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54-523: The charges raised against the French army during Operation Turquoise are of "complicity of genocide and/or complicity of crimes against humanity." The victims allege that French soldiers did nothing to stop the genocide and let Interahamwe militias escape to Zaire after the massacres. The former Rwandan ambassador to France and co-founder of the RPF Jacques Bihozagara testified, "Operation Turquoise

108-615: A terrorist organisation by many African and Western governments. The Interahamwe and splinter groups such as the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR) continue to wage an insurgency against Rwanda from neighboring countries, where they are also involved in local conflicts and terrorism. The name Interahamwe can be translated as "those who work together" or loosely as "those who fight together" in Kinyarwanda . Work

162-522: A good dress to welcome our French allies. The Tutsi girls are all dead, so you have your chance." The French did not detain the government officials they knew had helped coordinate the genocide. When asked to explain that in the French parliament, the French foreign minister of the time argued that the UN mandate given to the French contained no authorization to investigate or arrest suspected war criminals. Regardless, French President François Mitterrand claimed that

216-1138: A group of 14 tourists in Bwindi National Park , Uganda. Eight of the tourists were killed. The story was featured on National Geographic, Locked Up Abroad: Uganda . Leaders of the Interahamwe have been primarily prosecuted through the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in Arusha , Tanzania . The tribunal has convicted at least 41 persons, often with life sentences, including former interim Prime Minister Jean Kambanda and Georges Rutaganda . Fugitives have been captured and prosecuted in other countries, including Jean-Marie Vianney Mudahinyuka (a.k.a. "Zuzu"), an Interahamwe leader found hiding in Chicago , Illinois in January 2011. Rwandan Patriotic Front The Rwandan Patriotic Front ( RPF–Inkotanyi ; French : Front patriotique rwandais , FPR )

270-695: A large number of NRA officers because they had joined the rebellion early and thus had accumulated more experience. The contributions of the Rwandans in the Ugandan Bush War were immediately recognized by the new government. Six months after taking power, Museveni reversed the decades-old legal regime and declared that Rwandans who had resided in Uganda would be entitled to citizenship after 10 years. In December 1987, RANU held its seventh congress in Kampala and renamed itself

324-586: A legal limbo along the border region for years, and many refugee youths left to join the National Resistance Army . After the Museveni government was formed in 1986, Fred Rwigema , a Rwandan refugee commander, was appointed Uganda's deputy minister of defense and deputy army commander-in-chief, second only to Museveni in the military chain of command for Uganda. Paul Kagame was appointed acting chief of military intelligence. Rwandan refugees formed

378-404: A trail of food, water and medicine. The area that was selected ended up with the result that refugees were enabled to escape predominantly westward, into eastern Zaire. The zone affected by Operation Turquoise was changed after 2 members of a French reconnaissance unit were captured by the victorious RPF rebels and were released in exchange for a revision in the area of Operation Turquoise. There

432-545: A wide-ranging prohibition on what the government calls " genocide ideology ", including discussion of ethnic differences. Despite an official nonsectarian identity, as of 2021, a large majority of officials in the RPF-led government are Tutsi. Rwanda is one of the most densely populated countries in Africa, with over 14 million people living in a comparatively small territory of 26,338 square kilometers. Unlike other African countries,

486-634: Is a Hutu paramilitary organization active in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda . The Interahamwe was formed around 1990 as the youth wing of the National Republican Movement for Democracy and Development (MRND according to its French name), the then-ruling party of Rwanda , and enjoyed the backing of the Hutu Power government. The Interahamwe, led by Robert Kajuga , were

540-641: Is pronounced [inhêːɾɑhɑ́mwe] in Kinyarwanda. However, when speaking English, Rwandans will sometimes pronounce it in the English manner. The difference can be observed by listening to Paul Rusesabagina in the Return to Rwanda feature of a Hotel Rwanda DVD, and to the translator for a survivor of the Nyarubuye massacre in "Frontline" Ghosts of Rwanda . Robert Kajuga , a half Tutsi (unusual for this group),

594-730: Is the ruling political party in Rwanda . The RPF was founded in December 1987 by Rwandan Tutsi in exile in Uganda because of the ethnic violence that had occurred during the Rwandan Hutu Revolution in 1959–1962. In 1990, the RPF started the Rwandan Civil War in an attempt to overthrow the government, which was dominated by Hutu . Later on, the Rwandan genocide occurred that ended on 4 July with

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648-414: Is thought that either Hutu extremists or the RPF carried it out. The shooting down of the plane served as the catalyst for the Rwandan genocide which began within a few hours. Over approximately 100 days, more than one million Tutsi people, were killed and an estimated 150,000 to 250,000 women were raped. The RPF with its wing army fought the government and took control of the country. The Rwandan genocide

702-698: The Cyangugu - Kibuye - Gikongoro triangle, was spread across a fifth of the country. Although it was meant to save lives and stop the mass killings, killings did occur. When the Hutu government moved the Radio Télévision Libre des Mille-Collines radio transmitter, a key tool in encouraging Hutus to kill their Tutsi neighbors, into the Zone Turquoise, the French did not seize it. The radio broadcast from Gisenyi , calling on "you Hutu girls to wash yourselves and put on

756-460: The Hutu -dominated Habyarimana government with extensive military, and diplomatic support, including a military intervention to save the government during an offensive by the rebel Tutsi -led Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) in 1990. Immediately after the genocide began, the RPF began another offensive to overthrow the genocidal government and steadily gained ground. By late June, the RPF controlled much of

810-476: The Rwandan Patriotic Front ( RPF ) stands for Unity, Sovereignty and Security, Economy, Democratic Leadership, Fighting Corruption, Eliminating All Causes of Refugee Status, International Relations, Social Welfare, and Fighting Genocide and Its Ideology; the new RPF, dominated by Rwandan intellectuals who were in exile from different countries and military officers, was far more strong and ambitious than

864-479: The Rwandan government has invented and practiced unique national programs in ensuring self-reliance including Community work ( Umuganda ) and Gacaca courts . Paul Kagame is the current Chairman of the RPF after being re-elected with other members of the National Executive Committee (NEC) during the 16th party's national congress that met on 2 April 2023. The elected committee is responsible for

918-613: The Ugandan Bush War . Following the overthrow of Idi Amin in 1979, Obote denounced Museveni's National Resistance Army (NRA) as composed of Banyarwanda. Subsequently, a failed attempt to force all Rwandan refugees into refugee camps in February 1982 resulted in a massive purge, driving 40,000 refugees back into Rwanda. Rwanda declared that they recognized only 4,000 of these as Rwandan nationals, while Uganda declared that they would take back only 1,000. The remaining 35,000 were left in

972-578: The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR), in Kigali that had been tasked with observing that the Arusha Accords were being carried out. Following the start of the genocide and the murder of several kidnapped Belgian soldiers, Belgium withdrew its contribution to UNAMIR, which was commanded by Canadian Roméo Dallaire ; Dallaire was prohibited from involving the force in

1026-658: The Democratic Republic of the Congo), along with many members of the Interahamwe, Presidential Guard and the Rwandan Government Forces (RGF). Following the recruitment of significant numbers of Congolese Hutu the organisation took the name Armée de Libération du Rwanda (ALiR). With the Kagame regime still in power, members still take part in border raids from the refugee camps. In 1999, Interahamwe attacked and kidnapped

1080-534: The Interahamwe fled to neighbouring countries, most notably to what at the time was Zaire , now Democratic Republic of Congo , and Tanzania . Sudan welcomed former Interahamwe to Juba , and in March 1998, Colonel Tharcisse Renzaho , the former prefect of Kigali, and Colonel Aloys Ntiwiragabo , the former Rwandan Presidential Guard commander, arrived in Juba from Nairobi to organize them. It has been nearly impossible to bring

1134-453: The Interahamwe to justice because they did not wear uniforms or have a clearly organized group of followers. They were the neighbours, friends and co-workers of Tutsis. Throughout the war, members of the Interahamwe moved into camps of refugees and the internally displaced. There the victims were mixed in with the enemy making it difficult to prosecute members of the Interahamwe. But the Gacaca court

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1188-526: The Operation had saved "tens of thousands of lives". The force left as the mandate of the operation expired on 21 August. The RPF immediately occupied the region, causing another refugee outflow. Opération Turquoise is controversial for two reasons: accusations that it was a failed attempt to prop up the genocidal Hutu regime and that its mandate undermined the UNAMIR. The RPF, well aware that French assistance to

1242-428: The RPF conquest of the entire country. The RPF have ruled the country since then as a one-party state , and its current leader, Paul Kagame , became the president of Rwanda in 2000, and remains in office. Since 1994, RPF rule has been characterized by political repression, relative stability, and economic growth. Among other policies implemented by the government are the non-recognition of ethnic identities and

1296-521: The Rwandan government led to the signing of the Arusha Accords in 1993, resulting in RPF personnel and other refugees being allowed to return to the country. On 6 April 1994, President Juvénal Habyarimana 's plane was shot down near Kigali International Airport , killing him and Cyprien Ntaryamira , the President of Burundi . Responsibility for the assassination has not been conclusively established; it

1350-565: The Security Council, i.e. contributing to the security and protection of displaced persons , refugees and civilians in danger in Rwanda, by means including the establishment and maintenance, where possible, of safe humanitarian areas. On 20 June, France sent a draft resolution to the UNSC for authorization of Operation Turquoise under a two-month Chapter VII mandate. After two days of consultations and

1404-576: The UNSC to abstain in the vote approving the force. The UN-sponsored "Report of the Independent Inquiry into the Actions of the UN during the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda" found it "unfortunate that the resources committed by France and other countries to Operation Turquoise could not instead have been put at the disposal of UNAMIR II." On 21 June, Dallaire replaced 42 UNAMIR peacekeepers from Francophone Congo, Senegal and Togo with UN staff from Kenya after

1458-454: The Zone Turquoise was created in the steadily shrinking areas out of RPF control. The RPF was one of many organisations that noted that the French initiative to safeguard the populace was occurring six weeks after it had become apparent mass killings were occurring in Rwanda. On 22 July, French Prime Minister Édouard Balladur addressed the Security Council, stating that France had a "moral duty" to act without delay and that "without swift action,

1512-627: The already great numbers of refugees in the region, known as the Great Lakes refugee crisis spilling out of Rwanda, and neighbouring Hutu-Tutsi Burundi, predominantly into Zaire. Approximately, 2.1 million people lived in Zaire in refugee camps. These camps contained the Rwandan state military (FAR) which led to the invasion of Zaire by Rwanda, Burundi and Uganda, known as the First Congo War . The area of French influence, known as Zone Turquoise , within

1566-400: The country and was nearing a complete victory. RPF units carried out retributive attacks within areas they controlled, but they were not of the scale and organization as those carried out in the genocide. On 19 June, the French government made an announcement of their intentions to organize, establish, and maintain a "safe zone" in the south-west of Rwanda. At the brink of defeat and retreat,

1620-470: The current state of Rwanda was partly based on the pre-colonial Kingdom of Rwanda , governed by a Tutsi monarchy. When the European colonialists arrived in Rwanda (Germans from 1899–1916 and Belgians from 1916–1962), the country lost all political, economic, and cultural independence. The colonial rulers chose Rwanda's leaders and set laws in a way that suited their interests. The colonial rulers employed

1674-716: The day-to-day management of the party activities and will serve a five-year term. In July 2024, Rwanda held elections, confirming Paul Kagame 's victory with 99.18% of the votes on July 15. This result reflects the trust many Rwandan citizens still have in him, especially since he played a crucial role in stopping the Rwanda Genocide in 1994. However, the ruling party saw its representation in parliament decrease, securing 37 of 53 directly elected seats, down from 40. Only two candidates were allowed to run against Paul Kagame , while others were barred from participating. The Rwandan Electoral Commission stated that these candidates lacked

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1728-426: The deployment, having sent extensive communication back to U.N. Headquarters that the placement of two U.N.-authorised commands with different mandates and command structures into the same country was problematic. Dallaire was also a strong proponent of strengthening UNAMIR and transitioning it to a Chapter VII mandate, rather than introducing a new organisation. Concern over conflicting mandates led to five countries on

1782-605: The divide-and-conquer strategy, spreading the idea that Rwandans : This strategy increased divisions between Tutsi, Hutu , and Batwa . In the early 1950s, Rwandans fought for their independence alongside other African countries. Since Tutsis made up the majority of those who fought for Rwanda's independence, the Belgians started to propagate the idea that Tutsis were outsiders who had originated in Abyssinia or modern-day Ethiopia . The Rwandese Alliance for National Unity ( RANU )

1836-420: The government had helped blunt their 1990 offensive, opposed the deployment of a French-led force. By early June, the RPF had managed to sweep through the eastern half of the country and move south and west, while besieging Kigali in the center. The advance resulted in a massive refugee outflow, though the Hutu government was also implicated in encouraging the flight ( see Great Lakes refugee crisis . ) Regardless,

1890-469: The main perpetrators of the Rwandan genocide , during which an estimated 500,000 to 1,000,000 Tutsi , Twa , and moderate Hutus were killed from April to July 1994, and the term "Interahamwe" was widened to mean any civilian militias or bands killing Tutsi. The Interahamwe were driven out of Rwanda after Tutsi-led Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) victory in the Rwandan Civil War in July 1994, and are considered

1944-478: The massacres and allowed Interahamwe militias to escape the country in the aftermath. The former Rwandan ambassador to France and co-founder of the RPF Jacques Bihozagara testified, "Operation Turquoise was aimed only at protecting genocide perpetrators, because the genocide continued even within the Turquoise zone." France has always denied any role in the killing. UNAMIR Force Commander Dallaire had also opposed

1998-504: The negative reaction of the RPF to Opération Turquoise. Over the two months of the mandate, there were confrontations, and risk of confrontations, between RPF and French-led units around the zone, during which UNAMIR was asked to convey messages between the two. The UN independent inquiry drily noted that this was "a role which must be considered awkward to say the least." Interahamwe The Interahamwe ( / ˌ ɪ n t ər ə ˈ h ɑː m w eɪ / or [í.nɦêː.ɾɑ́.hɑ́.mŋe] )

2052-421: The news of an intervention from their allies was broadcast across the country by the genocidaires, with a consequent increase in their confidence, and the continuation of their hunt for genocide survivors. The French said the objectives of Opération Turquoise were: to maintain a presence pending the arrival of the expanded UNAMIR … The objectives assigned to that force would be the same ones assigned to UNAMIR by

2106-535: The original RANU. On 1 October 1990, the Rwandan government led by Juvénal Habyarimana with the National Republican Movement for Democracy and Development (MRND) party which was known to rule with pro-Hutu policies, was invaded by the Rwanda Patriotic Army (RPA), the wing army force of RPF led by Major-General Fred Gisa Rwigema , the starting of the Rwandan Civil War . The RPA incursion

2160-468: The personal approval of the U.N. Secretary General , it was adopted as Resolution 929 (1994), on 22 June, with 10 votes of approval and 5 abstentions. The "multilateral" force consisted of 2,500 troops, only 32 of them being from Senegal and the rest French. The equipment included 100 APCs , 10 helicopters , a battery of 120 mm mortars , 4 Jaguar fighter bombers , 8 Mirage fighters , and reconnaissance aircraft. The helicopters were intended to lay

2214-480: The protection of civilians. By late April, several of the non-permanent members of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) were trying to convince the major powers to agree to a UNAMIR II. As opposed to UNAMIR, which had a peacekeeping mandate under Chapter VI of the U.N. Charter , UNAMIR II would be authorised under Chapter VII to enable the UN to prevent further harm. The French had provided

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2268-617: The survival of an entire country was at stake and the stability of a region seriously compromised." In May 2006, the Paris Court of Appeal accepted six courtsuits deposed by victims of the genocide to magistrate Brigitte Reynaud. The charges raised against the French army during Operation Turquoise from June to August 1994 are of "complicity of genocide and/or complicity of crimes against humanity." The victims allege that French soldiers engaged in Operation Turquoise did nothing to stop

2322-458: The vote in the 2003 parliamentary elections , winning 40 of the 53 elected seats in the Chamber of Deputies . The coalition won 42 seats in the 2008 parliamentary elections , and Kagame was re-elected as president in 2010 with 93% of the vote. The 2013 parliamentary elections saw the RPF-led coalition win 41 seats. In 2017, Kagame was re-elected for a third term with 98.8 percent of the vote. He

2376-448: Was aimed only at protecting genocide perpetrators, because the genocide continued even within the Turquoise zone." France has always denied any role in the killing. On 6 April 1994 Rwandan President Juvénal Habyarimana and Burundian President Cyprien Ntaryamira were assassinated , sparking the Rwandan genocide against the Tutsi. The United Nations already had a peacekeeping force,

2430-462: Was an evacuation of the population westward, enforced by the Hutu regime, now set to flee from the Tutsi rebels, after it had been made clear the French were there to provide only a "safe zone", rather than assistance in the conflict. Unfortunately, there were roadblocks and checkpoints along the way, and the Tutsis left alive, and even Hutus without ID cards, were killed. The outflow of refugees exacerbated

2484-443: Was arrested in 2002. Sentenced to 15 years in prison, he was released with a pardon from President Kagame in 2007. In February 1998 Kagame was elected president of the RPF, replacing Alexis Kanyarengwe , and in March 2000 he became the national president. Following a constitutional referendum in 2003, Kagame was elected president with 95% of the vote. The RPF formed a coalition with several smaller parties, which received 74% of

2538-426: Was completely stopped when Kigali was captured by the RPF wing army on 4 July. After the RPF stopped the genocide and took control of the country, in 1994, it formed a government of national unity headed by a president, Pasteur Bizimungu . Paul Kagame became Minister of Defense and Vice-President. President Bizimungu served for six years and resigned from government in 2000, after forming his political party, he

2592-457: Was created in December 1979 in Nairobi , Kenya, by young Rwandan Tutsi refugee intellectuals, most of whom had grown up in Uganda. The RANU political organization was established to discuss a possible return to Rwanda. Though primarily a forum for intellectual discussion, it became militant after Milton Obote 's election in 1980 , resulting in many Tutsi refugees joining Yoweri Museveni in fighting

2646-555: Was initially successful, despite the death of Fred Rwigema from a bullet on 2 October. Paul Kagame , who had been doing military studies in the United States, returned to take over the RPA. Thereafter the RPA resorted to guerrilla attacks , focusing on the Byumba and Ruhengeri areas, and gained control of much of the north of the country in 1992. Eventually, negotiations between the RPF and

2700-425: Was put in place to at least attempt to get the killers in jail. It has seen criticism from many different sources for being flawed with the judges having inadequate training and many different parties in the court system being corrupt. This problem has led to many innocent people being put in jail and has caused the prisons to become overcrowded. During the war, millions of Rwandan Hutu refugees fled to Zaire (now

2754-452: Was sworn in for another seven-year term on 18 August 2017. In the post-genocide era, RPF as a ruling party established Rwanda's national unity and democratic government that continues to challenge itself foremost as a right movement to strive for national unity, democracy, and development. To achieve these since 2000, RPF chairman and president of Rwanda Kagame, has been elected three times to rule Rwanda consecutively. Under his leadership,

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2808-505: Was the president of the Interahamwe. The vice president of Interahamwe was Georges Rutaganda . The Interahamwe was formed from groups of young people of the MRND party. They carried out the Rwandan genocide against the Tutsis in 1994. The radio station RTLM , founded by Rwandan president Juvénal Habyarimana and his wife, was popular amongst the Interahamwe for its decidedly pro-Hutu agenda, among other things. From October 1993 to late 1994, it

2862-595: Was used as an outlet for extremists to release ethnocentric and xenophobic propaganda targeted at the Tutsis, moderate Hutus and Belgians . Often it encouraged the ongoing acts of genocide by promoting fear among the Hutus that the Tutsis would massacre them, and broadcasting the positions of Tutsis hiding or attempting to flee. Following the invasion of the Rwandan capital Kigali by the Tutsi Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), many Rwandan civilians and members of

2916-405: Was used as slang in racist radio broadcasts during the genocide—"working" meant using machetes to kill. The name Interahamwe can be broken up as follows: intera is derived from the verb gutera , meaning "to work"; hamwe means "together" and is related to the word rimwe for "one". English speakers usually pronounce it as / ˌ ɪ n t ər ə ˈ h ɑː m w eɪ / , though it

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