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99-451: [REDACTED] Forças Armadas 1970s Aftermath Operation Gordian Knot ( Operação Nó Górdio ) was the largest and most expensive Portuguese military campaign in the Portuguese overseas province of Mozambique , East Africa . The operation was carried out in 1970, during the Portuguese Colonial War (1961–1974). The objectives of the campaign were to close down the Mozambique Liberation Front ( FRELIMO )'s infiltration routes across

198-669: A nobility , which played a key social and political role during the Middle Ages . It was under the Visigoths that the Church began to play an important part within the state. As the Visigoths did not learn Latin from the local people, they had to rely on bishops to continue the Roman system of governance. The laws were made by councils of bishops, and the clergy emerged as a high-ranking class. Today's continental Portugal, along with most of modern Spain,

297-618: A transcontinental nation and not a colonial empire. Pro-Indian residents of Dadra and Nagar Haveli , separated those territories from Portuguese rule in 1954. In 1961, Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá 's annexation by the Republic of Dahomey was the start of a process that led to the dissolution of the centuries-old Portuguese Empire. Another forcible retreat occurred in 1961 when Portugal refused to relinquish Goa . The Portuguese were involved in armed conflict in Portuguese India against

396-764: A career as the Portuguese Ambassador in London, later in Vienna. King Joseph I was crowned in 1750 and made him his Minister of Foreign Affairs. As the King's confidence in Carvalho e Melo increased, he entrusted him with more control of the state. By 1755, Carvalho e Melo was made prime minister. Impressed by British economic success witnessed as Ambassador, he successfully implemented similar economic policies in Portugal. In 1761, during

495-483: A distinct capital and governor. The main cities were in the southern half of the country: Beja , Silves , Alcácer do Sal , Santarém and Lisbon . The Muslim population consisted mainly of native Iberian converts to Islam and Berbers . The Arabs (mainly noblemen from Syria ) although a minority, constituted the elite. The Berbers who joined them, were nomads from the Rif Mountains of North Africa. Invasions from

594-660: A federation contract with Emperor Honorius , many of these people settled in Hispania . An important group was made up of the Suebi and Vandals in Gallaecia , who founded a Suebi Kingdom with its capital in Braga . They came to dominate Aeminium ( Coimbra ) as well, and there were Visigoths to the south. The Suebi and the Visigoths were the Germanic tribes who had the most lasting presence in

693-578: A line west of the Cape Verde islands, off the west coast of Africa. In 1498 Vasco da Gama became the first European to reach India by sea, bringing economic prosperity to Portugal and helping to start the Portuguese Renaissance . In 1500, the Portuguese explorer Gaspar Corte-Real reached what is now Canada and founded the town of Portugal Cove-St. Philip's , one of many Portuguese colonies of

792-665: A period marked by a civil war between liberals and absolutists from 1828 to 1834. The monarchy was overthrown in the 1910 revolution, which led to the establishment of the Portuguese First Republic . A phase of unrest ultimately led to the rise of authoritarian regimes of the Ditadura Nacional and the Estado Novo . Democracy was finally restored following the Carnation Revolution of 1974 , and brought an end to

891-476: A prelude to withdrawal. Instead of engaging FRELIMO, many refused to continue risking their lives and enacted local ceasefires and surrenders. By mid-summer 1974, an undeclared truce prevailed, since the bulk of the Portuguese army would not leave their barracks and refused to fight. On 8 September 1974, an accord was signed formalising the cease-fire. The agreement called for a transitional government with full independence for Mozambique to be granted on 25 June 1975 -

990-566: A single railway. The government of Portugal quietly accepted the ultimatum and withdrew their forces from the disputed area, leading to a widespread backlash among the Portuguese public, who viewed acceptance of the British demands as a humiliation. On 5 October 1910, a coup d'état overthrew the near 800 year-old Monarchy and the Republic was proclaimed. During World War I, Portugal helped the Allies fight

1089-464: A typical Marxist-Leninist strategy, FRELIMO's military adopted a Maoist strategy. The Maoist insurgency is typically three-staged: This was the strategy FRELIMO adopted from the outset with a notable exception. FRELIMO had not yet moved to the third stage of the Maoist strategy by 1970. The Portuguese had held relative military supremacy during the course of the liberation struggle but struggled to win

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1188-565: A year later, in July 1973, by a Dominican priest who witnessed the massacre. It was at first denied, then contested, investigated and again denied by the Portuguese authorities of the Estado Novo. Though full details of the entire episode are still not known, a large number of innocent civilians were slaughtered by a group of Portuguese soldiers during a planned operation (Operation Marosca) to attack an alleged guerrilla base. The PIDE/DGS agent who guided

1287-666: Is unclear. The mainstream explanation is an ethnonym derived from the Callaeci, also known as the Gallaeci peoples, who occupied the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula . One theory proposes Cale is a derivation of the Celtic word for 'port'. Another is that Cala was a Celtic goddess. Some French scholars believe it may have come from Portus Gallus , the port of the Gauls. Around 200 BC,

1386-851: The Age of Discovery under the sponsorship of Prince Henry the Navigator . Portugal explored the Atlantic, encountering the Azores , Madeira , and Portuguese Cape Verde , which led to the first colonization movements. The Portuguese explored the Indian Ocean , established trade routes in most of southern Asia, and sent the first direct European maritime trade and diplomatic missions to China ( Jorge Álvares ) and Japan ( Nanban trade ). In 1415, Portugal acquired its first colonies by conquering Ceuta , in North Africa. Throughout

1485-448: The Battle of São Mamede , in the outskirts of Guimarães , in 1128, Afonso Henriques , Count of Portugal, defeated his mother Countess Teresa and her lover Fernão Peres de Trava , establishing himself as sole leader of the county . Afonso continued his father Henry of Burgundy's Reconquista wars. His campaigns were successful and in 1139, he obtained a victory in the Battle of Ourique , so

1584-480: The British government delivered an ultimatum to Portugal, demanding the withdrawal of Portuguese forces from the area between Portugal's colonies of Mozambique and Angola . The area had been claimed by Portugal as part of its colonialist Pink Map project, but Britain disputed these claims, mostly due to Cecil Rhodes ' aspirations to create a Cape to Cairo Railway , which was intended to link all British colonies via

1683-643: The Cabo Delgado , in the extreme north of Mozambique on the border with guerrilla sympathizer, Tanzania. Tactics consisted of lightning quick airborne assaults on small camps. Continual artillery and aviation bombardment rained down on larger targets, while bulldozer-guided, motorized armies converged. These tactics were effective and Arriaga pursued the guerrillas relentlessly. However, the exertions of "Gordian Knot" could not be continued indefinitely. The Portuguese had excellent coordination between light bombers , helicopters and reinforced ground patrols. They used

1782-519: The Cahora Bassa hydroelectric dam by rerouting their forces through Zambia. As the liberation struggle continued on, the Portuguese regime continued to commit horrific atrocities, the most infamous of which was the massacre at Wiriyamu, a village which had been classified as collaborating with FRELIMO by the PIDE/DGS . The incident itself was not brought to the attention of the rest of the world until nearly

1881-498: The Cave of Aroeira in 2014. Later Neanderthals roamed the northern Iberian peninsula and a tooth has been found at Nova da Columbeira cave in Estremadura . Homo sapiens sapiens arrived in Portugal around 35,000 years ago and spread rapidly. Pre-Celtic tribes inhabited Portugal. The Cynetes developed a written language, leaving stelae , which are mainly found in the south. Early in

1980-809: The Central Powers ; however the war hurt its weak economy. Political instability and economic weaknesses were fertile ground for chaos and unrest during the First Portuguese Republic . These conditions led to the failed Monarchy of the North , 28 May 1926 coup d'état , and creation of the National Dictatorship ( Ditadura Nacional ). This in turn led to the right-wing dictatorship of the Estado Novo (New State), under António de Oliveira Salazar in 1933. Portugal remained neutral in World War II . From

2079-466: The Companhia Geral de Pernambuco e Paraíba - whose main activity was the trafficking of slaves, mostly Africans, to Brazilian lands. He reorganized the army and navy and ended legal discrimination against different Christian sects. He created companies and guilds to regulate commercial activity and one of the first appellation systems by demarcating the region for production of Port to ensure

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2178-687: The Continental System of embargo against the United Kingdom; a French invasion under General Junot followed, and Lisbon was captured in 1807. British intervention in the Peninsular War helped maintain Portuguese independence; the last French troops were expelled in 1812. Rio de Janeiro in Brazil was the Portuguese capital between 1808 and 1821. In 1820, constitutionalist insurrections took place at Porto and Lisbon. Lisbon regained its status as

2277-655: The European Union  (green) Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic , is a country in the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe . Featuring the westernmost point in continental Europe , to its north and east is Spain, with which it shares the longest uninterrupted border in the European Union ; to the south and the west is the North Atlantic Ocean ; and to the west and southwest lie

2376-715: The Indian Armed Forces . The operations resulted in the defeat and loss of the remaining Portuguese territories in the Indian subcontinent . The Portuguese regime refused to recognize Indian sovereignty over the annexed territories, which continued to be represented in the National Assembly until the coup of 1974. Also in the early 1960s the independence movements in the Portuguese provinces of Portuguese Angola , Portuguese Mozambique , and Portuguese Guinea in Africa, resulted in

2475-454: The Jesuits were suppressed and expelled . This crushed opposition by publicly demonstrating even the aristocracy was powerless before Pombal. Further titled "Marquês de Pombal" in 1770, he ruled Portugal until Joseph I's death in 1777. The new ruler, Queen Maria I of Portugal , disliked Pombal because of his excesses, and upon her accession to the throne, withdrew all his political offices. Pombal

2574-543: The Macaronesian archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira , which are two autonomous regions of Portugal . Lisbon is the capital and largest city , followed by Porto , which is the only other metropolitan area . The western part of the Iberian Peninsula has been continuously inhabited since prehistoric times , with the earliest signs of settlement dating to 5500 BCE . Celtic and Iberian peoples arrived in

2673-660: The Moluccas . Although it was believed the Dutch were the first Europeans to arrive in Australia, there is evidence the Portuguese may have discovered it in 1521. Between 1519 and 1522 Ferdinand Magellan organized a Spanish expedition to the East Indies which resulted in the first circumnavigation of the globe. The Treaty of Zaragoza , signed in 1529 between Portugal and Spain, divided

2772-536: The Portuguese Colonial War (lasting from 1961 till 1974). The war mobilized around 1.4 million men for military or for civilian support service, and led to large casualties. Throughout the colonial war period Portugal dealt with increasing dissent, arms embargoes and other punitive sanctions imposed by the international community. The authoritarian and conservative Estado Novo regime, first governed by Salazar and from 1968 by Marcelo Caetano , tried to preserve

2871-527: The Portuguese Restoration War and the 1755 Lisbon earthquake , which destroyed the city and damaged the empire's economy. The Napoleonic Wars motivated the Portuguese royal family to relocate to Brazil in 1807. This event reshaped the relationship between Portugal and Brazil, culminating in Brazilian independence in 1822 . Following the liberation during the Peninsular War , Portugal endured

2970-581: The Romans took Iberia from the Carthaginians during the Second Punic War . In the process they conquered Cale, renaming it Portus Cale ('Port of Cale') and incorporating it into the province of Gallaecia . During the Middle Ages , the region around Portus Cale became known by the Suebi and Visigoths as Portucale . The name Portucale changed into Portugale during the 7th and 8th centuries, and by

3069-665: The Schengen Area , and the Council of Europe , as well as a founding members of NATO , the eurozone , the OECD , and the Community of Portuguese Language Countries . The word Portugal derives from the combined Roman - Celtic place name Portus Cale (present-day's conurbation of Porto and Vila Nova de Gaia ). Porto stems from the Latin for port , portus ; Cale ' s meaning and origin

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3168-457: The South Atlantic and Indian Ocean coasts. Portuguese explorers and merchants were instrumental in establishing trading posts and colonies that enabled control over spices and slave trades. While Portugal expanded its influence globally, its political and military power faced internal and external challenges towards the end of the 16th century. The dynastic crisis marked the beginning of

3267-522: The Tanzanian border and to destroy permanent FRELIMO bases inside the liberated zones in Northern Mozambique. Gordian Knot was a seven-month long campaign ultimately employing 35,000 men, and was almost successful since it destroyed most guerrilla camps located inside FRELIMO's liberated zones and captured large numbers of rebels and armaments, forcing FRELIMO to retreat from their bases and outposts in

3366-602: The " informal empire " of the British was a defining part of the metropole just as much as the "formal empire". In the scope of the Portuguese Empire , the metropole was the European part of Portugal, which included Continental Portugal (the mainland) and the adjacent islands ( Azores and Madeira ). It corresponded to the present territory of Portugal . Until the mid 19th century, the Portuguese European territory

3465-669: The "absolutist" faction of landowners and the church to proclaim Miguel king in February 1828. This led to the Liberal Wars , also known as the War of the Two Brothers or the Portuguese Civil War , in which Pedro forced Miguel to abdicate and go into exile in 1834 and place his daughter on the throne as Queen Maria II of Portugal . After 1815 the Portuguese expanded their trading ports along

3564-554: The 15th century, Portuguese explorers sailed the coast of Africa, establishing trading posts for commodities , ranging from gold to slavery . Portugal sailed the Portuguese India Armadas to Goa via the Cape of Good Hope . The Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494 was intended to resolve a dispute created following the return of Christopher Columbus and divided the newly located lands outside Europe between Portugal and Spain along

3663-550: The 1940s to 1960s, Portugal was a founding member of NATO , OECD , the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and joined the United Nations in 1955. New economic development projects and relocation of mainland Portuguese citizens into the overseas provinces in Africa were initiated, with Angola and Mozambique being the main targets of those initiatives. These actions were used to affirm Portugal's status as

3762-459: The 9th century, it was used to refer to the region between the rivers Douro and Minho . By the 11th and 12th centuries, Portugale , Portugallia , Portvgallo or Portvgalliae was already referred to as Portugal . The region has been inhabited by humans since circa 400,000 years ago, when Homo heidelbergensis entered the area. The oldest human fossil found in Portugal is the 400,000-year-old Aroeira 3 H. Heidelbergensis skull discovered in

3861-440: The African coast, moving inland to take control of Angola and Mozambique. The slave trade was abolished in 1836. In Portuguese India , trade flourished in the colony of Goa , with its subsidiary colonies of Macau , near Hong Kong, and Timor , north of Australia. The Portuguese successfully introduced Catholicism and the Portuguese language into their colonies, while most settlers continued to head to Brazil. On 11 January 1890,

3960-535: The American tactics of quick airborne (heliborne) assaults supported by heavy aerial bombardments of FRELIMO camps by the Portuguese Air Force (Força Aérea Portuguesa or FAP) to surround and eliminate the guerrillas. These bombardments were accompanied by the use of heavy artillery . The Portuguese also used mounted cavalry units to cover the flanks of patrols and where the terrain was too difficult for motor transport, while units of captured or deserted guerrillas were employed to penetrate their former bases. However, as

4059-440: The Americas . In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral landed on Brazil and claimed it for Portugal. Ten years later, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Goa in India, Muscat and Ormuz in the Persian Strait , and Malacca , now in Malaysia. Thus, the Portuguese empire held dominion over commerce in the Indian Ocean and South Atlantic. Portuguese sailors set out to reach Eastern Asia, landing in Taiwan , Japan, Timor , Flores , and

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4158-422: The Christian kingdoms of the north. Most of present-day Portugal fell into the hands of the Taifa of Badajoz of the Aftasid Dynasty , and in 1022 the Taifa of Seville of the Abbadids poets. The Taifa period ended with the conquest of the Almoravids in 1086, then by the Almohads in 1147. Al-Andaluz was divided into districts called Kura . Gharb Al-Andalus at its largest consisted of ten kuras, each with

4257-411: The Far East, resulting in the loss of Portugal's Indian sea trade monopoly. In 1640 John IV of Portugal spearheaded an uprising backed by disgruntled nobles and was proclaimed king. The Portuguese Restoration War ended the 60-year period of the Iberian Union under the House of Habsburg . This was the beginning of the House of Braganza , which reigned until 1910. John V saw a reign characterized by

4356-427: The Moors. In 1249, the Reconquista ended with the capture of the Algarve and expulsion of the last Moorish settlements. With minor readjustments, Portugal's territorial borders have remained the same, making it one of the oldest established nations in Europe. After a conflict with the kingdom of Castile , Denis of Portugal signed the Treaty of Alcañices in 1297 with Ferdinand IV of Castile. This treaty established

4455-416: The North also occurred in this period, with Viking incursions raiding the coast between the 9th and 11th centuries, including Lisbon. This resulted in the establishment of small Norse settlements in the coastline between Douro and Minho . The Reconquista was a period when Christians reconquered the Iberian Peninsula from Moorish domination. An Asturian Visigothic noble named Pelagius of Asturias

4554-403: The Pacific Ocean between Spain and Portugal. Portugal voluntarily entered a dynastic union (1580–1640) because the last two kings of the House of Aviz died without heirs, resulting in the Portuguese succession crisis of 1580 . Philip II of Spain claimed the throne and was accepted as Philip I of Portugal. Portugal did not lose its formal independence, forming a union of kingdoms. But

4653-412: The Portuguese Colonial War, allowing the last of Portugal’s African territories to achieve independence. Portugal's imperial history has left a cultural legacy , with around 300 million Portuguese speakers around the world. Today, it is a developed country with an advanced economy relying chiefly upon services, industry, and tourism. Portugal is a member of the United Nations , the European Union,

4752-512: The Portuguese troops on the field were conscripted black Africans from Mozambique. By 1972, the situation had deteriorated with the Portuguese forces operating out of traditionally secluded strongholds inside FRELIMO liberated zones and controlled areas. The violence and brutality of Portuguese actions against the population of the countryside were increasing along with various massacres against civilians. The Portuguese stepped up new defensive tactics, herding civilians into villages and trying to ensure

4851-434: The Roman Italian privileges, especially when it came to taxation, which could be extended to certain communities outside of Italy under certain conditions. The metropole of the British Empire was the island of Great Britain ; i.e. the United Kingdom itself. The term is sometimes used even more specifically to refer to London as the metropole of the Empire, insofar as the politicians and businessmen of London exerted

4950-519: The Roman conquest. In southern Portugal, some small, semi-permanent commercial coastal settlements were also founded by Phoenician-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC. The Carthaginians, Rome's adversary in the Punic Wars , were expelled from their coastal colonies. During Julius Caesar 's rule, almost the entire peninsula was annexed to Rome. The conquest took two hundred years and many died, including those sentenced to work in slave mines or sold as slaves to other parts of

5049-413: The atrocities and massacres exposed, had lost a great amount of confidence in military solutions and were encouraging the expansion of operations by PIDE . PIDE's paramilitary endeavours were viewed as excessively brutal and counterproductive by the leaders of the military, and disagreement on the proper role of the secret police in combating the insurgency widened the rift between the central government and

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5148-429: The border between the kingdoms of Portugal and Leon. The reigns of Denis, Afonso IV , and Peter I mostly saw peace with the other kingdoms of Iberia. In 1348-49 Portugal, as with the rest of Europe, was devastated by the Black Death . In 1373, Portugal made an alliance with England , the oldest standing alliance in the world. In 1383 John I of Castile , Beatrice of Portugal , and Ferdinand I of Portugal claimed

5247-531: The capital of Portugal when Brazil declared its independence in 1822. The death of King John VI in 1826 led to a crisis of royal succession. His eldest son, Pedro I of Brazil , briefly became Pedro IV of Portugal , but neither the Portuguese nor Brazilians wanted a unified monarchy; consequently, Pedro abdicated the Portuguese crown in favor of his 7-year-old daughter, Maria da Glória , on the condition that when she came of age she would marry his brother, Miguel . Dissatisfaction at Pedro's constitutional reforms led

5346-422: The centre; the metropole informed the periphery, but the periphery did not directly inform the metropole. Hence, the British Empire was constituted by the formal control of territories, by direct rule of foreign lands, which were ruled by the metropole. More recent work, starting with that of John "Jack" Gallagher and Ronald Robinson in the 1950s, has questioned the traditional definition, positing instead that

5445-424: The concentration of troops in the southern regions, by handing out arms to rural settlers, and by ordering an increase in bombing attacks on guerrilla-controlled territories. These measures were intended to support the Portuguese position at the negotiating table. However, the Portuguese troops fighting in Mozambique realised that the coup in Lisbon, the change of regime and the opening of negotiations with FRELIMO were

5544-495: The conduct of the war in Mozambique which were reinforced by a visit to the United States for consultations with General William Westmoreland concerning American tactics in Vietnam . Arriaga insisted on the deployment of aircraft to support ground operations, particularly helicopter gunships. He initiated large scale "search-and-destroy" missions. He also requested a further increase of troops and materiel. Bolstered with three thousand additional Portuguese soldiers, Arriaga launched

5643-481: The conduct of the war occurred with increasing frequency. Though "Gordian Knot" had been the most successful campaign of the counterinsurgency, it had not delivered the ultimate victory desired by Arriaga - for several reasons. The first, noted above, was political "queasiness" with the increased casualty rates and subsequent meddling in the operation itself. The second was the onset of the rainy season in November which proved to be longer than usual and subsequently gave

5742-407: The country's political decline that led to the Iberian Union (1580-1640), a period in which Portugal was united under Spanish rule. While maintaining a degree of self-governance, the union strained Portugal’s autonomy and drew it into conflicts with European powers which targeted Portuguese territories and trade routes. Portugal's prior opulence was further exacerbated by a series of events, such as

5841-437: The destiny of the Mozambican people by calling for a cease-fire and Portuguese sponsored elections. However, FRELIMO, sensing victory, refused to allow Spínola to impose a neocolonialist solution on Mozambique. FRELIMO announced the opening of a new front in Zambezia and poured guerrillas into the central regions of the country, advancing further south. The Spinola government countered by ordering northern outposts abandoned and

5940-408: The earthquake, Joseph I gave his prime minister more power, and Carvalho de Melo became an enlightened despot . In 1758 Joseph I was wounded in an attempted assassination. The Marquis of Távora , several members of his family and even servants were tortured and executed in public with extreme brutality (even by the standards of the time), as alleged part of the Távora affair . The following year,

6039-403: The empire. Metropole The metropole of the Roman Empire was Italy . As the original homeland of the Romans, it maintained a special status which made it "not a province , but the Domina (ruler) of the provinces". Italy was federated by the Romans in the third century BC. Unlike the overseas and ultramontane territories conquered by the Romans, Italy, due to the presence of Rome in

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6138-408: The empire. Roman occupation suffered a setback in 155 BC, when a rebellion began in the north. The Lusitanians and other native tribes, under the leadership of Viriathus , wrested control of all of western Iberia. Rome sent legions to quell the rebellion but were unsuccessful. Roman leaders bribed Viriathus's allies to kill him in 139 BC; he was replaced by Tautalus . In 27 BC, Lusitania gained

6237-436: The first cities he founded is Vimaranes, known today as Guimarães – "birthplace of the Portuguese nation" or the "cradle city". After annexing the County of Portugal into one of the counties that made up the Kingdom of Asturias , King Alfonso III of Asturias knighted Vímara Peres, in 868, as the First Count of Portus Cale (Portugal). The region became known as Portucale , Portugale , and simultaneously Portugália . With

6336-408: The first millennium BC, several waves of Celts invaded Portugal from Central Europe and intermarried with the local populations to form several different ethnic groups. The Celtic presence is patent in archaeological and linguistic evidence. They dominated most of northern and central Portugal, while the south maintained its older character (believed non-Indo-European, likely related to Basque ) until

6435-424: The first millennium BCE , with Phoenician and later Punic influence reaching the south during the same period. The region came under Roman control in the second century BCE, followed by a succession of Germanic peoples and the Alans from the fifth to eighth centuries CE. Muslims conquered most of the Iberian Peninsula in the eighth century CE, but were gradually expelled by the Christian Reconquista over

6534-403: The forced abdication of Alfonso III in 910, the Kingdom of Asturias split into three separate kingdoms; they were reunited in 924 under the crown of León . In 1093 Alfonso VI of León bestowed the county to Henry of Burgundy and married him to his daughter, Teresa of León . Henry thus became Henry, Count of Portugal and based his newly formed county from Bracara Augusta (modern Braga ). At

6633-447: The government, so as to get rid of Kaúlza de Arriaga, whom they considered an incompetent general. Later counter-claims, probably at the behest of the Portuguese government, have been made in a report of the Archbishop of Dar es Salaam Laureaen Rugambwa that the killings were carried out by FRELIMO combatants, not Portuguese forces. In addition, others claimed that the alleged massacres by Portuguese military forces were fabricated to tar

6732-413: The greatest influence throughout the Empire in both diplomatic, economic and military forms. By contrast, the term periphery referred to the rest of the Empire. The historiography of British metropole–periphery relations has traditionally been defined in terms of their distinct separation, with a pronouncedly one-way, metropole-directed chain of command, communication, and control proceeding outward from

6831-623: The guerrillas more than enough time to partially recover. The third was the simple fact that Arriaga had to mass all of the Portuguese forces in Mozambique to pursue the campaign in the extreme northern provinces in the hopes of a relatively quick but decisive victory. FRELIMO realized this and reacted by dispersing into the jungle, prolonging the campaign and trying to consume Portuguese resources. Simultaneously, guerrillas increased operations in other provinces, left sparsely guarded by Portuguese troops, but with no success. A Portuguese communique issued in late January, 1971, acknowledged that, in spite of

6930-427: The independence of most of the remaining Portuguese overseas territories in 1975, Portugal included the Metrópole and the Overseas. Metropolitan France ( French : France métropolitaine or la Métropole ), also known as European France ( Territoire européen de la France ) is the area of France which is geographically in Europe. Metropolitan France comprises mainland France and Corsica, as well as nearby islands in

7029-503: The influx of gold into the royal treasury, supplied largely by the royal fifth (tax on precious metals) from the Portuguese colonies of Brazil and Maranhão . Most estimates place the number of Portuguese migrants to Colonial Brazil during the gold rush of the 18th century at 600,000. This represented one of the largest movements of European populations to their colonies, during colonial times. In 1738 Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo , later ennobled as 1st Marquis of Pombal , began

7128-673: The joining of the two crowns deprived Portugal of an independent foreign policy, and led to its involvement in the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Netherlands. War led to a deterioration of relations with Portugal's oldest ally, England , and the loss of Hormuz , a strategic trading post located between Iran and Oman . From 1595 to 1663 the Dutch-Portuguese War primarily involved Dutch companies invading Portuguese colonies and commercial interests in Brazil, Africa, India and

7227-469: The largest offensive campaign of the Portuguese Colonial War - Operation Gordian Knot ( Operação Nó Górdio ). The objectives of the campaign were to seal off the infiltration routes across the Tanzanian border and to destroy permanent guerrilla bases. "Gordian Knot" was a seven-month campaign employing ultimately thirty-five thousand men, and was almost successful. The brunt of the effort was in

7326-675: The local inhabitants. St. Martin of Braga was a particularly influential evangelist. In 429, the Visigoths moved south to expel the Alans and Vandals and founded a kingdom with its capital in Toledo . From 470, conflict between the Suebi and Visigoths increased. In 585, the Visigothic King Liuvigild conquered Braga and annexed Gallaecia; the Iberian Peninsula was unified under a Visigothic Kingdom . A new class emerged, unknown in Roman times:

7425-616: The massive operation, not all military objectives had been realised. The Portuguese eventually reported that 651 guerrillas were killed and another 1,840 were captured, for the loss of 132 Portuguese troops. Arriaga claimed that his troops had destroyed 61 guerrilla bases and 165 guerrilla camps, while 40 tons of ammunition had been captured in the first two months of the operation. Arriaga, whether disillusioned by "Gordian Knot" or restrained by Lisbon due to budgetary issues, shifted from extended conventional sweeps to small unit actions deploying black and white shock troops . By this time, half of

7524-718: The military leadership and helped fuel the discontent and disillusionment within the Armed Forces. When the Movimento das Forças Armadas (MFA) seized control of the government in Lisbon on 25 April 1974, an event known as the Carnation Revolution , the Portuguese position in Mozambique all but collapsed. General António de Spínola , head of the new government and a former commander of counter-independence forces in other Portuguese territories in Africa, manoeuvred to maintain some control over

7623-570: The next several centuries. Modern Portugal began taking shape during this period, initially as a county of the Christian Kingdom of León in 868, and ultimately as an independent Kingdom with the Treaty of Zamora in 1143. During the Age of Discovery , the Kingdom of Portugal established itself as a major economic and political power, largely through its maritime empire, which extended mostly along

7722-512: The number of guerrillas killed and captured increased, so did the number of Portuguese casualties. The politicians in Lisbon—the metropole —, although dissatisfied with the success of the counterinsurgency until Arriaga's assumption of command, had been content with the relatively low casualty figures. As casualty rates continued to climb during "Gordian Knot", their early pleasure with the improving tactical operations diminished. Political meddling in

7821-700: The peninsula, was not reduced to province status. Originally, Rome divided the Italics into three groups: Roman citizens , Latini (semi-citizens and semi-confederates), and socii (confederates). After 88 BC, all Italics were made Roman citizens. Italy continued to have this privileged status until 212 AD, when citizenship was extended to all the inhabitants of the Empire. From Caesar Augustus (27 BC) to Septimius Severus (192 AD), all Roman Emperors were Italics (Claudius, Trajan, and Hadrian, although born outside of Italy, were of Italian descent). The term Ius Italicum identified

7920-462: The population was not reachable by FRELIMO. The Portuguese regime subsequently changed its message from "destroying FRELIMO" to "bringing the situation under control." Despite the initial Portuguese military success, the number of monthly casualties never declined to zero. FRELIMO continued to cross the border to maintain links with the local population and opened a new front in the Province of Tete near

8019-399: The provinces. The communist -inspired, independence-seeking guerillas of FRELIMO soon realised the difficulties they would encounter in militarily defeating the Portuguese forces on the open battlefield and adopted a relatively unique strategy. With no real working class or Mozambican military to isolate from the Portuguese regime and ultimately from which to gain support as in the case of

8118-542: The reign of King José I, he banned the import of black slaves into mainland Portugal and India, not for humanitarian reasons, but because they were a necessary work force in Brazil. At the same time, he encouraged the trade of black slaves ("the pieces", in the terms of that time) to that colony, and with the support and direct involvement of the Marquis of Pombal, two companies were founded - the Companhia do Grão-Pará e Maranhão and

8217-584: The reputation of the Portuguese state abroad. But the exposure of the Wiriyamu massacre brought with it the exposure of numerous other massacres on a smaller scale and increased worldwide (particularly Third World) condemnation of Portugal. During 1973 and early 1974, the situation continued to worsen for the Portuguese. FRELIMO continued to advance further into Portuguese-controlled territory from fronts in Tete and Cabo Delgado. The civilian authorities in Lisbon, embarrassed by

8316-493: The soldiers told them explicitly that the orders were to "kill everyone", despite only civilians having been found in the village and there being no signs of FRELIMO activity. This agent, Chico Kavachi, was later murdered before he could be interviewed in an investigation ordered by the Portuguese government after the massacre became public in July 1973. Some historians speculate that the DGS wanted to deliberately create an embarrassment for

8415-529: The status of Roman province . Later, a northern province was separated from the province of Tarraconensis , under Emperor Diocletian 's reforms, known as Gallaecia . There are still ruins of castros ( hill forts ) and remains of the Castro culture , like Conímbriga , Mirobriga and Briteiros . In 409, with the decline of the Roman Empire , the Iberian Peninsula was occupied by Germanic tribes . In 411, with

8514-809: The support of the majority of the population outside the major cities and towns, where settlers and colonial authorities had firmly established themselves. In March 1970, a new commander for Portuguese forces in the Portuguese Overseas Province of Mozambique was appointed. Brigadier General Kaúlza de Arriaga had studied the Mozambican theater from a position on the staff of the Institute of Higher Military Studies in Lisbon and had served as commander of ground forces in Mozambique for eight months prior to assignment as overall commander. He possessed definite ideas on

8613-652: The territories corresponding to modern Portugal. As elsewhere in Western Europe, there was a sharp decline in urban life during the Dark Ages . Roman institutions disappeared in the wake of the Germanic invasions with the exception of ecclesiastical organizations, which were fostered by the Suebi in the fifth century and adopted by the Visigoths afterwards. Although the Suebi and Visigoths were initially followers of Arianism and Priscillianism , they adopted Catholicism from

8712-484: The theories of Gallagher and Robinson, the usage of soft power by the British, primarily through employment of British capital and other forms of economic influence allowed for the establishment of favorable economic relationships and free trade for goods which were manufactured in Britain. In doing this, Britain was able to gain the benefits of Empire without spending money on costly military affairs. In this interpretation,

8811-462: The thirteenth anniversary of FRELIMO. The Portuguese Colonial War had ended, but the newly independent territories of Angola and Mozambique would enter a period of chaos and devastating civil wars ( Angolan Civil War and Mozambican Civil War ) which lasted several decades and claimed millions of lives and refugees. Portugal – in Europe  (green & dark grey) – in

8910-510: The throne of Portugal. John of Aviz, later John I of Portugal , defeated the Castilians in the Battle of Aljubarrota , and the House of Aviz became the ruling house. The new ruling dynasty led Portugal to the limelight of European politics and culture. They created and sponsored literature, such as a history of Portugal, by Fernão Lopes . Portugal spearheaded European exploration of the world and

9009-718: The two were mutually constitutive and maintaining that, despite the apparent temporal inconsistencies inherent in their separate existences, each formed simultaneously in relation to the other. Gallagher and Robinson were socialists , observing the rise of the economic power of the United States in the developing world at a time when the African colonies of the British Empire were being granted independence; both scholars held that British and American expansion of overseas influence were ultimately developed along similar lines. According to

9108-565: The vast Umayyad Caliphate's empire of Damascus , until its collapse in 750. That year the west of the empire gained its independence under Abd-ar-Rahman I with the establishment of the Emirate of Córdoba . The Emirate became the Caliphate of Córdoba in 929, until its dissolution in 1031, into 23 small kingdoms, called Taifa kingdoms. The governors of the taifas proclaimed themselves Emir of their provinces and established diplomatic relations with

9207-578: The war of Christian reconquest. At the end of the 9th century, the region of Portugal between the rivers Minho and Douro, was reconquered from the Moors by nobleman and knight Vímara Peres on the orders of King Alfonso III of Asturias . Finding many towns deserted, he decided to repopulate and rebuild them. Vímara Peres elevated the region to the status of County , naming it the County of Portugal after its major port city – Portus Cale or modern Porto . One of

9306-486: The wine's quality. This was the first attempt to control wine quality and production in Europe. He imposed strict law upon all classes of Portuguese society, along with a widespread review of the tax system. These reforms gained him enemies in the upper classes. Lisbon was struck by a major earthquake on November 1st 1755 , magnitude estimated to have been between 7.7–9.0, with casualties ranging from 12,000 to 50,000. Following

9405-441: Was banished to his estate at Pombal , where he died in 1782. Historians argue that Pombal's "enlightenment," while far-reaching, was primarily a mechanism for enhancing autocracy at the expense of individual liberty and especially an apparatus for crushing opposition, suppressing criticism, and furthering colonial exploitation and consolidating personal control, and profit. In 1807 Portugal refused Napoleon 's demand to accede to

9504-568: Was elected leader in 718 by many of the ousted Visigoth nobles. Pelagius called for the remnants of the Christian Visigothic armies to rebel against the Moors and regroup in the unconquered northern Asturian highlands, known today as the Cantabrian Mountains , in north-west Spain. After defeating the Moors in the Battle of Covadonga in 722, Pelagius was proclaimed king, thus founding the Christian Kingdom of Asturias and starting

9603-624: Was invaded from the South and became part of al-Andalus between 726 and 1249, following the Umayyad Caliphate conquest of the Iberian Peninsula . This rule lasted decades in the North, up to five centuries in the South. After defeating the Visigoths in a few months, the Umayyad Caliphate started expanding rapidly in the peninsula. Beginning in 726, the land that is now Portugal became part of

9702-553: Was proclaimed King of Portugal by his soldiers. This is traditionally taken as the occasion when the County of Portugal became the independent Kingdom of Portugal and, in 1129, the capital city was transferred from Guimarães to Coimbra. Afonso was recognized as the first king of Portugal in 1143 by King Alfonso VII of León , and in 1179 by Pope Alexander III as Afonso I of Portugal. Afonso Henriques and his successors, aided by military monastic orders , continued pushing southwards against

9801-417: Was referred to as "Portugal" or as the "Kingdom". However, these terms became inappropriate when the Portuguese overseas territories gained the status of overseas provinces in 1832, and came to be considered an integral part of the Kingdom of Portugal alongside its European provinces. The use of the term "Metrópole" emerged then as the official designation of the European part of Portugal. From then on, and until

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