Operation Mo ( MO作戦 , Mo Sakusen ) or the Port Moresby Operation was a Japanese plan to take control of the Australian Territory of New Guinea during World War II as well as other locations in the South Pacific . The goal was to isolate Australia and New Zealand from the Allied United States .
130-714: The plan was developed by the Imperial Japanese Navy and supported by Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto , the commander-in-chief of the Combined Fleet , but the operation was eventually abandoned. When the Japanese Navy was planning the New Guinea Campaign ( air strikes against Lae and Salamaua , disembarkation in Huon Gulf , New Britain ( Rabaul ), New Ireland ( Kavieng ), Finch Harbor (also called Finschhafen), and
260-577: A 500-ton galleon -type ship that transported the Japanese embassy of Hasekura Tsunenaga to the Americas, which then continued to Europe. From 1604 the Bakufu also commissioned about 350 Red seal ships , usually armed and incorporating some Western technologies, mainly for Southeast Asian trade. For more than 200 years, beginning in the 1640s, the Japanese policy of seclusion (" sakoku ") forbade contacts with
390-526: A Chinese naval force near Korean island of Pungdo , damaging a cruiser, sinking a loaded transport, capturing one gunboat and destroying another. This battle occurred before war was officially declared on 1 August 1894. On 10 August, the Japanese ventured into the Yellow Sea to seek out the Beiyang Fleet, and subsequently bombarded both Weihaiwei and Port Arthur. Finding only small vessels in both harbors,
520-623: A ban on Wakō piracy; the pirates then became vassals of Hideyoshi, and comprised the naval force used in the Japanese invasion of Korea (1592–1598) . Japan built her first large ocean-going warships in the beginning of the 17th century, following contacts with the Western nations during the Nanban trade period . In 1613, the daimyō of Sendai , in agreement with the Tokugawa Bakufu , built Date Maru ,
650-521: A cauldron in Ningbo . Japan undertook major naval building efforts in the 16th century, during the Warring States period when feudal rulers vying for supremacy built vast coastal navies of several hundred ships. Around that time Japan may have developed one of the first ironclad warships when Oda Nobunaga , a daimyō , had six iron-covered Oatakebune made in 1576. In 1588 Toyotomi Hideyoshi issued
780-526: A combination of heavily armed large warships, with smaller and more innovative offensive units permitting aggressive tactics. As a result of the conflict, under the Treaty of Shimonoseki (April 17, 1895), Taiwan and the Pescadores Islands were transferred to Japan. The Imperial Japanese Navy took possession of the island and quelled opposition movements between March and October 1895. Japan also obtained
910-636: A decisive encounter at sea, the Japanese decided to send more troops to Korea. Early in September, the Japanese navy was directed to initiate further landings and to support the army on Korea's western coast. As Japanese ground forces moved north to attack Pyongyang, Admiral Ito correctly guessed that the Chinese would attempt to reinforce their army in Korea by sea. On 14 September, the Combined Fleet sailed north to search
1040-407: A document to the daijō-kan titled "Opinions Regarding Naval Expansion" asserting that a strong navy was essential to maintaining the security of Japan. In furthering his argument, Iwakura suggested that domestic rebellions were no longer Japan's primary military concern and that naval affairs should take precedence over army concerns; a strong navy was more important than a sizable army to preserve
1170-549: A draw, and neither side gained decisive control of the sea, army units in Korea would concentrate on maintaining preexisting positions. Lastly, if the Combined Fleet was defeated and consequently lost command of the sea, the bulk of the army would remain in Japan and prepare to repel a Chinese invasion, while the Fifth Division in Korea would be ordered to dig in and fight a rearguard action. A Japanese squadron intercepted and defeated
1300-507: A force of at least six large battleships, supplemented by four armored cruisers of at least 7,000 tons. The centerpiece of this expansion was to be the acquisition of four new battleships, in addition to two that were already being completed in Britain as part of an earlier construction program. Yamamoto was also advocated the construction of a balanced fleet. Invasion of Tulagi (May 1942) The invasion of Tulagi , on 3–4 May 1942,
1430-515: A large force of Japanese ships, believed to be part of the Japanese Tulagi invasion force, had departed from the Buka area. Later that day, coastwatcher D. G. Kennedy on New Georgia island sighted and reported a large Japanese force of ships heading towards the southern Solomons. Soon after, Goode and Peagam—anticipating that the Japanese would attack with overwhelming numbers—ordered the execution of
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#17330855772481560-583: A large part because of Satsuma power, influence, and patronage. Between 19 August and 23 November 1882, Satsuma forces with Iwakura's leadership, worked tirelessly to secure support for the Navy's expansion plan. After uniting the other Satsuma members of the Dajokan, Iwakura approached the emperor the Meiji emperor arguing persuasively just as he did with the Dajokan, that naval expansion was critical to Japan's security and that
1690-486: A lesser naval power) would dispatch a portion of its fleet against Japan. Yamamoto therefore calculated that four battleships would be the most likely strength of any seagoing force that a major power could divert from their other naval commitments to use against Japan, and he also believed that two more battleships might be contributed to such a naval expedition by a lesser hostile power. In order to achieve victory in such an engagement, Yamamoto theorized that Japan should have
1820-732: A military force to defeat the rebels, culminating with the Naval Battle of Hakodate in May 1869. The Imperial side took delivery (February 1869) of the French-built ironclad Kotetsu (originally ordered by the Tokugawa shogunate) and used it decisively towards the end of the conflict. In February 1868 the Imperial government had placed all captured shogunate naval vessels under the Navy Army affairs section. In
1950-668: A minimal role transporting troops from western to eastern Japan. Only the Battle of Awa (28 January 1868) was significant; this also proved one of the few Tokugawa successes in the war. Tokugawa Yoshinobu eventually surrendered after the fall of Edo in July 1868, and as a result most of Japan accepted the emperor's rule, however resistance continued in the North . On 26 March 1868 the first naval review in Japan took place in Osaka Bay , with six ships from
2080-606: A modern fleet, so that by 1885 cost overruns had jeopardized the entire 1883 plan. Furthermore, increased costs coupled with decreased domestic tax revenues, heightened concern and political tension in Japan regarding funding naval expansion. In 1883, two large warships were ordered from British shipyards. The Naniwa and Takachiho were 3,650 ton ships. They were capable of speeds up to 18 kn (33 km/h; 21 mph) and were armed with 54 to 76 mm (2 to 3 in) deck armor and two 260 mm (10 in) Krupp guns. The naval architect Sasō Sachū designed these on
2210-632: A naval engagement appeared to be brewing in the Coral Sea , the Japanese Moresby transports immediately veered back to the north, in order to avoid combat. The resulting Battle of the Coral Sea inflicted significant aircraft losses on the Fourth Fleet , Shōhō was sunk, and Shōkaku was damaged. Air groups from the two carriers, including the relatively undamaged Zuikaku , suffered such sizable losses, it
2340-499: A peak of activity during the 16th and 17th centuries at a time of cultural exchange with European powers during the Age of Discovery . After two centuries of stagnation during the country's ensuing seclusion policy under the shōgun of the Edo period , Japan's navy was comparatively antiquated when the country was forced open to trade by American intervention in 1854. This eventually led to
2470-627: A pre-planned evacuation operation and began the destruction and demolition of their equipment and facilities on Tulagi and Gavutu-Tanambogo. The RAAF personnel and commandos embarked on two small ships early in the morning on 3 May to begin the trip to Vila, New Hebrides, just as Shima's ships entered Savo sound to begin their landings on Tulagi. The ship with the RAAF personnel spent the day with coastwatcher and protectorate District Officer Martin Clemens at Aola on Guadalcanal and departed that night. Supporting
2600-485: A result tensions began to rise between the two countries over competing interests in Korea. The Japanese naval leadership was generally cautious and even apprehensive at the prospect of hostilities with China, as the navy had not yet received several modern warships that had been ordered in February 1893, particularly the battleships Fuji and Yashima and the cruiser Akashi . Hence, initiating hostilities at this time
2730-401: A seaplane base on nearby Gavutu -Tanambogo with four PBY Catalina maritime patrol aircraft. Three Allied coastwatchers were also located nearby, on Guadalcanal island. The task of the coastwatchers was to report on any enemy movements, or suspicious activity, that they observed in the vicinity of their stations. In the belief that it might prevent them being executed for espionage , all of
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#17330855772482860-584: A significant threat to Allied operations between Australia, New Zealand, and the U.S. The two strategic victories for the Allies in the battles of the Coral Sea and Midway provided an opportunity to take the initiative and launch an offensive against the Japanese somewhere in the Pacific. An Allied plan to attack the southern Solomons was conceived by U.S. Admiral Ernest King , Commander in Chief, United States Fleet . He proposed
2990-466: A single hypothetical enemy individually, but also to confront any fleet from two combined powers that might be dispatched against Japan from overseas waters. He assumed that given their conflicting global interests, it was highly unlikely that the United Kingdom and Russia would ever join together in a war against Japan, instead considering it more likely that a major power like Russia (in alliance with
3120-422: A single powerful main gun, the 320 mm (13 in) Canet gun . Altogether, Bertin supervised the building of more than 20 units. They helped establish the first true modern naval force of Japan. It allowed Japan to achieve mastery in the building of large units, since some of the ships were imported, and some others were built domestically at the arsenal of Yokosuka: This period also allowed Japan "to embrace
3250-548: A step in the consolidation of the Southern Seas areas in the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere ( 大東亜共栄圏 , Dai-tō-a Kyōeiken ) . The Directive of Operation Mo was conceived in 1938, but with no specific time for its execution, pending earlier successes in the southern area during the first and second phases of the conquest. In April 1942, the operation was organized into four large actions and
3380-460: A supportive role to drive an invading enemy from the coast. The resulting military organization followed the Rikushu Kaijū (Army first, Navy second) principle. This meant a defense designed to repel an enemy from Japanese territory, and the chief responsibility for that mission rested upon Japan's army; consequently, the army gained the bulk of the military expenditures. During the 1870s and 1880s,
3510-458: A thirty-four-man British naval mission, headed by Lt. Comdr. Archibald Douglas , arrived in Japan. Douglas directed instruction at the Naval Academy at Tsukiji for several years, the mission remained in Japan until 1879, substantially advancing the development of the navy and firmly establishing British traditions within the Japanese navy from matters of seamanship to the style of its uniforms and
3640-484: A total of 50) and delivered the largest contingent of troops among the intervening nations (20,840 Imperial Japanese Army and Navy soldiers, out of a total of 54,000). The conflict allowed Japan to engage in combat alongside Western nations and to acquire first-hand understanding of their fighting methods. Following the war against China, Japan was pressured into renouncing its claim to the Liaodong Peninsula in
3770-526: The 1860 Japanese delegation to the United States . In 1865 the French naval engineer Léonce Verny was hired to build Japan's first modern naval arsenals, at Yokosuka and Nagasaki . The shogunate also allowed and then ordered various domains to purchase warships and to develop naval fleets, Satsuma , especially, had petitioned the shogunate to build modern naval vessels. A naval center had been set up by
3900-588: The Liaodong Peninsula , although was later forced by Russia, Germany and France to return it to China ( Triple Intervention ), only for Russia take possession of it soon after. The Imperial Japanese Navy further intervened in China in 1900 by participating, together with Western Powers, in the suppression of the Chinese Boxer Rebellion . The Japanese navy supplied the largest number of warships (18 out of
4030-708: The Meiji Restoration . Accompanying the re-ascendance of the Emperor came a period of frantic modernization and industrialization . The IJN saw several successes in combat during the early twentieth century, sometimes against much more powerful enemies, such as in the Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War , before being largely destroyed in World War II. Japan has a long history of naval interaction with
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4160-551: The Mo operation and placed Inoue in charge of the naval portion of the operation. A large force consisting of two heavy aircraft carriers , one light aircraft carrier, a seaplane carrier, nine cruisers , and 13 destroyers —split into several elements—was to guard the Japanese Port Moresby invasion convoy as well as to engage any Allied naval warships that approached to contest the invasion. The Tulagi invasion force, consisting of
4290-818: The Royal Navy and the United States Navy (USN). It was supported by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service for aircraft and airstrike operations from the fleet. It was the primary opponent of the Western Allies in the Pacific War . The origins of the Imperial Japanese Navy date back to early interactions with nations on the Asian continent , beginning in the early feudal period and reaching
4420-530: The Saga Rebellion (1874) and especially the Satsuma Rebellion (1877), forced the government to focus on land warfare, and the army gained prominence. Naval policy, as expressed by the slogan Shusei Kokubō (literally: "Static Defense"), focused on coastal defenses, on a standing army (established with the assistance of the second French Military Mission to Japan ), and a coastal navy that could act in
4550-657: The United Kingdom , Australia, and New Zealand—joined the U.S. as Allies in the war against Japan. In the words of the Japanese Navy's Combined Fleet "Secret Order Number One", dated 1 November 1941, the goals of the initial Japanese campaigns in the impending war were to, "(eject) British and American strength from the Netherlands Indies and the Philippines, (and) to establish a policy of autonomous self-sufficiency and economic independence". To support these goals, during
4680-502: The (JN-25) code-breaking process and showed him the Japanese commander’s intercepted message with the objectives to restrict enemy fleet movements and attack the north coast of Australia. So a transport due to leave the next day for New Caledonia was sent to Port Moresby. On 23 April Fabian showed MacArthur that the IJN was amassing a large force at Truk, and planned to occupy Tulagi also. MacArthur got an Australian reconnaissance plane to "discover"
4810-460: The 1854 Convention of Kanagawa led to the opening of Japan to international trade and interaction. This was soon followed by the 1858 Treaty of Amity and Commerce and treaties with other powers . As soon as Japan opened up to foreign influences, the Tokugawa shogunate recognized the vulnerability of the country from the sea and initiated an active policy of assimilation and adoption of Western naval technologies. In 1855, with Dutch assistance,
4940-629: The Asian continent, involving transportation of troops between Korea and Japan, starting at least with the beginning of the Kofun period in the 3rd century. Following the attempts at Mongol invasions of Japan by Kubilai Khan in 1274 and 1281, Japanese wakō became very active in plundering the coast of China . In response to threats of Chinese invasion of Japan, in 1405 the shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu capitulated to Chinese demands and sent twenty captured Japanese pirates to China, where they were boiled in
5070-631: The Australian troops on Tulagi of the approaching Japanese aircraft, but the troops did not have large enough weaponry—three Vickers machine guns and one Bren light machine gun —to seriously challenge the Japanese bombers. On 25 April, Tulagi was bombed by eight Japanese aircraft. Similar raids occurred daily over the next week, with one raid on 1 May heavily damaging one of the Catalinas at Gavutu. The remaining Catalinas successfully evacuated that same day. Allied intelligence personnel had deciphered much of
5200-524: The Boshin War. Enomoto Takeaki, the admiral of the shōgun ' s navy, refused to surrender all his ships, remitting just four vessels, and escaped to northern Honshū with the remnants of the shōgun ' s navy: eight steam warships and 2,000 men. Following the defeat of pro-shogunate resistance on Honshū, Admiral Enomoto Takeaki fled to Hokkaidō , where he established the breakaway Republic of Ezo (27 January 1869). The new Meiji government dispatched
5330-461: The Combined Fleet returned to Korea to support further landings off the Chinese coast. The Beiyang Fleet, under the command of Admiral Ding, was initially ordered to remain close to the Chinese coast while reinforcements were sent to Korea by land. However, as Japanese troops swiftly advanced northward from Seoul to Pyongyang, the Chinese decided to rush troops to Korea by sea under a naval escort in mid-September. Concurrently, because there not yet been
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5460-472: The Dutch flag. Frictions with the foreign ships, however, started from the beginning of the 19th century. The Nagasaki Harbour Incident involving HMS Phaeton in 1808, and other subsequent incidents in the following decades, led the shogunate to enact an Edict to Repel Foreign Vessels . Western ships, which were increasing their presence around Japan due to whaling and the trade with China, began to challenge
5590-524: The French during the Boshin War. Also, Japan was uneasy with being dependent on Great Britain, at a time when Great Britain was very close to China. The Meiji government issued its First Naval Expansion bill in 1882, requiring the construction of 48 warships, of which 22 were to be torpedo boats. The naval successes of the French Navy against China in the Sino-French War of 1883–85 seemed to validate
5720-519: The Greater Japanese Empire', or 日本海軍 Nippon Kaigun , 'Japanese Navy') was the navy of the Empire of Japan from 1868 to 1945, when it was dissolved following Japan's surrender in World War II . The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) was formed between 1952 and 1954 after the dissolution of the IJN. The Imperial Japanese Navy was the third largest navy in the world by 1920, behind
5850-517: The Imperial Japanese Navy remained an essentially coastal-defense force, although the Meiji government continued to modernize it. Jo Sho Maru (soon renamed Ryūjō Maru ) commissioned by Thomas Glover was launched at Aberdeen , Scotland on 27 March 1869. In 1870 an Imperial decree determined that Britain's Royal Navy should serve as the model for development, instead of the Netherlands navy. In 1873
5980-628: The Japanese Mo plans through radio intercepts at the Allied Fleet Radio Units (radio intelligence centers) in Melbourne , Australia and Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Based on this intelligence, on 22 April, U.S. Admiral Chester Nimitz —stationed at Pearl Harbor—directed Allied forces towards the Coral Sea area to interdict the Japanese Mo operation. On 27 April, the U.S. aircraft carrier USS Yorktown 's Task Force 17 (TF 17), under
6110-612: The Japanese Army-Navy landing on 7 May. The Tulagi assault force began their landings on Tulagi on 3 May. On 4 May 1942, troopships bearing the South Seas Detachment set sail southward from Rabaul for Port Moresby. This same day US aircraft from Yorktown attacked the Tulagi assault force, inflicting heavy damage, but were unsuccessful in preventing the occupation of Tulagi, Gavutu, and Tanambogo islands. Three days later, as
6240-405: The Japanese bases on Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Gavutu over the next several months, but without causing significant damage. Several Japanese float fighters and one Allied bomber were destroyed in aerial combat during the missions. The Allies were greatly concerned about the Japanese airfield construction effort on Guadalcanal because, when completed, the aircraft operating from the airfield would be
6370-429: The Japanese forces at Tulagi the next morning. At 07:01 on 4 May, Yorktown launched a first strike consisting of 12 TBD Devastator torpedo bombers and 28 SBD Dauntless dive bombers from a position about 160 km (86 nmi; 99 mi) south of Guadalcanal. The aircraft began their attacks on Shima's ships anchored near Tulagi at 08:50, taking the Japanese ships by surprise and at anchor. Okinoshima and
6500-405: The Japanese judged that a protracted war with China would increase the risk of intervention by the European powers with interests in East Asia. The army's Fifth Division would land at Chemulpo on the western coast of Korea, both to engage and push Chinese forces northwest up the peninsula and to draw the Beiyang Fleet into the Yellow Sea, where it would be engaged in decisive battle. Depending upon
6630-488: The Japanese landings were seaplanes from Kamikawa Maru , temporarily based at Thousand Ships Bay at Santa Isabel Island . About 400 Japanese naval troops—mainly from the 3rd Kure Special Naval Landing Force —disembarked from the transport ship on barges and immediately began construction of facilities on Tulagi and Gavutu-Tanambogo. Aircraft from Shōhō covered the landings until early afternoon, when Gotō's force turned toward Bougainville to refuel in preparation to support
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#17330855772486760-494: The Japanese political and military leadership, and Japan began to build up its military strength in preparation for future confrontations. The political capital and public support that the navy gained as a result of the recent conflict with China also encouraged popular and legislative support for naval expansion. In 1895, Yamamoto Gombei was assigned to compose a study of Japan's future naval needs. He believed that Japan should have sufficient naval strength to not only deal with
6890-410: The Japanese ships, many of which were now at full steam and attempting to put distance between themselves and Tulagi harbor. The second strike hit and sank the minesweepers #1 and #2 and severely damaged Tama Maru northeast of Savo Island . Another Japanese seaplane was shot down by a U.S. dive bomber during the second strike. After four F4F-3/3A Wildcat fighters from Yorktown joined the strike,
7020-442: The Japanese state. Furthermore, he justified that a large, modern navy, would have the added potential benefit of instilling Japan with greater international prestige and recognition, as navies were internationally recognized hallmarks of power and status. Iwakura also suggested that the Meiji government could support naval growth by increasing taxes on tobacco, sake, and soy. After lengthy discussions, Iwakura eventually convinced
7150-528: The Japanese troops successfully occupied Tulagi and began the construction of a small naval base. Over the next several months, the Japanese established a naval refueling, communications, and seaplane reconnaissance base on Tulagi and the nearby islets of Gavutu and Tanambogo , and in July 1942 began to build a large airfield on nearby Guadalcanal . The Japanese activities on Tulagi and Guadalcanal were observed by Allied reconnaissance aircraft , as well as by Australian coastwatcher personnel stationed in
7280-528: The Japanese turned back from their planned assault on Port Moresby with the intention of trying again later. The next Japanese seaborne attempt to take Port Moresby, however, never happened, mainly because of their navy's defeat in June at the Battle of Midway . Instead, the Japanese decided to try to take Port Moresby in an ultimately unsuccessful overland attack along the Kokoda Track . The failure to take Port Moresby in May 1942 would have significant and far-reaching strategic implications, many of which involved
7410-427: The Korean and Chinese coasts and bring the Beiyang Fleet to battle. On 17 September 1894, the Japanese encountered the Beiyang Fleet off the mouth of the Yalu River . The Beiyang Fleet was crippled during the ensuing battle , in which the Chinese lost eight out of 12 warships. The Chinese subsequently withdrew behind the Weihaiwei fortifications. However, they were then surprised by Japanese troops, who had outflanked
7540-413: The Ministry of War was replaced by a separate Army Ministry and Navy Ministry. In October 1873, Katsu Kaishū became Navy Minister. After the consolidation of the government the new Meiji state set about to build up national strength. The Meiji government honored the treaties with the Western powers signed during the Bakumatsu period with the ultimate goal of revising them, leading to a subsided threat from
7670-427: The Port Moresby Invasion Group. On 10 May, as Okinoshima participated in the first Japanese attempt to take Ocean (Banaba) and Nauru Islands, titled Operation RY , she was sunk by the submarine USS S-42 off New Ireland ( 05°06′S 153°48′E / 5.100°S 153.800°E / -5.100; 153.800 ). A total of 87 Japanese naval personnel died in the 4 May air attacks on Tulagi, and 36 of
7800-444: The Port Moresby invasion force on 5 May, leading to the Battle of the Coral Sea (see Central Bureau ). The Tulagi assault force, led by Rear Admiral Kiyohide Shima , was composed of the following units: The Port Moresby occupation force, led by Rear Admiral Sadamichi Kajioka , was composed of the following units: Supporting these operations and intercepting any Allied interference, Rear Admiral Aritomo Goto commanded: During
7930-412: The Russian-led Triple Intervention. The Japanese were well aware that they could not compete with the overwhelming naval power possessed by the three countries in East Asian waters, particularly Russia. Faced with little choice, the Japanese ceded the peninsula back to China for an additional 30 million taels (roughly ¥45 million). The cession of the Liaodong Peninsula was seen as a humiliation by
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#17330855772488060-468: The Satsuma domain in Kagoshima, students were sent abroad for training and a number of ships were acquired. The domains of Chōshū , Hizen , Tosa and Kaga joined Satsuma in acquiring ships. These naval elements proved insufficient during the Royal Navy 's Bombardment of Kagoshima in 1863 and the Allied bombardments of Shimonoseki in 1863–64. By the mid-1860s the shogunate had a fleet of eight warships and thirty-six auxiliaries. Satsuma (which had
8190-601: The South Pacific theater with U.S. Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley in command to direct the Allied offensive in the Solomons. The failure of the Japanese to take Port Moresby and their defeat at Midway had the effect of leaving their base at Tulagi without effective protection from other Japanese bases. Tulagi was four hours flying time from Rabaul, the nearest large Japanese base. On 7 August 1942, 11,000 U.S. Marines landed on Guadalcanal and 3,000 U.S. Marines landed on Tulagi and nearby islands. The Japanese troops on Tulagi and nearby islands were outnumbered and killed almost to
8320-490: The South Pacific. On 7 December 1941, the Japanese attacked the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Naval Station Pearl Harbor , Hawaii . The attack crippled most of the U.S. Pacific Fleet's battleships and started a formal state of war between the two nations. In launching this war, Japanese leaders sought to neutralize the American fleet, seize possessions rich in natural resources, and obtain strategic military bases to defend their far-flung empire. Soon after, other nations—including
8450-450: The TBDs (Bu No. 0333) in the third strike became lost, ran out of fuel, and ditched in the ocean about 60 km (32 nmi; 37 mi) south of Guadalcanal. Two of the Wildcats from the second strike also ran out of fuel and crash landed on the southern coast of Guadalcanal. Fletcher sent the destroyers USS Hammann and Perkins to rescue the aircrews from the three aircraft. Hammann was able to recover both fighter pilots, but Perkins
8580-410: The Tulagi invasion with his Covering Group of one light carrier ( Shōhō ), four cruisers, and one destroyer located just west of the central Solomons. A separate Cover Force (sometimes referred to as the Tulagi Support Group)—commanded by Rear Admiral Kuninori Marumo and consisting of two light cruisers, the seaplane tender Kamikawa Maru , and three gunboats—joined the Covering Group in supporting
8710-423: The Tulagi invasion. Once Tulagi was secured on 3 or 4 May, the Covering Group and Cover Force were to reposition to help cover the Port Moresby invasion. At the time, Tulagi was the capital of the British Solomon Islands Protectorate , which included all of the islands of the Solomons except Bougainville and Buka . William Sydney Marchant , the British Resident Commissioner of the Solomons and commander of
8840-433: The Western technological and scientific revolution which allowed Japan to remain aware of naval sciences, such as cartography , optics and mechanical sciences. Seclusion, however, led to the loss of any naval and maritime traditions the nation possessed. Apart from Dutch trade ships, no other Western vessels were allowed to enter Japanese ports. A notable exception was during the Napoleonic wars when neutral ships flew
8970-427: The area of brush, and on 6 July, a 12-ship convoy delivered 2,000 Korean and Japanese construction workers plus 500 Japanese naval combat troops to conduct the airfield construction effort in earnest. The coastwatchers on Guadalcanal and Allied air reconnaissance observed the Japanese airfield construction efforts. Allied Catalinas and B-17s based at Port Moresby, Efate , Noumea , and Espiritu Santo frequently bombed
9100-408: The area. Because these activities threatened the Allied supply and communication lines in the South Pacific, Allied forces counter-attacked with landings of their own on Guadalcanal and Tulagi on 7 August 1942, initiating the critical Guadalcanal campaign and a series of combined arms battles between Allied and Japanese forces that, along with the New Guinea campaign , decided the course of the war in
9230-401: The army and saw naval strength as paramount. In 1870 the new government drafted an ambitious plan to develop a navy with 200 ships organized into ten fleets. The plan was abandoned within a year due to lack of resources. Financial considerations were a major factor restricting the growth of the navy during the 1870s. Japan at the time was not a wealthy state. Soon, however, domestic rebellions,
9360-443: The assistance of one of the subchasers—was beached on Gavutu in an attempt to keep her from sinking. During this time, all of the other ships weighed anchor and attempted to escape from the harbor. One U.S. dive bomber destroyed a Japanese Mitsubishi F1M 2 "Pete" floatplane that attempted to take off during the attack. Yorktown ' s second strike—utilizing the same aircraft—returned to Tulagi and began their attack at 12:10 on
9490-691: The attitudes of its officers. From September 1870, the English Lieutenant Horse, a former gunnery instructor for the Saga fief during the Bakumatsu period, was put in charge of gunnery practice on board the Ryūjō . In 1871, the ministry resolved to send 16 trainees abroad for training in naval sciences (14 to Great Britain, two to the United States), among whom was Heihachirō Tōgō. In 1879, Commander L. P. Willan
9620-567: The capture of Morobe and Buna ), strategists envisioned those territories as support points to implement the capture of Port Moresby . The implementation of these operations was assigned to the Japanese Naval task force led by Admiral Chūichi Nagumo , after completing the Java campaign. Another important step was the occupation of Christmas Island to the south of Java. The Japanese Navy General Staff had been considering Operation Mo since 1938, as
9750-493: The coastwatchers were commissioned as Royal Australian Naval Volunteer Reserve officers, and they were directed by Lieutenant Commander Eric Feldt , who was located at Townsville in Australia. Throughout most of April, the Japanese conducted "desultory" bombing raids on Tulagi with aircraft based at Rabaul or nearby that caused little, if any, damage. The coastwatchers on Guadalcanal were usually able to radio advance warning to
9880-451: The command of Rear Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher , sortied from Tonga and was joined by the U.S. carrier USS Lexington 's TF 11 300 nmi (350 mi ; 560 km ) northwest of New Caledonia on 1 May. That same day, Fletcher detached TF 11 to refuel, expecting to rejoin with Lexington and her escorts on 4 May at a predetermined location in the Coral Sea. On 2 May, coastwatcher Jack Read on Bougainville reported that
10010-555: The course of operation, Yamamoto sent the following heavy support force from Truk , led by Rear Admiral Chuichi Hara : Supporting this force was the 25th Air Fleet, (Yokohama Air Corps) led by Rear Admiral Sadayoshi Yamada , based in Rabaul, Lae , Salamaua , Buna and Deboyne Islands , composed of 60 Mitsubishi A6M "Zero" fighters, 48 Mitsubishi G3M "Nell" and 26 Aichi E13A "Jake" and Mitsubishi F1M "Pete" reconnaissance seaplanes. This unit bombed Port Moresby on 5–6 May, ahead of
10140-527: The destroyers Kikuzuki and Yūzuki ; minelayer/transports Okinoshima , and Kōei Maru ; auxiliary minesweepers Wa-1 , Wa-2 , Hagoromo Maru , Noshiro Maru #2 , and Tama Maru ; transport, Azumasan Maru ; subchasers Toshi Maru #3 and Tama Maru #8 ; and commanded by Rear Admiral Kiyohide Shima (flag on Okinoshima ), departed from Rabaul on 30 April and headed towards the Solomon Islands. Rear Admiral Aritomo Gotō provided air cover for
10270-550: The dispatch of a large force of the Imperial Japanese Navy. As a result, the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876 was signed, marking the official opening of Korea to foreign trade, and Japan's first example of Western-style interventionism and adoption of "unequal treaties" tactics. In 1878, the Japanese cruiser Seiki sailed to Europe with an entirely Japanese crew. After the Imo Incident in July 1882, Iwakura Tomomi submitted
10400-435: The domains had returned their lands and population registers to the government. In 1871 the domains were abolished altogether and as with the political context the centralization of the navy began with the domains donating their forces to the central government. As a result, in 1871 Japan could finally boast a centrally controlled navy, this was also the institutional beginning of the Imperial Japanese Navy. In February 1872,
10530-465: The early phase of the Boshin War of 1868–1869. All other naval vessels remained under the control of the various domains which had been acquired during the Bakumatsu period. The naval forces mirrored the political environment of Japan at the time: the domains retained their political as well as military independence from the Imperial government. Katsu Kaishū a former Tokugawa navy leader, was brought into
10660-444: The fighters shot down two more Japanese floatplanes over Florida Island . The four U.S. fighters then strafed Yūzuki , killing her captain and nine others of her crew, and causing moderate damage to the ship. Two or three other Japanese floatplanes were damaged in Tulagi harbor and their crews were killed. A third, smaller strike from Yorktown arrived at 15:30 and caused moderate damage to Azumasan Maru and Okinoshima . One of
10790-645: The first few months of 1942 Japanese forces also attacked and took control of the Philippines , Thailand , Malaya , Singapore , the Netherlands East Indies , Wake Island , New Britain , the Gilbert Islands , and Guam . Vice Admiral Shigeyoshi Inoue —commander of the Japanese 4th Fleet (also called the "South Seas Force") consisting of most of the naval units in the South Pacific area—advocated
10920-476: The following months, military forces of the government came under the control of several organizations which were established and then disbanded until the establishment of the Ministry of War and of the Ministry of the Navy of Japan in 1872. For the first two years (1868–1870) of the Meiji state no national, centrally controlled navy existed, – the Meiji government only administered those Tokugawa vessels captured in
11050-447: The government as Vice Minister of the Navy in 1872, and became the first Minister of the Navy from 1873 until 1878 because of his naval experience and his ability to control Tokugawa personnel who retained positions in the government naval forces. Upon assuming office Katsu Kaishu recommended the rapid centralization of all naval forces – government and domain – under one agency. The nascent Meiji government in its first years did not have
11180-449: The harbor's defenses in coordination with the navy. The remnants of the Beiyang Fleet were destroyed at Weihaiwei . Although Japan had emerged victorious at sea, the two large German-made Chinese ironclad battleships ( Dingyuan and Zhenyuan ) had remained almost impervious to Japanese guns, highlighting the need for bigger capital ships in the Imperial Japanese Navy. The next step of the Imperial Japanese Navy's expansion would thus involve
11310-414: The island just before the Japanese forces arrived on 3 May. The next day, however, a U.S. aircraft carrier task force en route to resist the Japanese forces advancing on Port Moresby (later taking part in the Battle of the Coral Sea ) struck the Japanese Tulagi landing force in an air attack, destroying or damaging several of the Japanese ships and aircraft involved in the landing operation. Nevertheless,
11440-571: The landing troops were seriously injured. The lost Yorktown TBD aircrew (Leonard Ewoldt, pilot, and Ray Machalinsk gunner) reached Guadalcanal after drifting in the ocean for three days. A Roman Catholic missionary, Father Jean Boudard, took them to Martin Clemens who arranged for a boat to take them to San Cristobal . From San Cristobal, another boat took them to the New Hebrides and from there they eventually rejoined U.S. forces. After striking Tulagi, Yorktown rejoined with Lexington , and
11570-604: The landings at Port Moresby. Once the Japanese troops were ashore, six seaplanes landed in Tulagi harbor as part of the establishment of the planned seaplane base there. At 17:00 on 3 May, Fletcher was notified that the Japanese Tulagi invasion force had been sighted the day before approaching the southern Solomons. Unable to communicate with the Lexington task force because of the need to maintain radio silence, Yorktown ' s task force proceeded independently toward Guadalcanal in order to be in position to launch airstrikes against
11700-528: The largest domain fleet) had nine steamships, Choshu had five ships plus numerous auxiliary craft, Kaga had ten ships and Chikuzen eight. Numerous smaller domains also had acquired a number of ships. However, these fleets resembled maritime organizations rather than actual navies with ships functioning as transports as well as combat vessels; they were also manned by personnel who lacked experienced seamanship except for coastal sailing and who had virtually no combat training. The Meiji Restoration in 1868 led to
11830-526: The last man in the Battle of Tulagi and Gavutu-Tanambogo while the U.S. Marines on Guadalcanal captured the airfield at Lunga Point without significant resistance. Thus began the Guadalcanal campaign that resulted in a series of large, combined-arms battles between Allied and Japanese forces over the next six months which—along with the New Guinea campaign—would decide the fate of Japanese efforts to secure
11960-457: The line of the Elswick class of protected cruisers but with superior specifications. An arms race was taking place with China however, who equipped herself with two 7,335 ton German-built battleships ( Ting Yüan and Chen-Yüan ). Unable to confront the Chinese fleet with only two modern cruisers, Japan resorted to French assistance to build a large, modern fleet which could prevail in
12090-524: The local defense forces, directed the evacuation of most of the white civilian residents to Australia in February 1942. Marchant was evacuated to Malaita the following month, where he helped operate a coastwatcher relay station. The only Allied military forces at Tulagi were 24 commandos from the Australian Army 's 2/1st Independent Company , under Captain A. L. Goode, and about 25 personnel from 11 Squadron RAAF , under F/O R. B. Peagam, operating
12220-538: The major Japanese base at Rabaul , and serve as a base for Japanese forces to threaten and interdict the supply and communication routes between the United States and Australia and New Zealand. Without the means to effectively resist the Japanese offensive in the Solomons, the British Resident Commissioner of the Solomon Islands protectorate and the few Australian troops assigned to defend Tulagi evacuated
12350-478: The most powerful domains as the government did not have enough naval power to put down the rebellion on its own. Although the rebel forces in Hokkaidō surrendered, the government's response to the rebellion demonstrated the need for a strong centralized naval force. Even before the rebellion the restoration leaders had realized the need for greater political, economic and military centralization and by August 1869 most of
12480-409: The navy secured the ¥6.5 million required annually to support an eight-year expansion plan, this was the largest that the Imperial Japanese Navy had secured in its young existence. However, naval expansion remained a highly contentious issue for both the government and the navy throughout much of the 1880s. Overseas advances in naval technology increased the costs of purchasing large components of
12610-456: The necessary political and military force to implement such a policy and so, like much of the government, the naval forces retained a decentralized structure in most of 1869 through 1870. The incident involving Enomoto Takeaki's refusal to surrender and his escape to Hokkaidō with a large part of the former Tokugawa Navy's best warships embarrassed the Meiji government politically. The imperial side had to rely on considerable naval assistance from
12740-563: The offensive to deny the use of the southern Solomon Islands by the Japanese as bases to threaten the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia, and to use them as starting points for a campaign . His goal was to neutralize or capture the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign , with the eventual goal of opening the way for the U.S. to retake the Philippines. The Allied commander-in chief for Pacific forces, U.S. Admiral Chester Nimitz, created
12870-600: The order of a revolutionary torpedo boat, Kotaka , which was considered the first effective design of a destroyer, in 1887 and with the purchase of Yoshino , built at the Armstrong works in Elswick , Newcastle upon Tyne , the fastest cruiser in the world at the time of her launch in 1892. In 1889, she ordered the Clyde-built Chiyoda , which defined the type for armored cruisers . Between 1882 and 1918, ending with
13000-451: The outcome of this engagement, Japanese decisionmakers anticipated that they would be faced with one of three choices. If the Combined Fleet were to win decisively at sea, the larger part of the Japanese army could immediately land in force on the Korean coast between Shanhaiguan and Tianjin in order to defeat the Chinese army and bring the war to a swift conclusion. If the naval engagement was
13130-516: The outside world and prohibited the construction of ocean-going ships on pain of death. Contacts were maintained, however, with the Dutch through the port of Nagasaki , the Chinese also through Nagasaki and the Ryukyus and Korea through intermediaries with Tsushima. The study of Western sciences, called " rangaku " through the Dutch enclave of Dejima in Nagasaki led to the transfer of knowledge related to
13260-462: The overthrow of the shogunate. From 1868, the newly formed Meiji government continued with reforms to centralize and modernize Japan. Although the Meiji reformers had overthrown the Tokugawa shogunate, tensions between the former ruler and the restoration leaders led to the Boshin War (January 1868 to June 1869). The early part of the conflict largely involved land battles, with naval forces playing
13390-497: The potential of torpedo boats, an approach which was also attractive to the limited resources of Japan. In 1885, the new Navy slogan became Kaikoku Nippon (Jp:海国日本, "Maritime Japan"). In 1885, the leading French Navy engineer Émile Bertin was hired for four years to reinforce the Japanese Navy and to direct the construction of the arsenals of Kure and Sasebo . He developed the Sankeikan class of cruisers; three units featuring
13520-492: The presence of the American aircraft carrier USS Yorktown in Coral Sea waters during this period. A Japanese message on 9 April 1942 indicated that the "RZP Campaign" against Port Moresby was to be an invasion, not an air raid, and which would isolate Australia from America. USN codebreaker Rudy Fabian at FRUMEL briefed MacArthur who was "incredulous" as he expected the target would be New Caledonia, so Fabian explained
13650-453: The private domain navies of Saga , Chōshū, Satsuma , Kurume , Kumamoto and Hiroshima participating. The total tonnage of these ships was 2,252 tons, which was far smaller than the tonnage of the single foreign vessel (from the French Navy) that also participated. The following year, in July 1869, the Imperial Japanese Navy was formally established, two months after the last combat of
13780-590: The revolutionary new technologies embodied in torpedoes , torpedo-boats and mines , of which the French at the time were probably the world's best exponents". Japan acquired its first torpedoes in 1884, and established a "Torpedo Training Center" at Yokosuka in 1886. These ships, ordered during the fiscal years 1885 and 1886, were the last major orders placed with France. The unexplained sinking of Unebi en route from France to Japan in December 1886, created embarrassment however. Japan turned again to Britain, with
13910-423: The ruling coalition to support Japan's first multi-year naval expansion plan in history. In May 1883, the government approved a plan that, when completed, would add 32 warships over eight years at a cost of just over ¥26 million. This development was very significant for the navy, as the amount allocated virtually equaled the navy's entire budget between 1873 and 1882. The 1882 naval expansion plan succeeded in
14040-424: The sea. This however led to conflict with those disgruntled samurai who wanted to expel the westerners and with groups which opposed the Meiji reforms. Internal dissent – including peasant uprisings – become a greater concern for the government, which curtailed plans for naval expansion as a result. In the immediate period from 1868 many members of the Meiji coalition advocated giving preference to maritime forces over
14170-578: The seclusion policy. The Morrison Incident in 1837 and news of China's defeat during the Opium War led the shogunate to repeal the law to execute foreigners, and instead to adopt the Order for the Provision of Firewood and Water. The shogunate also began to strengthen the nation's coastal defenses. Many Japanese realized that traditional ways would not be sufficient to repel further intrusions, and western knowledge
14300-591: The seizing of Lae , Salamaua , and Port Moresby in New Guinea and Tulagi in the Solomon Islands . Inoue believed that the capture and control of these locations would provide greater security for the major Japanese base at Rabaul on New Britain. Japan's Naval General Staff endorsed Inoue's argument and began planning further operations, using these locations as supporting bases, to seize Nauru , Ocean Island , New Caledonia , Fiji , and Samoa and thereby cut
14430-632: The shogunate acquired its first steam warship, Kankō Maru , and began using it for training, establishing a Naval Training Center at Nagasaki. Samurai such as the future Admiral Enomoto Takeaki (1836–1908) was sent by the shogunate to study in the Netherlands for several years. In 1859 the Naval Training Center relocated to Tsukiji in Tokyo . In 1857 the shogunate acquired its first screw-driven steam warship Kanrin Maru and used it as an escort for
14560-483: The small Japanese naval base at Tulagi. Despite the damaging air attacks to their ships and landing forces, the Japanese proceeded with the construction of the naval seaplane base at Tulagi and Gavutu, receiving more shipments of troops and construction workers over the next several months. The base was soon operational with aircraft from the Yokohama Air Group which conducted air reconnaissance patrols throughout
14690-480: The southern Solomon Islands, where a seaplane base would be set up for potential air operations against Allied territories and forces in the South Pacific. Although Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto —commander of the Combined Fleet—was concurrently planning an operation that he hoped would lure the U.S. Pacific Fleet into a decisive showdown in the central Pacific, he detached some of his large warships to support
14820-472: The standing army of forty thousand men was more than sufficient for domestic purposes. While the government should direct the lion's share of future military appropriations toward naval matters, a powerful navy would legitimize an increase in tax revenue. On November 24, the emperor assembled select ministers of the daijō-kan together with military officers, and announced the need for increased tax revenues to provide adequate funding for military expansion, this
14950-450: The supply lines between Australia and the U.S., with the goal of reducing or eliminating Australia as a threat to Japanese positions in the South Pacific. The Imperial Japanese Army supported the idea of taking Port Moresby and in April 1942, with the Japanese Navy, developed a plan for the attack that was titled " Operation Mo ". The plan also included the seizure of Tulagi, a small island in
15080-515: The surrounding area beginning on 6 May. On 27 May, the Japanese inspected the Lunga Point area on Guadalcanal as a possible location to build a large airfield. On 13 June, the Naval General Staff approved the construction of an airfield at that location and on 19 June, Admiral Inoue toured the site in anticipation of the airfield construction effort. The next day, Japanese troops began clearing
15210-504: The two carriers engaged the rest of the Japanese forces involved in the Mo operation from 6–8 May in the Battle of the Coral Sea . In the battle, Lexington was sunk and Yorktown was damaged. The Japanese suffered Shōhō sunk, a fleet carrier heavily damaged, and heavy losses to their carrier aircraft and aircrews. Fearing more damaging attacks from Allied land-based aircraft or warships and unable because of their aircraft losses to provide adequate air cover for their naval surface forces,
15340-532: The two destroyers were positioned to provide a protective barrier for Azumasan Maru and Kōei Maru which were busy unloading troops and materiel. The three minesweepers had just got underway to support the Port Moresby invasion and were still near Tulagi. Although the U.S. pilots from the first strike claimed many bomb and torpedo hits on the anchored ships, they actually hit only Okinoshima , causing minor damage, and Kikuzuki , causing major damage. Kikuzuki —with
15470-452: The upcoming conflict. During the 1880s, France took the lead in influence, due to its " Jeune École " ("young school") doctrine, favoring small, fast warships, especially cruisers and torpedo boats , against bigger units. The choice of France may also have been influenced by the Minister of the Navy, who happened to be Enomoto Takeaki at that time (Navy Minister 1880–1885), a former ally of
15600-559: The visit of the French Military Mission to Japan , the Imperial Japanese Navy stopped relying on foreign instructors altogether. In 1886, she manufactured her own prismatic powder , and in 1892 one of her officers invented a powerful explosive, the Shimose powder . Japan continued the modernization of its navy, especially driven by Chinese efforts to construct a powerful modern fleet with foreign (especially German) assistance, and as
15730-510: Was approved by the Army and Navy General Staffs: Japanese planners took into account an Allied response to the operation by detaching one task force to the west of parallel between of Rennel and Deboyne Islands and another to the east of same point. These measures would permit a Japanese invasion force to use the Jomard Passage directly to Port Moresby. Japanese naval intelligence also suspected
15860-568: Was destroyed at the Battle of Midway . These battles prevented the Japanese landings against Port Moresby. Instead the Japanese army commenced an ultimately unsuccessful campaign to take Port Moresby with an overland approach across the Owen Stanley Range via the Kokoda Track . Imperial Japanese Navy The Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ; Kyūjitai : 大日本帝國海軍 Shinjitai : 大日本帝国海軍 Dai-Nippon Teikoku Kaigun 'Navy of
15990-466: Was followed by an imperial re-script. The following month, in December, an annual ¥7.5-million tax increase on sake, soy, and tobacco was fully approved, in the hopes that it would provide ¥3.5 million annually for warship construction and ¥2.5 million for warship maintenance. In February 1883, the government directed further revenues from other ministries to support an increase in the navy's warship construction and purchasing budget. By March 1883,
16120-624: Was hired to train naval cadets. Ships such as the Fusō , Kongō and Hiei were built in British shipyards, and they were the first warships built abroad specifically for the Imperial Japanese Navy. Private construction companies such as Ishikawajima and Kawasaki also emerged around this time. During 1873, a plan to invade the Korean Peninsula , the Seikanron proposal made by Saigō Takamori ,
16250-705: Was narrowly abandoned by decision of the central government in Tokyo. In 1874, the Taiwan expedition was the first foray abroad of the new Imperial Japanese Navy and Army after the Mudan Incident of 1871 , however the navy served largely as a transport force. Various interventions in the Korean Peninsula continued in 1875–1876, starting with the Ganghwa Island incident provoked by the Japanese gunboat Un'yō , leading to
16380-475: Was necessary they return to Japan to re-equip and train. The Japanese abandoned their plans to land the South Seas Detachment directly at Port Moresby from the sea. The Japanese Army was making new preparations for combat when, on 11 July, High Command ordered the suspension of Operation FS the projected actions against New Caledonia , Fiji , and Samoa , after the remaining Japanese carrier strength
16510-619: Was part of Operation Mo , the Empire of Japan 's strategy in the South Pacific and South West Pacific Area in 1942. The plan called for Imperial Japanese Navy troops to capture Tulagi and nearby islands in the British Solomon Islands Protectorate . The occupation of Tulagi by the Japanese was intended to cover the flank of and provide reconnaissance support for Japanese forces that were advancing on Port Moresby in New Guinea , provide greater defensive depth for
16640-454: Was perceived as ill-advised, and the navy was far less confident than their counterparts in the Japanese army about the outcome of a war with China. Japan's main strategy was to swiftly obtain naval superiority, as this was critical to the success of operations on land. An early victory over the Beiyang fleet would allow Japan to transport troops and material to the Korean Peninsula; additionally,
16770-669: Was unable to locate the TBD's crew. Both destroyers returned to Yorktown ' s task force late that evening as the task force turned away from Guadalcanal toward the southeast in order to refuel and rendezvous with Lexington the next day. On 5 May, Kikuzuki slid off of the shore of Gavutu and sank in Tulagi harbor, a total loss ( 09°07′S 160°12′E / 9.117°S 160.200°E / -9.117; 160.200 ). Tama Maru foundered two days later. The other surviving, damaged Japanese ships were able to reach Rabaul and Kavieng for repairs. Hagoromo Maru and Noshiro Maru #2 joined
16900-497: Was utilized through the Dutch at Dejima to reinforce Japan's capability to repel the foreigners; field guns, mortars, and firearms were obtained, and coastal defenses reinforced. Numerous attempts to open Japan ended in failure, in part to Japanese resistance, until the early 1850s. During 1853 and 1854, American warships under the command of Commodore Matthew Perry , entered Edo Bay and made demonstrations of force requesting trade negotiations. After two hundred years of seclusion,
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