pectin, 34-52% protein, 25% lipids, 5.7% nitrogen, 2% hemicellulose, 2% ash, and less than 2% cellulose. Orange juice is a suspension that consists of heterogeneous particles in
8496-560: The cofactor FAD+. This reaction produces 2-oxogulonolactone (2-keto-gulonolactone), which spontaneously undergoes enolization to form ascorbic acid. Reptiles and older orders of birds make ascorbic acid in their kidneys. Recent orders of birds and most mammals make ascorbic acid in their liver. Some mammals have lost the ability to synthesize vitamin C, including simians and tarsiers , which together make up one of two major primate suborders, Haplorhini . This group includes humans. The other more primitive primates ( Strepsirrhini ) have
8614-501: The competition by being locally owned and using only Florida grown oranges; Tropicana and Simply Orange use a mixture of domestic and foreign stock). In Australia, Daily Juice (owned by National Foods ) is a major brand of partially fresh, partially preserved, orange juice. In the United Kingdom, major orange juice brands include Del Monte and Princes . Some producers add citric acid or ascorbic acid to juice beyond what
8732-417: The cooking of food. Vitamin C concentrations in various food substances decrease with time in proportion to the temperature at which they are stored. Cooking can reduce the vitamin C content of vegetables by around 60%, possibly due to increased enzymatic destruction. Longer cooking times may add to this effect. Another cause of vitamin C loss from food is leaching , which transfers vitamin C to
8850-525: The cooking water, which is decanted and not consumed. Vitamin C dietary supplements are available as tablets, capsules, drink mix packets, in multi-vitamin/mineral formulations, in antioxidant formulations, and as crystalline powder. Vitamin C is also added to some fruit juices and juice drinks. Tablet and capsule content ranges from 25 mg to 1500 mg per serving. The most commonly used supplement compounds are ascorbic acid, sodium ascorbate and calcium ascorbate. Vitamin C molecules can also be bound to
8968-461: The desired taste. Orange juice usually varies between shades of orange and yellow, although some ruby red or blood orange varieties are a reddish-orange or even pinkish. This is due to different pigmentation in ruby red oranges. The blood orange is a mutant of the sweet orange. The mandarin orange and the clementine and tangerine varieties are often used for sparkling juice drinks. Many brands of organic orange juices have become available on
9086-405: The disease progressed, it is characterized by spots on and bleeding under the skin and bleeding gums. The skin lesions are most abundant on the thighs and legs. A person with the ailment looks pale, feels depressed, and is partially immobilized. In advanced scurvy there is fever, old wounds may become open and suppurating , loss of teeth , convulsions and, eventually, death. Until quite late in
9204-467: The disease the damage is reversible, as healthy collagen replaces the defective collagen with vitamin C repletion. Notable human dietary studies of experimentally induced scurvy were conducted on conscientious objectors during World War II in Britain and on Iowa state prisoners in the late 1960s to the 1980s. Men in the prison study developed the first signs of scurvy about four weeks after starting
9322-456: The fatty acid palmitate, creating ascorbyl palmitate , or else incorporated into liposomes. Countries fortify foods with nutrients to address known deficiencies. While many countries mandate or have voluntary programs to fortify wheat flour, maize (corn) flour or rice with vitamins, none include vitamin C in those programs. As described in Vitamin C Fortification of Food Aid Commodities (1997),
9440-431: The following optional sweetening ingredients may be added: sugar , sugar syrup , invert sugar, invert sugar syrup , dextrose , corn syrup , dried corn syrup, glucose syrup , and dried glucose syrup. The orange juice must contain a minimum Brix level of 11.8, which indicates the percentage of orange juice soluble solids, excluding any added sweetening ingredients. In the United Kingdom, orange juice from concentrate
9558-452: The formation of UDP-glucuronic acid. UDP-glucuronic acid is formed when UDP-glucose undergoes two oxidations catalyzed by the enzyme UDP-glucose 6-dehydrogenase. UDP-glucose 6-dehydrogenase uses the co-factor NAD as the electron acceptor. The transferase UDP-glucuronate pyrophosphorylase removes a UMP and glucuronokinase , with the cofactor ADP, removes the final phosphate leading to d -glucuronic acid . The aldehyde group of this compound
9676-427: The fruit juice obtained from clean, sound, and mature oranges. The juice must also contain a minimum of 1.20 milliequivalents of free amino acids per 100 millilitres, contain a minimum of 115 milligrams of potassium per 10 milliliters, and possess a minimum absorbance value for total polyphenolics of 0.380. Sweeteners such as sugar , invert sugar , dextrose or glucose solids may be added. The orange juice must have
9794-414: The fruit to determine inadequacies. Some reasons why fruit may be rejected include indication of mold, rot, and ruptured peels. Afterwards, the oranges are separated based on size through machines prior to juice extraction. There are a number of different ways orange juice industry leaders extract their oranges. Some common methods include halving the fruit and pressing/reaming the orange to extract juice from
9912-449: The functioning of several enzymes and is important for immune system function. It also functions as an antioxidant . Vitamin C may be taken by mouth or by intramuscular, subcutaneous or intravenous injection. Various health claims exist on the basis that moderate vitamin C deficiency increases disease risk, such as for the common cold , cancer or COVID-19 . There are also claims of benefits from vitamin C supplementation in excess of
10030-687: The glucose is extracted from glycogen ; ascorbate synthesis is a glycogenolysis-dependent process. In humans and in animals that cannot synthesize vitamin C, the enzyme l -gulonolactone oxidase (GULO), which catalyzes the last step in the biosynthesis, is highly mutated and non-functional. There is some information on serum vitamin C concentrations maintained in animal species that are able to synthesize vitamin C. One study of several breeds of dogs reported an average of 35.9 μmol/L. A report on goats, sheep and cattle reported ranges of 100–110, 265–270 and 160–350 μmol/L, respectively. The biosynthesis of ascorbic acid in vertebrates starts with
10148-519: The glucose starting point. Researchers are exploring means for one-step fermentation. China produces about 70% of the global vitamin C market. The rest is split among European Union, India and North America. The global market is expected to exceed 141 thousand metric tons in 2024. Cost per metric ton (1000 kg) in US dollars was $ 2,220 in Shanghai, $ 2,850 in Hamburg and $ 3,490 in the US. Vitamin C has
10266-411: The interaction between pectin and cloud proteins, which led to protein-pectin flocculation. The insoluble material of the cloud clumps in conditions above 70 °C (158 °F) and at a pH of 3-4 at which proteins coagulate and flocculate. Cloud flocculation is enhanced at pH 3.5 and can result in clarification, which is undesirable in orange juice. The suspension is unstable when the zeta potential
10384-413: The juice of the orange and can be left in or removed during the manufacturing process. How juicy these vesicles are depend upon many factors, such as species, variety, and season. In American English, the beverage name is often abbreviated as " OJ ". Commercial orange juice with a long shelf life is made by pasteurizing the juice and removing the oxygen from it. This removes much of the taste, necessitating
10502-411: The juice. Pectinesterase is infamous for its deteriorative activity in orange juice. In the pasteurization process, the juice is generally rapidly heated to 197 °F for about 40 seconds. Several industry leaders use flash pasteurization, which is carried out by tubular or plate-type heat exchangers. In order to prevent overheating, turbulent flow is vital to heat the juice rapidly. Cans are filled with
10620-458: The juice. The concentration step occurs in a high vacuum evaporator where the water content in the juice is evaporated while the juice sugar compounds and solids are concentrated. The vacuum evaporator is a low temperature falling film evaporator , which operates at a temperature between 60 and 80 °F. Evaporators work in a continuous manner in that fresh juice is added as concentrate is being constantly removed. The concentration process increases
10738-418: The later addition of a flavor pack, generally made from orange products. Additionally, some juice is further processed by drying and later rehydrating the juice, or by concentrating the juice and later adding water to the concentrate. The health value of orange juice is debatable: it has a high concentration of vitamin C , but also a very high concentration of simple sugars, comparable to soft drinks . As
10856-418: The latter, prevalence is higher in males than in females. Plasma levels are considered saturated at about 65 μmol/L, achieved by intakes of 100 to 200 mg/day, which are well above the recommended intakes. Even higher oral intake does not further raise plasma nor tissue concentrations because absorption efficiency decreases and any excess that is absorbed is excreted in urine. Vitamin C content in plasma
10974-681: The loss of the ability to synthesize ascorbate strikingly parallels the inability to break down uric acid , also a characteristic of primates. Uric acid and ascorbate are both strong reducing agents . This has led to the suggestion that, in higher primates, uric acid has taken over some of the functions of ascorbate. There are many different biosynthesis pathways to ascorbic acid in plants. Most proceed through products of glycolysis and other metabolic pathways . For example, one pathway utilizes plant cell wall polymers. The principal plant ascorbic acid biosynthesis pathway seems to be via l -galactose. The enzyme l -galactose dehydrogenase catalyzes
11092-414: The lost aroma and volatile flavors. After the addition of fresh juice, the brix content is reduced to 42 °F. The fresh juice is referred to as "cut-back" in the industry and attributes to 7-10% of the total juice. Orange peel oil is also added if the oil content is below the required level. The concentrate is then further cooled in a continuous cooler or cold wall tank to 20 to 25 °F. The concentrate
11210-433: The market for canned orange juice. Fresh-squeezed, the unpasteurized juice is the closest to consuming the orange itself. This version of the juice consists of oranges that are squeezed and then bottled without having any additives or flavor packs inserted. The juice is not subjected to pasteurization . Depending on storage temperature, freshly squeezed, unpasteurized orange juice can have a shelf life of 5 to 23 days. In
11328-469: The market. The processing of orange to frozen concentrated orange juice begins with testing the orange fruit for quality to ensure it is safe for the process. Then the fruit is cleaned and washed thoroughly and orange oil is taken from the peel of the orange. Next, the juice is extracted from the orange and is screened in order to remove seeds and large pieces of pulp. The juice is then heated to 190 to 200 °F in order to inactivate natural enzymes found in
11446-424: The nutritional literature to l -ascorbate and l -ascorbic acid respectively. Ascorbic acid is a weak sugar acid structurally related to glucose . In biological systems, ascorbic acid can be found only at low pH , but in solutions above pH 5 is predominantly found in the ionized form, ascorbate. Numerous analytical methods have been developed for ascorbic acid detection. For example, vitamin C content of
11564-399: The orange juice cloud intact, it is vital to inactivate pectinesterase . Pectinesterase is inactivated by heating the juice for 1 minute at 90 °C (194 °F). The solution behavior of pectin is strongly influenced by a number of factors including hydrogen bonding, ionic character, and hydrophobic character. Hydrogen bonding is favored when pH is less than pKa while the ionic character
11682-403: The orange juice is deaerated where the air is incorporated into the juice during extraction. The benefits of deaeration include the elimination of foaming, which improves the uniformity of can fill and improvement regarding the efficiency of the heat exchanger. Orange peel oil is essential for maximum flavor, but according to U.S. standards for Grades of Canned Orange Juice, 0.03% of recoverable oil
11800-483: The orange. One instrument inserts a tube through the orange peel and forces the juice out through the tube by squeezing the entire orange. Despite the variety of machines used to extract juices, all machines have commonalities in that they are rugged, fast, easy to clean and have the ability to reduce peel extractives into the juice. The extracted juice product does not contain the orange peel, but it may contain pulp and seeds, which are removed by finishers. Finishers have
11918-476: The overall oxidation to the lactone and isomerization of the lactone to the C4-hydroxyl group, resulting in l -galactono-1,4-lactone. l -Galactono-1,4-lactone then reacts with the mitochondrial flavoenzyme l -galactonolactone dehydrogenase to produce ascorbic acid. l -Ascorbic acid has a negative feedback on l -galactose dehydrogenase in spinach. Ascorbic acid efflux by embryos of dicot plants
12036-407: The pasteurized juice and inverted immediately to allow the juice to sterilize the inside parts of the lid. The orange juice filled can is sealed and cooled to 90 to 100 °F by spinning on the conveyor belt under cool water sprays. Quality of storage is determined by time and temperature. Juice must be stored at cool temperatures to prevent deterioration. For Canadian markets, orange juice must be
12154-581: The production of imitation orange juices and are often referred to as synthetic hydrocolloids. Pectin is the hydrocolloid found in natural orange juices. Pectin is the soluble polymeric material in the pulp of oranges, which contains 75% of carboxyl of arabinose and galactose . Pectic compounds are complex heteropolysaccharides in that their chemical composition includes a chain structure of axial-axial α-1.4-linked d-galacturonic acid unit along with blocks of L-rhamnose regions that have side chains of arabinose, galactose, and xylose . Pectin methyl-esterase
12272-552: The pulp from heated juices was finer and more compact than unheated juice pulp, which was voluminous and fluffy. In orange juice, pulp is responsible for desirable flow properties, taste, flavor, and mouth feel . However, pulpy orange juice precipitates based on a rate dependent on the diameter, density, and viscosity of the suspended particles as well as the suspending juice. In order to remain suspended in orange juice, pulp particles must have appropriate particle size, charge, and specific gravity. Depending on type of processing method,
12390-587: The recommended dietary intake for adult humans is in the range of 1–2 mg/kg. Ascorbic acid is a common enzymatic cofactor in mammals used in the synthesis of collagen , as well as a powerful reducing agent capable of rapidly scavenging a number of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Given that ascorbate has these important functions, it is surprising that the ability to synthesize this molecule has not always been conserved. In fact, anthropoid primates, Cavia porcellus (guinea pigs), teleost fishes, most bats, and some passerine birds have all independently lost
12508-438: The repeated loss of the ability to synthesize vitamin C is that it was the result of genetic drift ; assuming that the diet was rich in vitamin C, natural selection would not act to preserve it. In the case of the simians, it is thought that the loss of the ability to make vitamin C may have occurred much farther back in evolutionary history than the emergence of humans or even apes, since it evidently occurred soon after
12626-483: The size of pulp particles ranges from 2–5 millimeters (0.08–0.2 in). Those that are smaller than 2 mm (0.08 in) are known to be more stable, so it is beneficial to reduce the size of particles by incorporating hydrocolloids to the juice product. Hydrocolloids would decrease the rate of sediment formation and decrease the falling rate of pulp particles. Hydrocolloids are long-chain polymers that form viscous dispersions and gels if dispersed in water. They have
12744-452: The soluble solid portion of the juice from 12 ° Brix to 60-70 °Brix. The concentrated juice is held in a cold wall tank and is stored at or below 35 °F to prevent browning and development of undesired flavors. Next, a small amount of fresh juice is added to the concentrated juice to restore natural and fresh flavors of orange juice that have been lost through the concentration process. Specific cold-pressed orange oils are used to restore
12862-467: The surface. The particles in the cloud have a negative charge that decreases with decreasing pH. In accordance with cloud stability, the hydration of particles is more significant than their electrical charge. When orange juice is heat treated there is an increase in the number of fine particles and decrease in that of coarse particles. The fine particles in particular are responsible for the appearance, color, and flavor of orange juice. Heat treatment plays
12980-453: The synthesis and catabolism of tyrosine ; and the metabolism of microsomes . In nonenzymatic functions it acts as a reducing agent, donating electrons to oxidized molecules and preventing oxidation in order to keep iron and copper atoms in their reduced states. At non-physiological concentrations achieved by intravenous dosing, vitamin C may function as a pro-oxidant , with therapeutic toxicity against cancer cells. Vitamin C functions as
13098-427: The taste and to ensure a consistent year-round taste. The compounds in the flavor packs are derived from orange peels by squeezing the oil out of them. Producers do not mention the addition of flavor packs on the label of the orange juice. Common orange juice is made from the sweet orange . Different cultivars (for example, Valencia , Hamlin) have different properties, and a producer may mix cultivar juices to get
13216-501: The total amount being absorbed continues to increase with dose, absorption efficiency falls to less than 50%. Active transport is managed by Sodium-Ascorbate Co-Transporter proteins (SVCTs) and Hexose Transporter proteins (GLUTs). SVCT1 and SVCT2 import ascorbate across plasma membranes. The Hexose Transporter proteins GLUT1 , GLUT3 and GLUT4 transfer only the oxydized dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) form of vitamin C. The amount of DHA found in plasma and tissues under normal conditions
13334-537: The vitamin C-free diet, whereas in the earlier British study, six to eight months were required, possibly due to the pre-loading of this group with a 70 mg/day supplement for six weeks before the scorbutic diet was fed. Men in both studies had blood levels of ascorbic acid too low to be accurately measured by the time they developed signs of scurvy. These studies both reported that all obvious symptoms of scurvy could be completely reversed by supplementation of only 10 mg
13452-460: The vitamin in amounts 10 to 20 times higher than what is recommended by governments for humans. This discrepancy constituted some of the basis of the controversy on human recommended dietary allowances being set too low. However, simian consumption does not indicate simian requirements. Merck's veterinary manual states that daily intake of vitamin C at 3–6 mg/kg prevents scurvy in non-human primates. By way of comparison, across several countries,
13570-412: The water from the juice in order to decrease its weight and decrease transportation costs. Other juice producers generally deaerate the juice so that it can be sold much later in the year. Because such processes remove the distinct aroma compounds that give orange juice a fresh-squeezed taste, producers later add back these compounds in a proprietary mixture, called a "flavor pack", in order to improve
13688-417: Was affordable, tasty, convenient, and high in vitamin C. The preparation was simple: empty the container of frozen concentrate into a measured volume of water and stir. However, by the 1980s, food scientists developed a fresher-tasting juice known as reconstituted ready-to-serve juice. Eventually in the 1990s, "not from concentrate" (NFC) orange juice was developed. Orange juice is a common breakfast beverage in
13806-534: Was set at 80 mg in 2011. Although also present in other plant-derived foods, the richest natural sources of vitamin C are fruits and vegetables. Vitamin C is the most widely taken dietary supplement . The following table is approximate and shows the relative abundance in different raw plant sources. The amount is given in milligrams per 100 grams of the edible portion of the fruit or vegetable: Compared to plant sources, animal-sourced foods do not provide so great an amount of vitamin C, and what there
13924-663: Was the Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level (LOAEL), meaning that other adverse effects were observed at even higher intakes. ULs are progressively lower for younger and younger children. In 2006, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) also pointed out the disturbances at that dose level, but reached the conclusion that there was not sufficient evidence to set a UL for vitamin C, as did the Japan National Institute of Health and Nutrition in 2010. For US food and dietary supplement labeling purposes,
#702297