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171-504: VVAW identifies as anti-war and has roots in the 1960s civil rights movement , though its members are not necessarily pacifists or civil rights activists. Membership has varied greatly, from almost 25,000 veterans during the height of the war to fewer than 2,000 since the late 20th century. The VVAW is widely considered to be among the most influential anti-war organizations of the American Vietnam War era. The group originated as

342-413: A Bermudian cadet who was present) "that war should be avoided at almost any cost, that war would solve nothing, that the whole of Europe and more besides would be reduced to ruin, and that the loss of life would be so large that whole populations would be decimated. In our ignorance I, and many of us, felt almost ashamed of a British General who uttered such depressing and unpatriotic sentiments, but during

513-432: A brokered convention . Nixon secured the nomination on the first ballot. He was able to secure the nomination to the support of many Southern delegates, after he and his subordinates made concessions to Strom Thurmond and Harry Dent . He selected Maryland governor Spiro Agnew as his running mate, a choice which Nixon believed would unite the party, appealing both to Northern moderates and to Southerners disaffected with

684-399: A senior partner in the leading law firm Nixon, Mudge, Rose, Guthrie & Alexander . When announcing his California campaign, Nixon had pledged not to run for president in 1964; even if he had not, he believed it would be difficult to defeat Kennedy, or after his assassination , Kennedy's successor, Lyndon Johnson. In 1964, Nixon won write-in votes in the primaries , and was considered

855-413: A "respectable Republican cloth coat". The speech was remembered for the gift which Nixon had received, but which he would not give back, which he described as "a little cocker spaniel dog   ...sent all the way from Texas. And our little girl—Tricia, the 6-year-old—named it Checkers." The speech prompted a huge public outpouring of support for Nixon. Eisenhower decided to retain him on the ticket, and

1026-503: A 1960 presidential run. Nixon believed this would destroy his political career. When Eisenhower announced his reelection bid in February 1956, he hedged on the choice of his running mate, saying it was improper to address that question until he had been renominated. Although no Republican was opposing Eisenhower, Nixon received a substantial number of write-in votes against the president in the 1956 New Hampshire primary election. In late April,

1197-553: A bestselling book, Six Crises , which included coverage of the Hiss case, Eisenhower's heart attack, and the Fund Crisis, which had been resolved by the Checkers speech. Local and national Republican leaders encouraged Nixon to challenge incumbent Pat Brown for governor of California in the 1962 gubernatorial election. Despite initial reluctance, Nixon entered the race. The campaign

1368-606: A ceasefire was signed. The following day, an estimated 180,000 protestors gathered in Hyde Park , England, in what may have been the largest pro-Palestine demonstration in British history. Speeches were made by anti-war campaigners and trade union members including demands that the UK government disinvest and sanction Israel. Messages such as "free Palestine" and "stop the war" were displayed on banners and placards and chanted by protesters. Despite

1539-567: A cessation of bombings. On October 22, 1968, candidate Nixon received information that Johnson was preparing a so-called " October surprise ", abandoning three non-negotiable conditions for a bombing halt, to help elect Humphrey in the last days of the campaign. Whether the Nixon campaign interfered with negotiations between the Johnson administration and the South Vietnamese by engaging Anna Chennault ,

1710-693: A claim of 20,000 members for 1971. The organization has claimed a peak membership of over 30,000. Counting non-veteran supporters, VVAW had "roughly 50,000" members. By 1972, negotiations at the Paris peace talks were in full swing, signaling the beginning of the end of the war, meaning the end of VVAW's primary mission. Membership in the organization declined, and the leadership began to consider broader purposes to support veterans. Membership requirements were relaxed, and political differences arose as new members fought with old about direction. By 1973 VVAW had several thousand members. With internal struggles still threatening

1881-452: A college campus, where he fielded questions from students on U.S. foreign policy. The trip was uneventful until the Nixon party reached Lima , Peru, where he was met with student demonstrations. Nixon went to the historical campus of National University of San Marcos , the oldest university in the Americas, got out of his car to confront the students, and stayed until forced back into the car by

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2052-447: A consensus candidate who would run a strong campaign against him. In 1945, they formed a "Committee of 100" to decide on a candidate, hoping to avoid internal dissensions which had led to previous Voorhis victories. After the committee failed to attract higher-profile candidates, Herman Perry, manager of Whittier's Bank of America branch, suggested Nixon, a family friend with whom he had served on Whittier College's board of trustees before

2223-497: A conversational tone as much as possible. At the start of his junior year in September 1928, Nixon's parents permitted him to transfer to Whittier High School. At Whittier, Nixon lost a bid for student body president—his first electoral defeat. He often rose at 4 a.m. to drive the family truck to Los Angeles to purchase vegetables at the market and then drove to the store to wash and display them before going to school. Harold

2394-497: A debilitating stroke , and died four days later . Rankings of his time in office have proven complex, with the successes of his presidency contrasted against the circumstances of both his ascension and his departure from office. Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9, 1913, in what was then the township precinct of Yorba Linda, California , in a house built by his father, on his family's lemon ranch. His parents were Francis A. Nixon and Hannah (Milhous) Nixon . His mother

2565-692: A deferral due to his government service, Nixon nevertheless sought a commission in the Navy. His application was approved, and he was appointed a lieutenant junior grade in the United States Naval Reserve on June 15, 1942. In October 1942, he was given his first assignment as aide to the commander of the Naval Air Station Ottumwa in Wapello County, Iowa , until May 1943. Seeking more excitement, he requested sea duty; on July 2, 1943, he

2736-433: A divisive figure to some. Televised presidential debates made their debut as a political medium during the campaign. In the first of four such debates, Nixon appeared pale, with a five o'clock shadow , in contrast to the photogenic Kennedy. Nixon's performance in the debate was perceived to be mediocre in the visual medium of television, though many people listening on the radio thought Nixon had won. Nixon narrowly lost

2907-406: A former State Department official, had been a Soviet spy, Nixon believed them to be true and pressed for the committee to continue its investigation. After Hiss filed suit, alleging defamation, Chambers produced documents corroborating his allegations, including paper and microfilm copies that Chambers turned over to House investigators after hiding them overnight in a field; they became known as

3078-634: A full partner in the firm the following year. In later years, Nixon proudly said he was the only modern president to have previously worked as a practicing attorney. During this period, Nixon was also the president of the Citra-Frost Company, which attempted to produce and sell frozen orange juice, but the company went bankrupt after just 18 months. In January 1938, Nixon was cast in the Whittier Community Players production of The Dark Tower in which he played opposite his future wife,

3249-919: A fund-raising party for the veterans. During the party it was announced that Chief Justice Warren Burger of the United States Supreme Court had reversed the decision of the Court of Appeals and reinstated the injunction. The veterans were given until 4:30 the following afternoon to break camp and leave the National Mall. This was the fastest reversal of an Appeals Court decision in the Supreme Court's history. On April 21, more than 50 veterans marched to The Pentagon , attempting to surrender as war criminals. A Pentagon spokesman took their names and turned them away. Veterans continued to meet with and lobby their congressional representatives. Senator Ted Kennedy spent

3420-475: A fundraiser for the Republican party, remains a controversy. It is not clear whether the government of South Vietnam needed encouragement to opt out of a peace process they considered disadvantageous. In a three-way race between Nixon, Humphrey, and American Independent Party candidate George Wallace , Nixon defeated Humphrey by only 500,000 votes, a margin almost as close as in 1960, with both elections seeing

3591-401: A gap of less than one percentage point of the popular vote. However, Nixon earned 301 electoral votes to 191 for Humphrey and 46 for Wallace, a majority. He became the first non-incumbent vice president to be elected president. In his victory speech, Nixon pledged that his administration would try to bring the divided nation together . Nixon said: "I have received a very gracious message from

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3762-532: A generation of poets and writers influenced by their experiences in the war. The work of poets, including Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon , exposed the contrast between the realities of life in the trenches and how the war was seen by the British public at the time and the earlier patriotic verse penned by Rupert Brooke . The German writer Erich Maria Remarque penned All Quiet on the Western Front , which has been adapted for several mediums and has become of

3933-551: A grocery store and gas station at what is now the corner of Whittier Boulevard and Santa Gertrudes Avenue. During this time period, the Nixon family attended East Whittier Friends Church. Richard's younger brother Arthur died in 1925 at the age of seven after a short illness. Richard was 12 years old when a spot was found on his lung; with a family history of tuberculosis , he was forbidden to play sports. The spot turned out to be scar tissue from an early bout of pneumonia . Nixon attended East Whittier Elementary School, where he

4104-633: A heart attack and his condition was initially believed to be life-threatening. Eisenhower was unable to perform his duties for six weeks. The Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution had not yet been proposed, and the vice president had no formal power to act. Nonetheless, Nixon acted in Eisenhower's stead during this period, presiding over Cabinet meetings and ensuring that aides and Cabinet officers did not seek power. According to Nixon biographer Stephen Ambrose , Nixon had "earned

4275-412: A high school teacher named Thelma "Pat" Ryan . In his memoirs, Nixon described it as "a case of love at first sight ", but apparently for Nixon only, since Pat Ryan turned him down several times before agreeing to date him. Once they began their courtship, Ryan was reluctant to marry Nixon; they dated for two years before she assented to his proposal. They wed in a small ceremony on June 21, 1940. After

4446-723: A honeymoon in Mexico , the Nixons began their married life in Whittier. They had two daughters: Tricia , born in 1946, and Julie , born in 1948. In January 1942, the couple moved to the Northern Virginia suburbs, where Nixon took a job at the Office of Price Administration in Washington, D.C. In his political campaigns, Nixon suggested that this was his response to Pearl Harbor , but he had sought

4617-449: A political fund, maintained by his backers, which reimbursed him for political expenses. Such a fund was not illegal, but it exposed Nixon to allegations of a potential conflict of interest. With pressure building for Eisenhower to demand Nixon's resignation from the ticket , Nixon went on television to address the nation on September 23, 1952. The address, later named the Checkers speech ,

4788-484: A possible future military attack against Iran by the United States is known to have started during 2005–2006. Beginning in early 2005, journalists , activists and academics such as Seymour Hersh , Scott Ritter , Joseph Cirincione and Jorge E. Hirsch began publishing claims that United States' concerns over the alleged threat posed by the possibility that Iran may have a nuclear weapons program might lead

4959-606: A potential industrial center. He visited Saigon and Hanoi in French Indochina . On his return to the United States at the end of 1953, Nixon increased the time he devoted to foreign relations. Biographer Irwin Gellman, who chronicled Nixon's congressional years, said of his vice presidency: Eisenhower radically altered the role of his running mate by presenting him with critical assignments in both foreign and domestic affairs once he assumed his office. The vice president welcomed

5130-598: A press conference announcing his opposition to the war. Rogers had been a chaplain's assistant at the 1st Logistical Command at Cam Ranh Bay from 1966 to 1967. Barry telephoned Rogers immediately, after which the two became collaborators and lifelong friends. Barry convinced Rogers to join VVAW, after which Rogers would serve as its vice president. According to Andrew Hunt , Rogers "marched alongside Martin Luther King Jr., appeared on numerous radio and television programs, and became

5301-554: A representative and suggested that Voorhis's endorsement by a group linked to Communists meant that Voorhis must have radical views. Nixon won the election, receiving 65,586 votes to Voorhis's 49,994. In June 1947, Nixon supported the Taft–Hartley Act , a federal law that monitors the activities and power of labor unions, and he served on the Education and Labor Committee . In August 1947, he became one of 19 House members to serve on

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5472-509: A result of weariness with the length of the conflict and partly as a result of a conflating of the conflict with the unpopular war in Iraq. The anti-war position gained renewed support and attention in the buildup to the 2003 invasion of Iraq by the U.S. and its allies. Millions of people staged mass protests across the world in the immediate prelude to the invasion, and demonstrations and other forms of anti-war activism have continued throughout

5643-585: A second time. Pat Nixon did not always enjoy public life, being embarrassed, for example, by the need to reveal how little the family owned in the Checkers speech. She still managed to be supportive of her husband's ambitions. Nixon believed that with the Democrats torn over the issue of the Vietnam War , a Republican had a good chance of winning, although he expected the election to be as close as in 1960. An exceptionally tumultuous primary election season began as

5814-434: A serious contender by both Gallup polls and members of the press. He was even placed on a primary ballot as an active candidate by Oregon's secretary of state. As late as two months before the 1964 Republican National Convention , however, Nixon fulfilled his promise to remain out of the presidential nomination process and instead endorsed Arizona senator Barry Goldwater , the eventual Republican nominee. When Goldwater won

5985-842: A slogan carried by protestors during New York City's 1967 Spring Mobilization march. On April 15, 1967, the National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam staged an improvised anti-war demonstration in New York City titled Spring Mobilization to End the War. The march went from Central Park to the United Nations , with over 400,000 attendees. Speakers included Martin Luther King Jr. , Harry Belafonte , James Bevel , and Dr. Benjamin Spock . During this march, about 20 veterans of

6156-474: A spirit of nonconformism, peace, and anti-establishmentarianism. This anti-war sentiment developed during a time of unprecedented student activism and right on the heels of the Civil Rights Movement , and was reinforced in numbers by the demographically significant baby boomers . It quickly grew to include a wide and varied cross-section of Americans from all walks of life. The anti-Vietnam war movement

6327-409: A volley of thrown objects. At his hotel, Nixon faced another mob, and one demonstrator spat on him. In Caracas , Venezuela, Nixon and his wife were spat on by anti-American demonstrators and their limousine was attacked by a pipe-wielding mob. According to Ambrose, Nixon's courageous conduct "caused even some of his bitterest enemies to give him some grudging respect". Reporting to the cabinet after

6498-665: A would-be attack on Iran. Anti-war/Putin demonstrations took place in Moscow "opposing the War in Donbass ", i.e., in Eastern Ukraine . In May 2021, protests broke out following a flare-up of the Israel–Palestine conflict . In the U.S., thousands gathered in at least seven major cities across the country in solidarity with Palestinians. The 2021 conflict lasted from 6 May until 21 May when

6669-547: Is often considered to have been a major factor affecting America's involvement in the war itself. Many Vietnam veterans , including future Secretary of State and U.S. Senator John Kerry and disabled veteran Ron Kovic , spoke out against the Vietnam War on their return to the United States. Mrs. Ngo Ba Thanh , a Vietnamese peace activist, aligned her Vietnamese Women's Movement for the Right to Live with international activists of

6840-516: Is the opposition to all use of military force during conflicts, or to anti-war books, paintings, and other works of art. Some activists distinguish between anti-war movements and peace movements . Anti-war activists work through protest and other grassroots means to attempt to pressure a government (or governments) to put an end to a particular war or conflict or to prevent one from arising. Substantial opposition to British war intervention in America led

7011-668: The 1960 presidential election to John F. Kennedy . After his loss in the 1962 race for governor of California, he announced his retirement from politics. However, in 1968 , he made another run for the presidency and narrowly defeated the Democratic incumbent vice president Hubert Humphrey . Seeking to bring the North Vietnamese to the negotiating table, Nixon ordered military operations and carpet bombing campaigns in Cambodia. He ended American combat involvement in Vietnam in 1973 and

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7182-470: The 1966 congressional elections in which he campaigned for many Republicans and sought to regain seats lost in the Johnson landslide. Nixon was credited with helping Republicans win major electoral gains that year. In 1967, Nixon was approached by an associate at his firm in Leonard Garment about a case involving the press and perceived invasion of privacy. Garment suggested Nixon to argue on behalf of

7353-799: The Apollo 11 Moon landing, and the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency and Occupational Safety and Health Administration . Nixon's second term ended early when he became the only U.S. president to resign from office, as a result of the Watergate scandal . Nixon was born into a poor family of Quakers in Yorba Linda , Southern California . He graduated from Duke Law School in 1937, practiced law in California, and then moved with his wife Pat to Washington, D.C. , in 1942 to work for

7524-718: The British House of Commons on 27 February 1783 to vote against further war in America , paving the way for the Second Rockingham ministry and the Peace of Paris . Substantial antiwar sentiment developed in the United States roughly between the end of the War of 1812 and the commencement of the Civil War in what is called the Antebellum era . A similar movement developed in England during

7695-549: The Environmental Protection Agency and passed legislation such as the Endangered Species Act and the Clean Air Acts . He implemented the ratified Twenty-sixth Amendment , which lowered the voting age from 21 to 18, and enforced the desegregation of Southern schools. Under Nixon, relations with Native Americans improved, seeing an increase in self-determination for Native Americans and his administration rescinded

7866-594: The Herter Committee , which went to Europe to report on the need for U.S. foreign aid. Nixon was the youngest member of the committee and the only Westerner. Advocacy by Herter Committee members, including Nixon, led to congressional passage of the Marshall Plan . In his memoirs, Nixon wrote that he joined the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) "at the end of 1947". However, he

8037-650: The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), it is surprising how great the resistance to Milošević's propaganda was among Serbs, given that and the lack of access to alternative news. The most famous associations and NGOs who marked the anti-war ideas and movements in Serbia were the Center for Antiwar Action , Women in Black , Humanitarian Law Center and Belgrade Circle . The Rimtutituki

8208-667: The Stop the War Committee . In Britain, in 1914, the Public Schools Officers' Training Corps annual camp was held at Tidworth Camp , near Salisbury Plain . Head of the British Army Lord Kitchener was to review the cadets , but the immenence of the war prevented him. General Horace Smith-Dorrien was sent instead. He surprised the two-or-three thousand cadets by declaring (in the words of Donald Christopher Smith,

8379-719: The Tet Offensive was launched in January 1968. President Johnson withdrew as a candidate in March, after an unexpectedly poor showing in the New Hampshire primary. In June, Senator Robert F. Kennedy , a Democratic candidate, was assassinated just moments after his victory in the California primary. On the Republican side, Nixon's main opposition was Michigan governor George Romney , though New York governor Nelson Rockefeller and California governor Ronald Reagan each hoped to be nominated in

8550-461: The Vietnam War gathered under an impromptu banner reading 'Vietnam Veterans Against the War.' This group included poet and author Jan Barry ( a.k.a. Jan Barry Crumb), a West Point dropout who had served in the war as a radio specialist in an Army unit of a fixed-wing supply aircraft. On June 1, 1967, six veterans met in Jan Barry's apartment to found a new anti-war organization, "at a time when

8721-585: The Vietnam War . The war in Iraq has also generated significant artistic anti-war works, including the American filmmaker Michael Moore 's Fahrenheit 9/11 , which holds the box-office record for documentary films, and the Canadian musician Neil Young 's 2006 album Living with War . Various people have discussed the philosophical question of whether war is inevitable, and how it can be avoided; in other words, what are

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8892-604: The Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF) and Women Strike for Peace . Her imprisonment and publications about the war brought international attention to the social and economic issues created by the war and fostered international opposition to it. Her arrest and lack of a trial sparked Bella Abzug and WILPF members to write to the United States Congress and petition President Richard Nixon to appeal to South Vietnamese officials for her release, which

9063-637: The Yom Kippur War , a conflict which led to the oil crisis at home. From 1973, ongoing revelations from the Nixon administration's involvement in Watergate eroded his support in Congress and the country. The scandal began with a break-in at the Democratic National Committee office, ordered by administration officials, and escalated despite cover-up efforts by the Nixon administration, of which he

9234-406: The bombing of Dresden in World War II , which Vonnegut witnessed. The second half of the 20th century also witnessed a strong anti-war presence in other art forms, including anti-war music such as " Eve of Destruction ", " And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda " and " One Tin Soldier ", and films such as M*A*S*H and Die Brücke , opposing the Cold War in general or specific conflicts such as

9405-465: The federal government . After serving active duty in the Naval Reserve during World War II , he was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 . His work on the Alger Hiss case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist . In 1950 , he was elected to the Senate . Nixon was the running mate of Eisenhower, the Republican Party's presidential nominee in the 1952 election , and served for eight years as vice president. He narrowly lost

9576-408: The hippie counterculture and the anti-war demonstrators. Agnew became an increasingly vocal critic of these groups, solidifying Nixon's position with the right. Nixon waged a prominent television advertising campaign, meeting with supporters in front of cameras. He stressed that the crime rate was too high, and attacked what he perceived as a surrender of the United States' nuclear superiority by

9747-474: The military draft the same year. His visit to China in 1972 eventually led to diplomatic relations between the two nations , and he then finalized the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty with the Soviet Union. Domestically, Nixon pushed for the Controlled Substances Act and began the war on drugs . Nixon's first term took place at the height of the American environmental movement and enacted many progressive environmental policy shifts; his administration created

9918-545: The motivations for entering World War I, but many were willing to fight later in the Spanish Civil War , indicating that pacifism was not always the motivation. These trends were depicted in novels such as All Quiet on the Western Front , For Whom the Bell Tolls and Johnny Got His Gun . Opposition to World War II was most vocal during its early period, and stronger still before it started while appeasement and isolationism were considered viable diplomatic options. Communist-led organizations, including veterans of

10089-402: The post-war realignment , and the opposition resumed. The grim realities of modern combat, and the nature of mechanized society ensured that the anti-war viewpoint found presentation in Catch-22 , Slaughterhouse-Five and The Tin Drum . This sentiment grew in strength as the Cold War seemed to present the situation of an unending series of conflicts, which were fought at terrible cost to

10260-410: The termination policy . Nixon imposed wage and price controls for 90 days, began the war on cancer , and presided over the Apollo 11 Moon landing, which signaled the end of the Space Race . He was re-elected in 1972 , when he defeated George McGovern in one of the largest landslide victories in American history . In his second term, Nixon ordered an airlift to resupply Israeli materiel losses in

10431-408: The " Pumpkin Papers ". Hiss was convicted of perjury in 1950 for denying under oath he had passed documents to Chambers. In 1948, Nixon successfully cross-filed as a candidate in his district, winning both major party primaries, and was comfortably reelected. In 1949, Nixon began to consider running for the United States Senate against the Democratic incumbent, Sheridan Downey , and entered

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10602-540: The Americans brought medicine and candy." I believe there is something in all of us that would wave a flag for the dream of an America that brings medicine and candy, but we are gathered here today, waving no flags, in the ruins of that dream. Some of you saw right away the evil of what was going on; others of us one by one, adding and re-adding the balance sheet of what was happening and what could possibly be accomplished finally saw that no goal could be so laudable, or defense so necessary, as to justify what we have visited upon

10773-420: The April 11, 1971 New York Times . In May 1971, the VVAW and former Army chaplain Reverend Jackson Day conducted a service for veterans at the Walter Reed Army Medical Center . Patients were brought into the chapel in wheelchairs. The service included time for individual prayers or public confession, and many veterans took the floor to recount things they had done or seen for which they felt guilt or anger. This

10944-419: The Congressional Record by Senator Mark Hatfield (R-OR). In 1972, VVAW continued antiwar protests, and released Winter Soldier , a 16mm black-and-white documentary film showing participants giving testimony at the 1971 hearing, as well as footage of the Dewey Canyon III week of protest events. This film is on limited distribution and is available on DVD. This peaceful anti-war protest organized by VVAW

11115-411: The Democrats. Nixon's Democratic opponent in the general election was Vice President Hubert Humphrey , who was nominated at a convention marked by violent protests . Throughout the campaign, Nixon portrayed himself as a figure of stability during this period of national unrest and upheaval. He appealed to what he later called the " silent majority " of socially conservative Americans who disliked

11286-412: The Democrats. Nixon promised " peace with honor " in the Vietnam War and proclaimed that "new leadership will end the war and win the peace in the Pacific". He did not give specifics of how he hoped to end the war, resulting in media intimations that he must have a "secret plan". His slogan of "Nixon's the One" proved to be effective. Johnson's negotiators hoped to reach a truce in Vietnam, or at least

11457-452: The Director-General of the International Atomic Energy Agency , Mohamed ElBaradei , a former United Nations weapons inspector in Iraq , Scott Ritter , Nobel Prize winners including Shirin Ebadi , Mairead Corrigan-Maguire and Betty Williams , Harold Pinter and Jody Williams , Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament , Code Pink , the Non-Aligned Movement of 118 states, and the Arab League , have publicly stated their opposition to

11628-492: The FBI's William C. Sullivan who by 1961 headed domestic intelligence under J. Edgar Hoover . By May 1948, Nixon had co-sponsored the Mundt–Nixon Bill to implement "a new approach to the complicated problem of internal communist subversion   ... It provided for registration of all Communist Party members and required a statement of the source of all printed and broadcast material issued by organizations that were found to be Communist fronts." He served as floor manager for

11799-438: The Hill family in Time, Inc. v. Hill at the Supreme Court of the United States . Nixon studied strenuously in the months prior to the oral argument before the Court. While the final decision was in favor of Time Inc., Nixon was encouraged by the praise he received for his argument. It was the first and only case he argued in front of the Supreme Court. At the end of 1967, Nixon told his family he planned to run for president

11970-422: The Justice Department lawyers for requesting the court order and then not enforcing it. Veterans staged a candlelight march around the White House, while carrying a huge American flag upside down in the historic international signal of distress. On Friday, April 23, more than 800 veterans individually tossed their medals, ribbons, discharge papers, and other war mementos on the steps of the U.S. Capitol , rejecting

12141-554: The Labor Day weekend of September 4–7, 1970, Operation RAW ("Rapid American Withdrawal") took place. It was a three-day protest march from Morristown, New Jersey , to Valley Forge State Park in Pennsylvania by over 200 veterans. They were joined by members of "Nurses for Peace", MAN - Making a Nation and other peace groups. The march was designed to dramatize a Vietnam-type search and destroy mission as they passed through various towns including Bernardsville , Far Hills , Lamington and Whitehouse Station . Upon entering each town along

12312-685: The Lincoln Memorial Bridge to the Arlington National Cemetery gate, just beneath the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier . Reverend Jackson H. Day, who had a few days earlier resigned his military chaplainship, conducted a memorial service for their fellows. He said: Maybe there are some others here like me—who wanted desperately to believe that what we were doing was acceptable, who hung on the words of "revolutionary development" and "winning

12483-476: The Navy, Nixon became a very good five-card stud poker player, helping finance his first congressional campaign with the winnings. In a 1983 interview, he described turning down an invitation to dine with Charles Lindbergh because he was hosting a game. Republicans in California's 12th congressional district were frustrated by their inability to defeat Democratic representative Jerry Voorhis , and they sought

12654-689: The Nixon campaign suggesting that Douglas's voting record was similar to that of New York Congressman Vito Marcantonio , reputed to be a communist, and their political views must be nearly identical. Nixon won the election by almost twenty percentage points. During the campaign, Nixon was first called "Tricky Dick" by his opponents for his campaign tactics. In the Senate, Nixon took a prominent position in opposing global communism , traveling frequently and speaking out against it. He maintained friendly relations with Joseph McCarthy , his fellow anti-communist , controversial U.S. Senate colleague from Wisconsin , but

12825-610: The President announced that Nixon would again be his running mate. Eisenhower and Nixon were reelected by a comfortable margin in the November 1956 election . In early 1957, Nixon undertook another foreign trip, this time to Africa. On his return, he helped shepherd the Civil Rights Act of 1957 through Congress. The bill was weakened in the Senate, and civil rights leaders were divided over whether Eisenhower should sign it. Nixon advised

12996-502: The President to sign the bill, which he did. Eisenhower suffered a mild stroke in November 1957, and Nixon gave a press conference, assuring the nation that the Cabinet was functioning well as a team during Eisenhower's brief illness. On April 27, 1958, Richard and Pat Nixon reluctantly embarked on a goodwill tour of South America . In Montevideo , Uruguay, Nixon made an impromptu visit to

13167-655: The Republican Party. On May 19, 1948, the bill passed the House by 319 to 58, but later it failed to pass the Senate. The Nixon Library cites this bill's passage as Nixon's first significant victory in Congress. Nixon first gained national attention in August 1948, when his persistence as a House Un-American Activities Committee member helped break the Alger Hiss spy case. While many doubted Whittaker Chambers 's allegations that Hiss,

13338-600: The Republican primaries and chose former Massachusetts senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. as his running mate. His Democratic opponent was John F. Kennedy and the race remained close for the duration. Nixon campaigned on his experience, but Kennedy called for new blood and claimed the Eisenhower–Nixon administration had allowed the Soviet Union to overtake the U.S. in quantity and quality of ballistic missiles . While Kennedy faced issues about his Catholicism, Nixon remained

13509-675: The Revolutionary Union. A reconstituted group of non Marxist members of the Vietnam Veterans Against the War filed and won a lawsuit prohibiting the RU dominated group from using the VVAW name, logos and materials. The RU group organization was renamed Vietnam Veterans Against the War Anti-Imperialist (VVAW-AI). Deep animosity still exists between the two organizations. VVAW has survived the conflict with RCP and changes after

13680-714: The Senate Foreign Relations Committee on proposals to end the war. Other veterans, still angry at the insult to the Gold Star Mothers when they were refused entry to Arlington National Cemetery the previous day, marched back to the front gate. After initial refusal of entry, the veterans were finally allowed in. Veterans performed guerrilla theater on the Capitol steps, re-enacting combat scenes and search and destroy missions from Vietnam. Later that evening, Democratic Senators Claiborne Pell and Philip Hart held

13851-864: The South Vietnam Government consulate in San Francisco. In 1976, VVAW members occupied the Statue of Liberty a second time to bring renewed attention to veteran issues. On May 11, 1975, the VVAW staged The War Is Over concert and rally in New York City Central Park's Sheep Meadow . The New York Times reported that the concert had 50,000 attendees, which the VVAW described as "peaceniks" (a play on beatniks ). Performers included Phil Ochs , Joan Baez , Pete Seeger , Tom Paxton , Paul Simon , Patti Smith , Richie Havens , Harry Belafonte and Peter Yarrow . Among its most prominent organizers

14022-570: The Spanish Civil War, opposed the war during the period starting with the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact but then turned into hawks after Germany invaded the Soviet Union . The war seemed, for a time, to set anti-war movements at a distinct social disadvantage; very few, mostly ardent pacifists , continued to argue against the war and its results at the time. However, the Cold War followed with

14193-445: The Supreme Court should have ruled on the constitutionality of the war. The veterans sang "God Bless America" and 110 were arrested for disturbing the peace, and were later released. John Kerry , as VVAW spokesman, testified against the war for two hours in front of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee before a packed room. The veterans lobbied all day on Capitol. A Washington District Court judge dissolved his injunction order, rebuking

14364-432: The U.S. media's inaccurate coverage of the war. There were also hearings on proposals to end the United States' participation in the war. The vets planted a tree on the mall as part of a ceremony symbolizing the veterans' wish to preserve life and the environment. Senators George McGovern and Mark Hatfield helped arrange at least $ 50,000 in fundraising for Dewey Canyon III. The VVAW paid $ 94,000 to advertise this event in

14535-650: The US government to take military action against that country in the future. These reports, and the concurrent escalation of tensions between Iran and some Western governments, prompted the formation of grassroots organisations, including Campaign Against Sanctions and Military Intervention in Iran in the US and the United Kingdom , to oppose potential military strikes on Iran. Additionally, several individuals, grassroots organisations and international governmental organisations, including

14706-666: The United States, the most prominent of which being the American Peace Society . Numerous periodicals (such as The Advocate of Peace ) and books were also produced. The Book of Peace , an anthology produced by the American Peace Society in 1845, must surely rank as one of the most remarkable works of antiwar literature ever produced. A recurring theme in this movement was the call for the establishment of an international court to adjudicate disputes between nations. Another distinct feature of antebellum antiwar literature

14877-509: The VVAW changed its name to VVAW/WSO (Winter Soldier Organization), and opened its membership to non-veterans to increase its base. Members of Bob Avakian 's militant Revolutionary Communist Party gained influential positions in the VVAW. This reached its peak in 1975, when the RU-controlled national office voted to remove members, expel chapters and place the organization into ideological uniformity. They later voted to dissolve themselves into

15048-503: The VVAW. On December 26, 1971, fifteen VVAW activists barricaded and occupied the Statue of Liberty for two days to bring attention to their cause. Simultaneous protests took place at other sites across the country, such as the historic Betsy Ross House in Philadelphia (for 45 minutes) and Travis Air Force Base in California (for 12 hours). VVAW members in California also briefly occupied

15219-470: The Vietnam War and the significance of those awards. Among those that threw medals were Sen. John Kerry. According to internal White House memos between John Dean and Charles Colson , they had no idea how to handle the discarded medals and finally passed them on to the Congressional Medal of Honor Society. Several hearings in Congress were held that week regarding atrocities committed in Vietnam and

15390-414: The Whittier police chief, but they broke up in 1935. After graduating summa cum laude with a Bachelor of Arts degree in history from Whittier in 1934, Nixon was accepted at the new Duke University School of Law , which offered scholarships to top students, including Nixon. It paid high salaries to its professors, many of whom had national or international reputations. The number of scholarships

15561-673: The Winter Soldier Investigation to gather and present testimony from soldiers about war crimes being committed in Southeast Asia; they intended to demonstrate these resulted from American war policies. The event was boycotted by much of the mainstream media, although the Detroit Free Press covered it daily; its journalists began their own investigations to follow the testimony. They found no fraudulent participants or fraudulent testimony. Veterans applying to participate in

15732-474: The argument of the costs of maintaining the present conflict not being worth the gains that can be made, the appeal to end the horrors of war, and the argument of war being waged for the profit of particular interests. During the war, the New York Draft Riots were started as violent protests against Lincoln's Enrollment Act of Conscription to draft men to fight in the war. The outrage over conscription

15903-783: The ceasefire, protests continued into June, with, for example, protestors in Oakland , California, attempting to block an Israeli cargo ship from entering the Port of Oakland on 4 June. Beginning in 2022, the anti-war movement was renewed following tensions between Russia and Ukraine . Protests escalated on 24 February 2022, after Russia invaded Ukraine. Russian President Vladimir Putin introduced prison sentences of up to 15 years for publishing "fake news" about Russian military operations. As of December 2022, more than 4,000 people, including Russian opposition politicians and journalists, had been prosecuted under Russia's "fake news" laws for criticizing

16074-686: The concept that those who were drafted were from poor families and would be fighting a war in place of privileged individuals who were able to avoid the draft and military service, and to the lack of input in decision making that those who would die in the conflict would have in deciding to engage in it. In 1933, the Oxford Union resolved in its Oxford Pledge , "That this House will in no circumstances fight for its King and Country." Many war veterans , including US General Smedley Butler , spoke out against wars and war profiteering on their return to civilian life. Veterans were still extremely cynical about

16245-487: The day speaking with the veterans. The guerrilla theater re-enactments were moved to the steps of the Justice Department. Many veterans were prepared to be arrested for camping on the National Mall, but none were, as park police defied orders to make arrests. Headlines the following day read, "Vets Overrule Supreme Court". On April 22, a large group of veterans demonstrated on the steps of the Supreme Court, saying that

16416-525: The defeat was widely believed to be the end of his political career. In an impromptu concession speech the morning after the election, Nixon blamed the media for favoring his opponent, saying, "You won't have Nixon to kick around anymore because, gentlemen, this is my last press conference." The California defeat was highlighted in the November 11, 1962, episode of Howard K. Smith 's ABC News show, Howard K. Smith: News and Comment , titled "The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon". Alger Hiss appeared on

16587-502: The effect this had upon cops and lots of other people. Holy shit! These people are for real—a whole bunch of medals". Despite its rapid foundation and initial growth, the organization's trajectory was difficult to maintain. This was in part due to the November 1968 election of Richard Nixon , whose presidency "created a discouraging atmosphere for dissent that lasted through most of 1969". According to VVAW, its founders organized discussions for veterans on readjustment issues in 1970. This

16758-569: The election, with Kennedy winning the popular vote by only 112,827 votes (0.2 percent). There were charges of voter fraud in Texas and Illinois, both states won by Kennedy. Nixon refused to consider contesting the election, feeling a lengthy controversy would diminish the United States in the eyes of the world and that the uncertainty would hurt U.S. interests. At the end of his term of office as vice president in January 1961, Nixon and his family returned to California, where he practiced law and wrote

16929-455: The end of the war. Historian Andrew Hunt said it was "an ineffectual fragment of its former self. ... VVAW never ceased to exist. It split, dwindled, and underwent additional transformation. Yet it did not fold." Anti-war An anti-war movement (also antiwar ) is a social movement , usually in opposition to a particular nation's decision to start or carry on an armed conflict . The term anti-war can also refer to pacifism , which

17100-501: The five Nixon boys were named after historic British kings; Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart . Nixon's early life was marked by hardship, and he later quoted Dwight Eisenhower in describing his boyhood: "We were poor, but the glory of it was we didn't know it". The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the family moved to Whittier, California . In an area of East Whittier with many Quakers, Frank Nixon opened

17271-582: The group, 2,000 members demonstrated in Washington, D.C., in July 1974, demanding universal amnesty for draft resisters and deserters , and universal discharge with benefits for all Vietnam veterans. Historian Andrew E. Hunt concluded, "Detractors have always cited numbers when criticizing VVAW. At the pinnacle of VVAW's success in 1972, membership rolls listed almost 25,000 card carriers, or fewer than 1 percent of all eligible Vietnam era veterans. ... By emphasizing

17442-418: The hearts and minds of the people." We had been told that on the balance the war was a good thing and we tried to make it a good thing; all of us can tell of somebody who helped out an orphanage, or of men like one sergeant who adopted a crippled Vietnamese child; and even at My Lai the grief of one of the survivors was mixed with bewilderment as he told a reporter, "I just don't understand it ... always before,

17613-414: The high praise he received for his conduct during the crisis ... he made no attempt to seize power". His spirits buoyed, Nixon sought a second term, but some of Eisenhower's aides aimed to displace him. In a December 1955 meeting, Eisenhower proposed that Nixon not run for reelection and instead become a Cabinet officer in a second Eisenhower administration, to give him administrative experience before

17784-441: The investigation were asked if they had witnessed or participated in any of the following: search and destroy missions, crop destruction, and POW mistreatment. This event was estimated to have cost the VVAW $ 50,000–$ 75,000. Funds were raised by several celebrity peace activists; actress Jane Fonda gained more than $ 10,000 in donations for this cause from 54 college campuses. Winter Soldier Investigation testimonies were read into

17955-561: The large crowd and expressed support. VVAW members defied a Justice Department-ordered injunction against camping on the Mall and set up an installation. Later that day, the District Court of Appeals lifted the injunction. Some members visited their Congressmen to lobby against the U.S. participation in the war. The VVAW presented Congress with a 16-point suggested resolution for ending the war. On April 20, 1971, 200 veterans listened to hearings by

18126-625: The last minute due to budget cuts. He was admitted to the California bar in 1937, and began practicing in Whittier with the law firm Wingert and Bewley in the National Bank of Whittier Building . His work concentrated on commercial litigation for local petroleum companies and other corporate matters, as well as on wills . Nixon was reluctant to work on divorce cases, disliking frank sexual talk from women. In 1938, he opened up his own branch of Wingert and Bewley in La Habra, California , and became

18297-417: The leaders. Among the candidates considered along with Nixon were Senator Robert A. Taft of Ohio, Governor Alfred Driscoll of New Jersey, and Senator Everett Dirksen of Illinois. On the campaign trail, Eisenhower spoke of his plans for the country, and left the negative campaigning to his running mate . In mid-September, the Republican ticket faced a major crisis when the media reported that Nixon had

18468-476: The line for the country over there, we should be willing to put our lives on the line for the country over here. The plan was voted down, although there's a "difference of opinion" as to how close the vote was. It is not known if John Kerry , a 2004 presidential candidate who was Secretary of State under President Barack Obama , attended this meeting. Kerry's campaign said he was not there and had already resigned from VVAW. In 1973, after months of heated debate,

18639-593: The loading and unloading of the transport aircraft. For this service, he received a Navy Letter of Commendation , awarded a Navy Commendation Ribbon, which was later updated to the Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal , from his commanding officer for "meritorious and efficient performance of duty as Officer in Charge of the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command". Upon his return to the U.S., Nixon

18810-454: The low percentage of Vietnam veterans who paid dues to VVAW, opponents have sought to dismiss the significance and impact of the organization." “A U.S. infantry company has just come through here. If you had been Vietnamese, we might have burned your house, shot you and your dog, raped your wife and daughter, burned the town and tortured its citizens.” -Text on pamphlet passed out by VVAW marchers to residents of Solebury, Pennsylvania During

18981-418: The mainstream media was wholeheartedly...promoting the war." This group likely comprised 24-year-old Jan Barry, Ron Kovic , Skip Delano, photographer Sheldon Ramsdell, and former Black Panther Al Hubbard (whom Barry described as ). Other early members included David Braum, John Talbot, Art Blank, Steve Greene, Frank "Rocky" Rocks, and Stan Scholl. The same year, 24-year-old veteran Carl Douglas Rogers held

19152-795: The march, the group made sweeps, took and interrogated prisoners, seized property and cleared homes with the aid of previously planted " guerrilla theater " actors portraying civilians. The 86-mile-long march culminated in a four-hour mass rally at Valley Forge attended by more than 1,500 people. The honorary commander was retired Army Brigadier General Hugh B. Hester . A partial list of sponsors included United States Senators George McGovern and Edmund Muskie , Rep. John Conyers and Paul O'Dwyer . Sponsors scheduled to speak included Rep. Allard Lowenstein , Bella Absug , Rev. James Bevel , Jane Fonda , Mark Lane , Donald Sutherland and Vietnam Vets Joe Kennedy and John Kerry . Mike Lerner, and Army First Lt. Louis Font also spoke. In January 1971, VVAW sponsored

19323-426: The millions of Americans against this war. We support our buddies still in Vietnam. We want them home alive. We want them home now. We want to prevent any other young men from being sent to Vietnam. We want to end the war now. We believe this is the highest form of patriotism. Beginning in 1968, the VVAW protestors would specifically wear military uniforms while denouncing the war. In 1997, Barry stated, "You can imagine

19494-469: The most hardcore hawks for last—and we would shoot them all. ... I was serious. I felt that I spent two years killing women and children in their own fucking homes. These are the guys that fucking made the policy, and these were the guys that were responsible for it, and these were the guys that were voting to continue the fucking war when the public was against it. I felt that if we really believed in what we were doing, and if we were willing to put our lives on

19665-575: The most massive protest called " The Black Ribbon March " in solidarity with people in Sarajevo . It is estimated that between 50,000 and 200,000 people deserted from the Yugoslav People's Army , while between 100,000 and 150,000 people emigrated from Serbia refusing to participate in the war. According to professor Renaud De la Brosse, senior lecturer at the University of Reims and a witness called by

19836-545: The most often cited pieces of anti-war media. Pablo Picasso 's 1937 painting Guernica on the other hand, used abstraction, rather than realism, to generate an emotional response to the loss of life from the Condor Legion and Aviazione Legionaria 's bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War . The American author Kurt Vonnegut used science fiction themes in his 1969 novel Slaughterhouse-Five , depicting

20007-506: The necessities of peace. Various intellectuals and others have discussed it from an intellectual and philosophical point of view, not only in public, but participating or leading anti-war campaigns despite its differing from their main areas of expertise, leaving their professional comfort zones to warn against or fight against wars. Here is a list of notable anti-war scientists and intellectuals: Richard Nixon Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994)

20178-559: The next four years, those of us who survived the holocaust-probably not more than one-quarter of us – learned how right the General's prognosis was and how courageous he had been to utter it." Having voiced these sentiments did not hinder Smith-Dorrien's career, or prevent him from carrying out his duty in the First World War to the best of his abilities. With the increasing mechanization of war, opposition to its horrors grew, particularly in

20349-423: The nomination, Nixon was selected to introduce him at the convention. Nixon felt that Goldwater was unlikely to win, but campaigned for him loyally. In the 1964 general election , Goldwater lost in a landslide to Johnson and Republicans experienced heavy losses in Congress and among state governors. Nixon was one of the few leading Republicans not blamed for the disastrous results, and he sought to build on that in

20520-456: The occupation. The primary opposition within the U.S. to the continued occupation of Iraq has come from the grassroots . Opposition to the conflict , how it had been fought, and complications during the aftermath period divided public sentiment in the U.S., resulting in majority public opinion turning against the war for the first time in the spring of 2004, a turn which has held since. The American country music band Dixie Chicks opposition to

20691-637: The organization after Playboy Magazine donated a full-page VVAW ad in its February edition. The national televised coverage of VVAW's week-long April 1971 protest in Washington, D.C. , and smaller protests in subsequent months brought attention. A Federal Bureau of Investigation informant within the organization noted in March 1971 that membership had grown from 1,500 to over 12,000 in the past four months. An article in Ramparts , that year said VVAW had at that time approximately 11,000 members and employed 26 regional coordinators. Higher estimates exist, including

20862-524: The original Phoenix Program , CIA operations during the Vietnam War to assassinate the Viet Cong. Camil's Phoenix Project targeted the Southern senatorial leadership who were backing the war, including John Tower , Strom Thurmond , and John Stennis . Camil later said: I did not think it was terrible at the time. My plan was that, on the last day we would go into the [congressional] offices we would schedule

21033-655: The outbreaks of the Yugoslav Wars , numerous anti-war movements developed in Serbia . The anti-war protests in Belgrade were held mostly because of opposition the Battle of Vukovar , Siege of Dubrovnik and Siege of Sarajevo , while protesters demanded the referendum on a declaration of war and disruption of military conscription . More than 50,000 people participated in many protests, and more than 150,000 people took part in

21204-486: The people of Indochina. The gate to the cemetery had been closed and locked upon word of their impending arrival; the Gold Star mothers placed the wreaths outside the gate and departed. The march re-formed and continued to the Capitol, with Congressman Pete McCloskey joining the procession en route. McCloskey and fellow Representatives Bella Abzug , Don Edwards , Shirley Chisholm , Edmund Muskie and Ogden Reid addressed

21375-477: The position throughout the latter part of 1941. Both Nixon and his wife believed he was limiting his prospects by remaining in Whittier. He was assigned to the tire rationing division, where he was tasked with replying to correspondence. He did not enjoy the role, and four months later applied to join the United States Navy . Though he could have claimed an exemption from the draft as a birthright Quaker, or

21546-578: The president's initiatives and worked energetically to accomplish White House objectives. Because of the collaboration between these two leaders, Nixon deserves the title, "the first modern vice president". Despite intense campaigning by Nixon, who reprised his strong attacks on the Democrats, the Republicans lost control of both houses of Congress in the 1954 elections . These losses caused Nixon to contemplate leaving politics once he had served out his term. On September 24, 1955, President Eisenhower suffered

21717-422: The program, and many members of the public complained that it was unseemly to give a convicted felon air time to attack a former vice president. The furor drove Smith and his program from the air, and public sympathy for Nixon grew. In 1963 the Nixon family traveled to Europe, where Nixon gave press conferences and met with leaders of the countries he visited. The family moved to New York City, where Nixon became

21888-415: The race in November. Downey, faced with a bitter primary battle with Representative Helen Gahagan Douglas , announced his retirement in March 1950. Nixon and Douglas won the primary elections and engaged in a contentious campaign in which the ongoing Korean War was a major issue. Nixon tried to focus attention on Douglas's liberal voting record. As part of that effort, a " Pink Sheet " was distributed by

22059-536: The rest of the night at the Lexington Public Works Garage. Julian Soshnick , an attorney who represented the Boston Strangler , was among those who volunteered to represent the demonstrators. He worked out a deal with Concord Court Judge John Forte. The protesters later paid a $ 5 fine each and were released. The mass arrests caused a community backlash and eventually resulted in positive coverage for

22230-480: The same period. The movement reflected both strict pacifist and more moderate non-interventionist positions. Many prominent intellectuals of the time, including Ralph Waldo Emerson , Henry David Thoreau ( see Civil Disobedience ) and William Ellery Channing contributed literary works against war. Other names associated with the movement include William Ladd , Noah Worcester , Thomas Cogswell Upham , and Asa Mahan . Many peace societies were formed throughout

22401-520: The signers investigated by the FBI," it "was read into the Congressional Record ," and it "spawned similar ads in newspapers across the country," as well as attracting new VVAW members. The 1967 advertisement declared: We believe that the conflict in which the United States is engaged in Vietnam is wrong, unjustifiable and contrary to the principles on which this country was founded. We join the dissent of

22572-408: The sites of the Battle of Lexington and Concord and the Battle of Bunker Hill . The organizers' request to camp on the historic Lexington, Massachusetts Green was declined by the town. The VVAW and residents who supported them camped there anyway. At 2:30 a.m. on May 30, local and state police awoke and arrested 441 demonstrators for trespassing. They were transported on school buses to spend

22743-755: The subject of feature stories in the New York Post , The New York Times , Sunday Times Magazine , Redbook , and Eye ". Soon, the VVAW secured a desk and a telephone in the office of the Fifth Avenue Vietnam Peace Parade Committee in New York City . Also in 1967, the VVAW bought an advertisement in The New York Times , titled "Viet-Nam Veterans Speak Out". It featured the signatures of 65 veterans. According to Barry, it "shook up [Secretary of Defense] McNamara , who had

22914-453: The ticket was victorious in the November election . Eisenhower granted Nixon more responsibilities during his term than any previous vice president. Nixon attended Cabinet and National Security Council meetings and chaired them in Eisenhower's absence. A 1953 tour of the Far East succeeded in increasing local goodwill toward the United States and gave Nixon an appreciation of the region as

23085-598: The trip, Nixon claimed there was "absolute proof that [the protestors] were directed and controlled by a central Communist conspiracy." Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and his brother, Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles , both concurred with Nixon. In July 1959, President Eisenhower sent Nixon to the Soviet Union for the opening of the American National Exhibition in Moscow. On July 24, Nixon

23256-509: The wake of the First World War. European avant-garde cultural movements such as Dada were explicitly anti-war. The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 gave the American authorities the right to close newspapers and jailed individuals for having anti-war views. On 16 June 1918, Eugene V. Debs made an anti-war speech and was arrested under the Espionage Act of 1917. He

23427-643: The war caused many radio stations to stop playing their records, but who were supported in their anti-war stance by the equally anti-war country music legend Merle Haggard , who in the summer of 2003 released a song critical of US media coverage of the Iraq War. Anti-war groups protested during both the Democratic National Convention and 2008 Republican National Convention protests held in Saint Paul, Minnesota , in September 2008. Organised opposition to

23598-515: The war in Ukraine. Multiple protests against the war took place around the world since the start of the Israel–Hamas war , in support of Palestine mostly. English poet Robert Southey 's 1796 poem After Blenheim is an early modern example of anti-war literature that was written generations after the Battle of Blenheim but while Britain was again at war against France. World War I produced

23769-537: The war. The fluctuating membership size has had varied estimates. The organization remained small until late 1969 when it gained several hundred new members. With the Nixon administration 's decision to invade Cambodia and the Kent State shootings in 1970, VVAW's visibility increased, and they attracted new members, increasing from 1,500 to almost 5,000. Membership passed 8,500 by January 1971, and thousands more flocked to

23940-532: The war. Perry wrote to Nixon in Baltimore , and after a night of excited conversation with his wife, Nixon gave Perry an enthused response, confirming that he was registered to vote in California at his parents' Whittier residence. Nixon flew to California and was selected by the committee. When he left the Navy at the start of 1946, Nixon and his wife returned to Whittier, where he began a year of intensive campaigning. He contended that Voorhis had been ineffective as

24111-451: The week. He played junior varsity football, and seldom missed a practice, though he rarely was used in games. He had greater success as a debater, winning a number of championships and taking his only formal tutelage in public speaking from Fullerton's Head of English, H. Lynn Sheller. Nixon later mused on Sheller's words, "Remember, speaking is conversation...don't shout at people. Talk to them. Converse with them." Nixon said he tried to use

24282-497: The younger generations. Organized opposition to U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War began slowly and in small numbers in 1964 on various college campuses in the United States and quickly as the war grew deadlier. In 1967 a coalition of antiwar activists formed the National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam which organized several large anti-war demonstrations between the late 1960s and 1972. Counter-cultural songs, organizations, plays and other literary works encouraged

24453-563: Was VVAW co-founder Carl Douglas Rogers. American photographer Allan Tannenbaum documented the event, and it was broadcast on WBAI . During a four-day series of meetings in Kansas City, Missouri , on November 12–15, 1971, Scott Camil , a radical VVAW southern coordinator, proposed assassinating the most conservative members of United States Congress , and other powerful opponents of the antiwar movement. According to interviews with VVAW members, Camil suggested "The Phoenix Project", named after

24624-464: Was a Quaker , and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith. Through his mother, Nixon was a descendant of the early English settler Thomas Cornell . Nixon's upbringing was influenced by Quaker observances of the time such as abstinence from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. He had four brothers: Harold (1909–1933), Donald (1914–1987), Arthur (1918–1925), and Edward (1930– 2019). Four of

24795-654: Was a rock supergroup featuring Ekatarina Velika , Električni Orgazam and Partibrejkers members, which was formed at the petition signing against mobilization in Belgrade. NATO bombing of Yugoslavia during the Kosovo War triggered debates over the legitimacy of the intervention . About 2,000 Serbian Americans and anti-war activists protested in New York City against NATO airstrikes, while more than 7,000 people protested in Sydney . The most massive protests were held in Greece , and demonstrations were also held in Italian cities, London, Moscow, Toronto , Berlin , Stuttgart , Salzburg and Skopje . There

24966-402: Was a predecessor to readjustment counselling at modern Vet Centers. The group helped draft legislation for education and job programs, and assisted veterans with post-war health care through the United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) hospital system, including assisting victims of Agent Orange and other chemical agents. The VVAW advocated amnesty for war resisters . Its insignia

25137-523: Was already a HUAC member in early February 1947, when he heard "Enemy Number One" Gerhard Eisler and his sister Ruth Fischer testify. On February 18, 1947, Nixon referred to Eisler's belligerence toward HUAC in his maiden speech to the House. Also by early February 1947, fellow U.S. Representative Charles J. Kersten had introduced him to Father John Francis Cronin in Baltimore. Cronin shared with Nixon his 1945 privately circulated paper "The Problem of American Communism in 1945", with much information from

25308-426: Was appointed the administrative officer of the Alameda Naval Air Station in Alameda, California . In January 1945, he was transferred to the Bureau of Aeronautics office in Philadelphia , where he helped negotiate the termination of World War II contracts, and received his second letter of commendation, from the Secretary of the Navy for "meritorious service, tireless effort, and devotion to duty". Later, Nixon

25479-469: Was assigned to Marine Aircraft Group 25 and the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command (SCAT), where he supported the logistics of operations in the South Pacific theater during World War II . On October 1, 1943, Nixon was promoted to lieutenant . Nixon commanded the SCAT forward detachments at Vella Lavella , Bougainville , and finally at Nissan Island . His unit prepared manifests and flight plans for R4D/C-47 operations and supervised

25650-410: Was augmented by the ability to "buy" one's way out, which could be afforded only by the wealthy. After the war, The Red Badge of Courage described the chaos and sense of death which resulted from the changing style of combat: away from the set engagement, and towards two armies engaging in continuous battle over a wide area. William Thomas Stead formed an organization against the Second Boer War ,

25821-411: Was aware. On August 9, 1974, facing almost certain impeachment and removal from office, Nixon resigned. Afterward, he was issued a controversial pardon by his successor, Gerald Ford . During nearly 20 years of retirement, Nixon wrote nine books and undertook many foreign trips, rehabilitating his image into that of an elder statesman and leading expert on foreign affairs. On April 18, 1994, he suffered

25992-471: Was careful to keep some distance between himself and McCarthy's allegations. Nixon criticized President Harry S. Truman 's handling of the Korean War . He supported statehood for Alaska and Hawaii , voted in favor of civil rights for minorities, and supported federal disaster relief for India and Yugoslavia . He voted against price controls and other monetary restrictions, benefits for illegal immigrants, and public power. General Dwight D. Eisenhower

26163-457: Was clouded by public suspicion that Nixon viewed the office as a stepping stone for another presidential run, some opposition from the far-right of the party, and his own lack of interest in being California's governor. Nixon hoped a successful run would confirm his status as the nation's leading active Republican politician, and ensure he remained a major player in national politics. Instead, he lost to Brown by more than five percentage points, and

26334-410: Was convicted, sentenced to serve ten years in prison, but President Warren G. Harding commuted his sentence on 25 December 1921. In 1924, Ernst Friedrich published Krieg dem Krieg! ( War Against War! ): an album of photographs drawn from German military and medical archives from the first world war. In Regarding the Pain of Others Sontag describes the book as "photography as shock therapy" that

26505-477: Was designed by Barry, the first president of the organization. Barry appropriated the military insignia of the Military Assistance Command Vietnam , replacing its sword with a helmet and gun. In so doing, Barry "transform[ed] war symbols into peace symbols" similarly to the Veterans for Peace and Donald Duncan . Its creation coincided with the popularization of the G.I. Underground Press , wherein military personnel circulated publications satirizing and condemning

26676-431: Was designed to "horrify and demoralize". It was in the 1930s that the Western anti-war movement took shape, to which the political and organizational roots of most of the existing movement can be traced. Characteristics of the anti-war movement included opposition to the corporate interests perceived as benefiting from war, to the status quo which was trading the lives of the young for the comforts of those who are older,

26847-401: Was diagnosed with tuberculosis the previous year; when their mother took him to Arizona hoping to improve his health, the demands on Nixon increased, causing him to give up football. Nevertheless, Nixon graduated from Whittier High third in his class of 207. Nixon was offered a tuition grant to attend Harvard University , but with Harold's continued illness requiring his mother's care, Richard

27018-469: Was greatly reduced for second- and third-year students, creating intense competition. Nixon kept his scholarship, was elected president of the Duke Bar Association, inducted into the Order of the Coif , and graduated third in his class in June 1937. After graduating from Duke, Nixon initially hoped to join the FBI . He received no response to his letter of application, and learned years later that he had been hired, but his appointment had been canceled at

27189-400: Was heard by about 60 million Americans, which represented the largest audience ever for a television broadcast at that point. In the speech, Nixon emotionally defended himself, stating that the fund was not secret and that his donors had not received special favors. He painted himself as a patriot and man of modest means, mentioning that his wife had no mink coat; instead, he said, she wore

27360-416: Was initially little opposition to the 2001 Afghanistan War in the United States and the United Kingdom , which was seen as a response to the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks and was supported by most of the American public. Most vocal opposition came from pacifist groups and groups promoting a left-wing political agenda. Over time, opposition to the war in Afghanistan has grown more widespread, partly as

27531-483: Was named after two short military invasions of Laos by US and South Vietnamese forces. Dubbed "Operation Dewey Canyon III", it took place in Washington, D.C., April 19–23, 1971. Participants said it was "a limited incursion into the country of Congress." This week of protest events gained much greater media publicity and Vietnam veterans participation than earlier events. Led by Gold Star Mothers (mothers of soldiers killed in war), more than 1,100 veterans marched across

27702-423: Was needed at the store. He remained in his hometown, and enrolled at Whittier College in September 1930. His expenses were met by his maternal grandfather. Nixon played for the basketball team; he also tried out for football, and though he lacked the size to play, he remained on the team as a substitute and was noted for his enthusiasm. Instead of fraternities and sororities, Whittier had literary societies. Nixon

27873-425: Was nominated for president by the Republicans in 1952. He had no strong preference for a vice-presidential candidate, and Republican officeholders and party officials met in a " smoke-filled room " and recommended Nixon to the general, who agreed to the senator's selection. Nixon's youth (he was then 39), stance against communism, and political base in California—one of the largest states—were all seen as vote-winners by

28044-465: Was president of his eighth-grade class. His older brother Harold had attended Whittier High School , which his parents thought resulted in Harold's dissolute lifestyle, before he contracted tuberculosis (that killed him in 1933). They decided to send Nixon to the larger Fullerton Union High School . Though he had to ride a school bus an hour each way during his freshman year, he attained excellent grades. Later, he lived with an aunt in Fullerton during

28215-402: Was snubbed by the only one for men, the Franklins, many of whom were from prominent families, unlike Nixon. He responded by helping to found a new society, the Orthogonian Society. In addition to the society, his studies, and work at the store, Nixon engaged in several extracurricular activities; he was a champion debater and hard worker. In 1933, he was engaged to Ola Florence Welch, daughter of

28386-425: Was the 37th president of the United States , serving from 1969 until his resignation in 1974. A member of the Republican Party , he previously served as a representative and senator from California and as the 36th vice president from 1953 to 1961 under President Dwight D. Eisenhower . His presidency saw the reduction of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War , détente with the Soviet Union and China ,

28557-419: Was the emphasis on how war contributed to a moral decline and brutalization of society in general. A key event in the early history of the modern anti-war stance in literature and society was the American Civil War , where it culminated in the candidacy of George B. McClellan for US president as a Peace Democrat against incumbent President Abraham Lincoln . The outlines of the antiwar stance are seen:

28728-453: Was the last service performed by Day for nearly two decades. Operation POW, organized by the VVAW in Massachusetts, expressed the imprisonment of Americans by the war years and honor for American POWs held captive by North Vietnam . Over the 1971 Memorial Day weekend, veterans and supporters marched from Concord, Massachusetts to a rally on Boston Common . They invoked the spirit of the American Revolution by spending successive nights at

28899-425: Was touring the exhibits with Soviet first secretary and premier Nikita Khrushchev when the two stopped at a model of an American kitchen and engaged in an impromptu exchange about the merits of capitalism versus communism that became known as the " Kitchen Debate ". In 1960, Nixon launched his first campaign for President of the United States, officially announcing on January 9, 1960. He faced little opposition in

29070-432: Was transferred to other offices to work on contracts, and he moved from the Virginia suburbs of Washington, D.C. to Philadelphia, New York and finally to Baltimore. On October 3, 1945, he was promoted to lieutenant commander . On March 10, 1946, he was relieved of active duty. On June 1, 1953, he was promoted to commander in the U.S. Naval Reserve, and he retired from the U.S. Naval Reserve on June 6, 1966. While in

29241-482: Was widely covered in the press. Campaigns opposing the war and conscription also took place in Australia. Opposition to the South African Border War spread to a general resistance to the apartheid military. Organizations such as the End Conscription Campaign and Committee on South African War Resisters, were set up. Many opposed the war at this time. Following the rise of nationalism and political tensions after Slobodan Milošević came to power, as well as

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