Larkspur was the retrospectively adopted name of a tactical radio system used by the British Army . Its development started in the late 1940s with the first equipment being issued in the mid-1950s. It remained in service until replaced by Clansman in the late-1970s although some elements of Larkspur were still in service well into the 1980s. It was widely exported to British Commonwealth armies and other friendly nations.
103-646: 1963 1964 1965 Claret was the code name given to operations conducted from about July 1964 until July 1966 from East Malaysia (Sarawak and Sabah) across the border in Indonesian Kalimantan during the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation . They were instigated by the Director of Borneo Operations (DOBOPS) Major General Walter Walker with the agreement of the British and Malaysian governments. Their purpose
206-509: A Brunei politician, Dr. AM Azahari bin Sheikh Mahmud, while supporting a unified North Borneo, also opposed a wider Malaysian federation. In 1961, he had sounded out Indonesia about possible aid in training Borneo recruits; General Abdul Nasution hinted at moral support, and Soebandrio , the Indonesian foreign minister and head of intelligence, hinted at supplying more substantial aid. Azahari
309-914: A UK-based unit] [Note: this is not a list of all units that served in Borneo, only those that are believed to have undertaken Claret operations. No official UK history has been produced covering Confrontation. However, operational reports by HQs are in National Archives as are some unit records.] Citations Bibliography Onlines sources Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia confrontation Military Total: Civilians Total: [REDACTED] 23 killed 8 wounded [REDACTED] 12 killed 16 wounded [REDACTED] 9 killed several wounded Total: 1963 1964 1965 The Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation or Borneo confrontation (known as Konfrontasi in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore)
412-557: A build-up of Indonesian infiltration forces in Kalimantan opposite Kuching, which suggested the possibility of an escalation in hostilities. Two additional British battalions were subsequently deployed to Borneo. Meanwhile, due to the landings in Malaysia and Indonesia's continued troop build-up, Australia and New Zealand also agreed to begin deploying combat forces to Borneo in early 1965. Larkspur radio system The origin of Larkspur
515-583: A contingent of 120 from the Indonesian intelligence agency and a small cadre trained in China. The PKI (Indonesian Communist Party) was firmly in evidence and led by an ethnic Arab revolutionary, Sofyan. The PGRS ran some raids into Sarawak but spent more time developing their supporters in Sarawak. The Indonesian military did not approve of the leftist nature of the PGRS and generally avoided them. Sukarno's motives for beginning
618-460: A grid reference, from which those south of the border can be identified with the aid of a 1:50,000 scale map. However, the border is some 1,000 miles (1,600 km) long. The operations varied in size from 4 man special forces reconnaissance patrols to infantry fighting patrols in company strength, sometimes coordinated in a battalion operation. They included at least one 'permanent' Claret task, an artillery position (gun and observation post) astride
721-440: A headman reported an incursion in the 3rd Division and a follow-up indicated they were about 50 strong. A series of contacts ensued as 2/6 Gurkhas deployed patrols and ambushes, and after a month, 15 had been killed and three captured. The Gurkhas reported that they were well trained and professionally led, but their ammunition expenditure was high, and their fire discipline broke down. The prisoners reported 300 more invaders within
824-727: A month for the security forces to capture or kill 90 of the 96 paratroopers, with two men killed during the action. Indonesia's expansion of the conflict to the Malaysian Peninsula sparked the Sunda Straits Crisis , involving the anticipated transit of the Sunda Strait by the British aircraft carrier HMS Victorious and two destroyer escorts. Commonwealth forces were readied for airstrikes against Indonesian infiltration staging areas in Sumatra if further Indonesian infiltrations of
927-425: A more complex operation is one by 2 Royal Green Jackets in late 1965, with battalion tactical HQ on the border ridge. It involved one company swimming a river to get behind an enemy base, a second company ambushed the river, when the Indonesian mortars in the base opened fire on the ambush area they were engaged by the battalion's mortars that had been brought forward. This caused some Indonesians to flee their base into
1030-619: A presence in the Far East as early as the late-1950s. As a part of its withdrawal from its Southeast Asian colonies, the UK moved to combine its colonies in North Borneo with the Federation of Malaya (which had become independent from Britain in 1957), and Singapore (which had become self-governing in 1959). In May 1961, the UK and Malayan governments proposed a larger federation called Malaysia, encompassing
1133-432: A replacement for the wartime Wireless Set No. 19 , it was enhanced during development by the addition of Narrow Band Phase Modulation (NBPhM) facilities to improve the performance and communications reliability at short range particularly at night when ionospheric changes cause increased interference levels. This was accomplished by the use of angle modulation effectively doubling the output power compared to AM and exploiting
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#17328687973531236-505: A subject of debate. While Indonesia at the time denied direct involvement, it did sympathise with the TNKU's objectives to destabilise the proposed Malaysian state. Following the TNKU's military setback in Brunei, on 20 January 1963 Indonesian Foreign Minister Subandrio announced that Indonesia would pursue a policy of Konfrontasi with Malaysia, reversing Indonesia's previous policy of compliance with
1339-719: A violation of state sovereignty, however they were justified at the time as an instance of hot pursuit . Operation Claret was largely successful in gaining the initiative for the British Commonwealth forces, inflicting significant casualties on the Indonesians and keeping them on the defensive, before being suspended late in the war. The border between East Malaysia and Kalimantan was not well defined and 22 Special Air Service reconnaissance patrols seem to have liberally interpreted its inexactitude from late 1963 or early 1964. From early 1964 Indonesian cross-border raids increased and
1442-552: A week and 600 in a fortnight. The Battle of Long Jawai was the first major incursion for the centre of the 3rd Division, directed by an RPKAD Major Mulyono Soerjowardojo, who had been sent to Nangabadan earlier in the year. The proclamation of Malaysia in September 1963 meant that Malaysian Army units deployed former British Borneo now known as East Malaysia. The deliberate attack by Indonesian forces on Malaysian troops did not enhance Sukarno's "anti-imperialist" credentials, although
1545-559: Is also unclear. At peak artillery strength in 1965–1966 there were six batteries (two from the Royal Malaysian Artillery) of 105 mm Pack Howitzer , half a battery of 5.5-inch guns and a section of 4.2-inch mortars operated by men detached from the light air defence battery defending Kuching airport. Artillery observation parties accompanied most, if not all, infantry patrols and occasionally special forces ones. The number of Claret operations by individual infantry units
1648-413: Is also unclear. It is probably related to tour length, although from early 1966 frequency decreased as the political situation in Indonesia changed. Units stationed in Malaysia generally did tours of about 4 or 6 months in Borneo, and most British and Gurkha units did repeated tours. UK based units spent 12 months in Malaysia, including jungle training and about 10 months in Borneo in two different areas. It
1751-451: Is naturally covered by tropical rainforests. This covers the mountainous areas cut by many rivers with very steep-sided hills and hilltop ridges often only a few metres wide. The high rainfall means large rivers; these provide a principal means of transport and are formidable tactical obstacles. Dense mangrove forest covering vast tidal flats intersected with numerous creeks is a feature of many coastal areas, including Brunei and either end of
1854-673: The Clandestine Communist Organisation (CCO) or the Sarawak Communist Organisation (SCO). The SCO was predominantly dominated by ethnic Chinese but also included Dayak supporters. However, the SCO had little support from ethnic Malays and other indigenous Sarawak peoples. At its height, the SCO had 24,000 members. During the 1940s and 1950s, Maoism had spread among Chinese vernacular schools in Sarawak. Following World War II, Communist influence also penetrated
1957-645: The Colonial Office in London , which in turn dispatched a governor for Sarawak. The predominantly Malay anti-cession movement, which rejected the British takeover of Sarawak and had assassinated Duncan Stewart , the first British High Commissioner of Sarawak, may have been the forerunner of the subsequent anti-Malaysia movement in Sarawak, headed by Ahmad Zaidi Adruce . According to Vernon L. Porritt and Hong-Kah Fong, left-wing and communist cells had been present among Sarawak's urban Chinese communities since
2060-650: The First and Second World . Indonesia was an important country in developing the Non-Aligned Movement , hosting the Bandung Conference in 1955. Indonesia had relentlessly pursued its claim to Dutch New Guinea from 1950 to 1962, despite facing multiple setbacks in the UN General Assembly in getting its claim recognised by the international community. Following the Indonesian crisis in 1958, which had included
2163-749: The Manila Accord . While the Philippines did not engage in hostilities, it did defer recognising Malaysia as the successor state to Malaya. Consequently, Malaysia severed diplomatic ties with the Philippines. Indonesia argued that the establishment of Malaysia allowed the United Kingdom to maintain her unique privileges regarding the use of the Singapore base and keep close ties to British defense needs in Southeast Asia constituted an implied threat. Subandrio ,
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#17328687973532266-643: The Permesta rebellion in eastern Indonesia and the declaration of the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia , Indonesia had emerged as a notable and rising military power in Southeast Asia. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), primarily through its Taiwan-based subsidiary Civil Air Transport (CAT), had been covertly providing support to rebels on remote islands, seeking to weaken, if not outright oust President Sukarno's regime. Beginning in 1957,
2369-501: The Sultan of Brunei , the Brunei oil fields, or European hostages. Within hours of the insurrection being launched, British forces based in Singapore were mobilised for a prompt response. The failure of the insurrection was evident within 30 hours when Gurkha troops airlifted from Singapore secured Brunei town and ensured the Sultan's safety. The degree of Indonesian support for the TNKU remains
2472-402: The "New Range" to differentiate them from wartime legacy radios. They were characterized by similar appearance, tuning drills, frequency indication using film strip displays, the use of relatively simple architecture that avoided complex switching as far as possible and using commonly available components and a degree of modularity in construction. Plessey Mk.IV connectors were used extensively in
2575-824: The 1930s and 1940s. Some of the earliest Communist groups in Sabah included the Anti-Fascist League, which later became the Races Liberation Army, and the Borneo Anti-Japanese League, which was made up of the North Borneo Anti-Japanese League and the West Borneo Anti-Japanese League. The latter was led by Wu Chan, who was deported by the Sarawak colonial government to China in 1952. Other Communist groups in Sarawak included
2678-584: The Australian government did not officially acknowledge its involvement until 1996. The number of Claret operations and their objectives is unclear. Weekly operational reports by brigade, higher headquarters and some units are available in UK National Archives. They do not identify any actions as specifically Claret. They outline 'contacts' in a way that implies they took place in East Malaysia but provide
2781-849: The British Special Air Service , Special Boat Sections , Guards Independent Parachute Company , Gurkha Independent Parachute Company, patrol companies of the Parachute Regiment (C Company 2nd and D Company 3rd Battalions), the Australian Special Air Service Regiment and the 1 Ranger Squadron, New Zealand Special Air Service . The reconnaissance and intelligence gathering activities of the Border Scouts , mostly trained by 22 SAS, are unclear (apart from their accompanying many infantry patrols). The extent to which Malaysian Army units undertook Claret operations
2884-532: The British decolonisation initiative involving the formation of the Federation of Malaysia that would comprise the Malay Peninsula and British Borneo. Sukarno accused Malaysia of being a British puppet state aimed at establishing neo-imperialism and neo-colonialism in Southeast Asia, and also at containing Indonesian ambition to be the regional hegemonic power. It was also suggested that Sukarno's campaign against
2987-528: The British proposal. This was followed by the first recorded infiltration of Indonesian forces on 12 April 1963 when a police station in Tebedu, Sarawak, was attacked. In 1961, the island of Borneo was divided between four separate entities. Kalimantan , comprising four Indonesian provinces , was located in the south of the island. In the north, were the Sultanate of Brunei (a British protectorate) and two colonies of
3090-408: The British responded in 1964 by launching their own covert operations into Indonesian Kalimantan under the code name Operation Claret . Coinciding with Sukarno announcing a 'year of dangerous living' and the 1964 race riots in Singapore , Indonesia launched an expanded campaign of operations into Peninsular Malaysia on 17 August 1964, albeit without military success. A build-up of Indonesian forces on
3193-717: The CCO by the UK but called the PGRS—Pasukan Gelilya Rakyat Sarawak (Sarawak People's Guerrilla Force) by Indonesia. Soebandrio met with a group of their potential leaders in Bogor, and Nasution sent three trainers from Resimen Para Komando Angkatan Darat (RPKAD) Battalion 2 to Nangabadan near the Sarawak border, where there were about 300 trainees. Some three months later, two lieutenants were sent there. The PGRS numbered about 800, based in West Kalimantan at Batu Hitam, with
Operation Claret - Misplaced Pages Continue
3296-660: The CIA was increasing contact with military leaders in Sumatra and Sulawesi critical of the regime. By late 1957, the transport of weapons and ammunition to Sumatra by merchant ships and night submarines had become increasingly common, but the Americans believed that for their clandestine assistance to be truly effective, such operations required the use of British facilities in Singapore to refuel and support CAT missions launched in Bangkok, Taiwan, or
3399-566: The Fourth and Fifth Divisions or the Interior Residency, and in Third Division, there was only the coast road, which was some 150 miles from the border. Mapping was generally poor, as British maps of the country only showed tiny topographic detail. Indonesian maps were worse; veterans recall "a single black and white sheet for all of Kalimantan torn from a school textbook" in 1964. Kalimantan
3502-561: The Indonesian foreign minister, was careful to explain to American ambassador Howard P. Jones that the confrontation policy was concerned with Malaya not Malaysia and was a reaction to Malayan and British anti-Djakarta, pro-rebel activity in 1958, and promotion of program to split off Sumatra as diplomatic efforts to settle the Malaysian dispute picked up steam in the summer of 1963 through ministerial and summit level talks in Manila. In April 1963,
3605-464: The Indonesian government tried blaming their Navy Commando Corps ( Korps Komando , KKO) as enthusiastic idealists acting independently. They also produced Azahari, who claimed that Indonesian forces were playing no part in active operations. Sukarno next launched a peace offensive and, in late January, declared he was ready for a ceasefire (despite having denied direct Indonesia involvement). Talks started in Bangkok, but border violations continued, and
3708-539: The Kalimantan border in December 1964 saw the UK commit significant forces from the UK-based Army Strategic Command . Australia and New Zealand deployed roulement combat forces from Peninsular Malaysia to Borneo in 1965–66. The intensity of the conflict began to subside following the coup d'état of October 1965 and Sukarno's loss of power to General Suharto . A round of serious peace negotiations between
3811-721: The Malaysian Ambassador from Jakarta . Two days later, rioters organised by the PKI burned the British embassy in Jakarta. Several hundred rioters ransacked the Singaporean embassy in Jakarta and the homes of Singaporean diplomats. In Malaysia, Indonesian agents were captured, and crowds attacked the Indonesian embassy in Kuala Lumpur . Even as peace talks progressed and stalled, Indonesia maintained its campaign of infiltrations. On 14 August,
3914-491: The Malaysian Peninsula on 17 August 1964. On 17 August 1964, a seaborne force of about 100, composed of air force Rapid Response Troop ( Pasukan Gerak Tjepat , PGT) paratroopers, KKO and about a dozen Malaysian communists, crossed the Strait of Malacca by boat, landing at Pontian in three parties in the night. Instead of being greeted as liberators, however, they were contained by various Commonwealth forces, and all but four of
4017-511: The Malaysian Peninsula were attempted. A tense three-week standoff occurred before the crisis was peacefully resolved. By the final months of 1964, the conflict once again appeared to have reached a stalemate, with Commonwealth forces having placed Indonesia's campaign of infiltrations into East Malaysia in check for the moment, and more recently, the Malaysian Peninsula. However, the fragile equilibrium looked likely to change once again in December 1964 when Commonwealth intelligence began reporting
4120-575: The Malaysian government, while obstructing the confrontation, reducing it to a minimal level. This was implemented to preserve an already exhausted army which had recently conducted Operation Trikora in Western New Guinea, while also maintaining its political position in Indonesian politics, especially against the Communist Party of Indonesia, the ardent supporters of the confrontation. On 3 May 1964, amid ongoing hostilities, Sukarno proclaimed
4223-537: The Manila negotiations, it was persuaded by the Indonesian and Philippine Governments to postpone Malaysia's inauguration until 15 September 1963 by which time a UN mission was expected to report on whether the two Borneo colonies supported the Malaysia proposal. However, following the conclusion of the Manila talks, the Malayan prime minister Tunku Abdul Rahman announced that the proposed Malaysian state would come into existence on 16 September 1963, apparently irrespective of
Operation Claret - Misplaced Pages Continue
4326-504: The Marconi transmitter D11 and its associated receiver, the R230 were commercial developments adopted as standard sets by the British services. Manufacture of the equipment was carried out by Plessey , E K Cole ( EKCO ), Mullard Equipment Ltd ( MEL ), Murphy Radio , The British Communications Corporation (BCC), Redifon and others. Despite being developed for re-equipping the post-war British army,
4429-719: The Overseas Chinese Youth Association, which was formed in 1946, and the Liberation League along with its youth wing, the Advanced Youth Association, which emerged during the 1950s. These organisations became the nuclei for two Communist guerrilla movements: the anti-Malaysia North Kalimantan People's Army (PARAKU) and the Sarawak People's Guerrillas (PGRS). These various Communist groups were designated by various British and other Western sources as
4532-597: The People's Dual Command or Dwi Komando Rakyat (Dwikora). The Dwikora contained Sukarno's call to defend the Indonesian Revolution and support revolutions in Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak and Sabah to destroy Malaysia. Co-ordinated to coincide with Sukarno's announcement of the 'Year of Living Dangerously' during Indonesian Independence Day celebrations, Indonesian forces began a campaign of airborne and seaborne infiltrations of
4635-589: The Philippines through the Sultanate of Sulu . However, while Sukarno made no direct claims to incorporate northern Borneo into Indonesian Kalimantan, he saw the formation of Malaysia as an obstacle to the Maphilindo , a non-political, irredentist union spanning Malaya, Philippines and Indonesia. President of the Philippines Diosdado Macapagal initially did not oppose the concept and even initiated
4738-408: The Philippines. With the influx of Soviet arms aid, Indonesia was able to advance its claim to Dutch New Guinea more forcefully. The diplomatic dispute reached its climax in 1962 when Indonesia launched a substantial campaign of airborne and seaborne infiltrations into Dutch New Guinea. While the infiltration forces were soundly defeated by Dutch and Papuan forces, Indonesia was able to lend credence to
4841-458: The Station Radio A41 and A42 being developed from the US AN/PRC-10 and PRC-9 respectively and the A40 adapted from the Canadian C/PRC-26. Other sets developed commercially were bought in to meet specialist requirements or circumstances, examples being the HF156, A14 (BCC30), the Australian A510, Redifon A43R and the Pye C12. Various other sets such as the B70 UHF carrier telephony relay, C11/R210 HF transmitter/receiver for Royal Signals use, and
4944-444: The Strait of Malacca while trying to evade interception by an RAF Javelin FAW 9 launched from RAF Tengah . Due to a lightning storm, the drop of 96 paratroopers was widely dispersed. This resulted in them landing close to 1/10 Gurkhas, who were joined by 1st Battalion, Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment (1 RNZIR) stationed near Malacca with 28 (Commonwealth) Brigade . Operations were commanded by four Malaysian Brigade, but it took
5047-401: The UN was expected to begin on 22 August, Indonesian delaying tactics forced the mission to start on 26 August. Nevertheless, the UN expected the report to be published by 14 September 1963. Before the Manila meeting, the Malayan Government had set 31 August as the date on which Malaysia would come into existence (coinciding with Malaya's independence day celebrations of 31 August). However, at
5150-438: The United Kingdom—British North Borneo (later renamed Sabah) and Sarawak . The three British territories totalled some 1.5 million people, about half of them Dayaks . Sarawak had a population of about 900,000, Sabah's was 600,000 and Brunei's was around 80,000. Among Sarawak's non-Dayak population, 31% were Chinese, and 19% were Malay. Among non-Dayaks in Sabah, 21% were Chinese, and 7% were Malay; Brunei's non-Dayak population
5253-409: The VHF New Range sets was restricted to the Royal Armoured Corps and the Royal Artillery , reflecting the fact that these formed the "teeth" elements likely to be involved in meeting any perceived threat of a Soviet advance across northern Europe. In 1962 a project to re-equip the remainder of the army was undertaken and given the name Larkspur , the name officially becoming retrospectively applied to
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#17328687973535356-458: The action occurring in the border area between Indonesia and East Malaysia on the island of Borneo (known as Kalimantan in Indonesia). However Indonesia also conducted lower intensity covert actions on the Malay Peninsula and in Singapore. The conflict was characterised by restrained and isolated ground combat, set within tactics of low-level brinkmanship . Combat was usually conducted by company - or platoon -sized operations on either side of
5459-529: The advantage of better helicopter deployment and resupply to forward operating bases. Rivers were also used as a method of transport and infiltration. Although combat operations were primarily conducted by ground forces, airborne forces played a vital support role and naval forces ensured the security of the sea flanks. The British provided most of the defensive effort, although Malaysian forces steadily increased their contributions, and there were periodic contributions from Australian and New Zealand forces within
5562-434: The ambush by the first company. An example of a straightforward Claret operation occurred at the end of 1965. Intelligence reports stated that an Indonesian patrol in about section strength used a particular track every week or 10 days. The Reconnaissance Platoon of the Gordon Highlanders (a battalion with some 10 months in Borneo) left a company base at Long Pa Sia in the 4th Division of Sarawak, established an ambush, which
5665-439: The base was in use and exploit any opportunities that arose. They found the base empty, and leaving 4 men there, started reconnoitering the surrounding area. The base's owners, a company of Indonesian marines (KKO) , returned and there was immediate contact. The rest of the platoon returned, reunited and conducted a fighting withdrawal. Over 350 rounds were fired by the single gun in the company base at Serudong Laut, which entailed
5768-414: The border from the Malaysian state of Sarawak or Sabah into Indonesian Kalimantan in order to find and monitor Indonesian forces who might attack Sarawak or Sabah. Conventional forces were tasked to act on this information and that from other sources to ambush or otherwise attack the Indonesians under a policy of 'aggressive defence'. Such operations were to be 'deniable' as they may have represented
5871-422: The border ridge with authority to fire at any identifiable Indonesian forces inside Indonesia. Infantry tasks included fighting patrols inside Indonesia looking for opportunity 'contacts', attacks on Indonesian positions and ambushing tracks and rivers. Initially, apart from special forces, only Gurkha infantry were used in company strength, and a battalion could only have one operation at a time. As experience and
5974-408: The border. A UK or Australian frigate was the 'guard ship' at Tawau at the eastern end of the border and an artillery amphibious observation party was available to control its fire, however it does not seem to have fired in support of Claret operations. Artillery support was unconventional because there were significantly more infantry battalions than batteries so the normal direct support relationship
6077-522: The border. Indonesia's campaign of infiltrations into Borneo sought to exploit how ethnically and religiously diverse Sabah and Sarawak were compared to that of Malaya and Singapore, with the intent of unravelling the proposed state of Malaysia. The jungle terrain of Borneo and the lack of roads straddling the Indonesia–Malaysia border forced both Indonesian and Commonwealth forces to conduct long foot patrols. Both sides relied on light infantry operations and air transport, although Commonwealth forces enjoyed
6180-401: The border. There are cultivated areas in valleys and around villages. In the vicinity of abandoned and current settlements are areas of dense secondary regrowth. In 1946 the Raj of Sarawak , Charles Vyner Brooke ceded the state to the British Crown believing it to be in the best interest of the people of Sarawak following the end of World War II . Sarawak became a Crown colony, ruled from
6283-446: The capture effect of the mode. A complementary manpack HF set, the A13, was also equipped with NBPhM facilities. The C13 and A13 entered service in the early 1960s with the A13 notable for being the only set in the original range that employed transistors exploiting developments in semiconductors to reduce weight and size, and a rechargeable nickel-cadmium battery VHF manpack sets of the era were derived from established designs with
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#17328687973536386-413: The combined Far East Strategic Reserve stationed then in Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. Initially, Indonesian attacks on East Malaysia relied heavily on local volunteers trained by the Indonesian Army . Over time, the infiltration forces became more organised with the inclusion of a more substantial component of Indonesian forces. To deter and disrupt Indonesia's growing campaign of infiltrations,
6489-422: The conflict included Indonesia's policy of confrontation against Dutch New Guinea from March to August 1962 and the Indonesia-backed Brunei revolt in December 1962. Malaysia had direct military support from the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand. Indonesia had indirect support from the USSR and China, thus making it an episode of the Cold War in Asia . The conflict was an undeclared war with most of
6592-493: The confrontation are contested. Former Indonesian Foreign Minister Ide Anak Agung Gde Agung argued years later that Sukarno intentionally muted Indonesia's opposition to the proposed Malaysian state while Indonesia was preoccupied with advancing its claim to West New Guinea . Following Indonesia's diplomatic victory in the West New Guinea dispute, Sukarno may have been emboldened to extend Indonesia's dominance over its weaker neighbours. Conversely, Sukarno may have felt compelled by
6695-430: The confrontation. While the latter returned to Sarawak and had his political status rehabilitated, Azahari remained in Indonesia until his death on 3 September 2002. In the aftermath of the Brunei Revolt, the remnants of the TNKU reached Indonesia. Possibly fearing British reprisals (which never came), many Chinese communists, possibly several thousand, also fled Sarawak. Their compatriots remaining in Sarawak were known as
6798-819: The entire company there unpacking and moving ammunition to the gun. The last Claret operation was in July 1966 as a riposte to the raid towards Brunei by Lt Sumbi of 600 Raider Company and 'volunteers' in May. This operation was an artillery ambush from Ba Kelalan in the 5th Division of Sarawak by 1/7 Gurkhas and 38 Light Battery on a track leading to the Long Bawang airfield. The following infantry units undertook Claret operations (some of British units included elements from other battalions as well): The following artillery units supported Claret operations by providing guns and observation parties. Additional observation parties were provided by other batteries stationed in Hong Kong and many individuals did tours with other batteries. [# indicates two or more tours in Borneo] [* indicates
6901-412: The first recorded infiltration and attack occurred in Borneo. An infiltration force training at Nangabadan was split in two and prepared for its first operation. On 12 April 1963, one infiltration force attacked and seized the police station at Tebedu in the 1st Division of Sarawak, about 64 km (40 miles) from Kuching and 3.2 km (2 miles) from the border with Kalimantan. The other group attacked
7004-548: The flanks by Special Boat Service were also authorised. Infantry operations were usually, if not always, within artillery range. Their depth was also affected by the threat of interception while withdrawing, greater when the Indonesian troop density was higher as it was in the areas south of Kuching. Another constraint was the limited range of man-pack VHF radios A41 & 42 , (copies of AN/PRC 9 & 10) and mountainous terrain in some areas. However, A510, an Australian made small HF radio using continuous wave (i.e. Morse code )
7107-428: The formation of Malaysia was motivated by a desire to separate Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore as a separate country, hence not submitting to the British proposal for decolonization calling it as neocolonialism done by the British state as a way of spreading British hegemony in the region. Similarly, the Philippines claimed eastern North Borneo, arguing that the Borneo colony had historical links with
7210-432: The infiltrators were captured within a few days. On 2 September, three Lockheed C-130 Hercules aircraft set off from Jakarta for Peninsular Malaysia , flying low to avoid detection by radar. The following night, two of the C-130 reached their objective with their onboard PGT paratroopers, who jumped off and landed around Labis in Johor (about 160 kilometres (100 miles) north of Singapore). The remaining C-130 crashed into
7313-509: The labour movement and the predominantly Chinese Sarawak United People's Party , the state's first political party, which was founded in June 1959. The Sarawak Insurgency began after the Brunei Revolt in 1962 and the SCO would fight alongside the Bruneian rebels and Indonesian forces during the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation. The SCO and the Bruneian rebels supported and propagated the unification of all British Borneo territories to form an independent leftist North Kalimantan state. This idea
7416-511: The latest UN report. North Borneo and Sarawak, anticipating a pro-Malaysian UN report, declared their independence as part of Malaysia on the sixth anniversary of Malayan independence, 31 August 1963, before the UN report had been published. On 14 September the UN report was published, once again providing general endorsement of the proposed Malaysian state. Malaysia was formally established on 16 September 1963. Indonesia immediately reacted by expelling
7519-645: The mixed attacks by ill-trained 'volunteers' 'advised' by Indonesian troops were replaced by an increasing numbers of raids comprising only Indonesian armed forces. This caused increasing concern to DOBOPS. However, in July 1964 the new Labour government in London approved cross-border offensive operations to a depth of 5,000 yards (4,600 m) by both special forces and infantry under the code-name Claret. DOBOPS added additional conditions, seven 'Golden Rules': Claret operations were only publicly disclosed by Britain in 1974, whilst
7622-407: The most extreme cases with personal authorisation by DOBOPS. Fire support for Claret operations was mostly provided by artillery and, if the target was close to the border and in range, infantry mortars. These were sometimes moved to temporary positions in the border area. The mortars changed from 3-inch to 81 mm with double the range around the end of 1965. Aircraft were not allowed to cross
7725-549: The north coast, was divided into several residencies; those of the interior and Tawau were on the border. Apart from either end, the border with Indonesia generally followed a ridgeline throughout its length, rising to almost 2,500 metres in the Fifth Division. In the First Division, there were some roads, including a continuous road from Kuching to Brunei and around to Sandakan on the east coast of Sabah. There were no roads in
7828-399: The ongoing pressure of the PKI and the general instability of Indonesian politics to divert attention towards a new foreign conflict. In the late 1950s, Sukarno argued that Malaysia was a British puppet state, a neo-colonial experiment and that any expansion of Malaysia would increase British control over the region, with implications for Indonesia's national security. Sukarno strongly opposed
7931-469: The only practical method at the time of obtaining some performance improvement over the use of AM especially at night. The range of sets originally comprised the vehicle VHF sets C42, C45, B45, B47, B48 and the C13 vehicle HF transceiver, all of which were designed to specifications produced by the government Signals Research and Development Establishment (SRDE) at Christchurch, Dorset and initially designated as
8034-665: The original New Range sets and eventually by common use becoming a technically incorrect generic label for virtually any radio equipment used by the British Army between the end of WWII and the arrival of the Clansman Combat Net Radio family. The HF set of the family, the C13 was included for use as a short-range combat net radio in circumstances where VHF was unsuitable and could also be used (using AM or CW) for longer range operation by exploiting skywave and near-vertical incidence propagation techniques. Originally conceived as
8137-431: The sets and accessories. An important operational advance was that the sets incorporated internal calibration facilities which meant that they could be accurately pre-set on a frequency without radiating any signal. This enabled all stations in a net to be confidently pre-tuned on the same channel and eliminated the old compromising "Tuning and Netting Call" system that advertised the presence of activity to an enemy. All
8240-434: The sets were constructed in strong hermetically sealed alloy enclosures - a measure that had been found to be essential to ensure durability and reliability during the previous war, and were sized to fit a standardized range of vehicle mountings. A range of control and distribution accessories known as a harness to enable radio facilities to be accessed from various points in a vehicle was also produced. Initially, roll-out of
8343-574: The situation developed these changed, and the Golden Rules on preparation and rehearsal, and the definition of thwarting offensive action relaxed. So too was the need for 'sworn secrecy', if it ever existed, and an early ban on internal discussion of operations. In 1965 penetration limits were increased to 10,000 yards (9,100 m) in the wake of the Indonesian assault at the Battle of Plaman Mapu , and then 20,000 yards (18,000 m). Small amphibious raids on
8446-575: The states of Malaya, North Borneo , Sarawak , Brunei , and Singapore . Initially, Indonesia was mildly supportive of the proposed federation, although the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) was firmly opposed to it. In Brunei, it was unclear whether Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III would support Brunei joining the proposed Malaysian state because of the implied reduction of his political office, and Brunei's oil revenues ensured Brunei's financial viability were it to choose independence. Furthermore,
8549-464: The summit, on 27 July 1963, Sukarno had continued his inflammatory rhetoric, declaring that he was going to "crush Malaysia" ( Indonesian : Ganyang Malaysia ). At the Manila meeting, the Philippines and Indonesia formally agreed to accept the formation of Malaysia if a majority in North Borneo and Sarawak voted for it in a referendum organised by the United Nations . While the fact-finding mission by
8652-512: The talks soon failed. They resumed mid-year in Tokyo and failed within days but allowed time for a Thai mission to visit Sarawak and witness, well-equipped Indonesian soldiers withdrawing across the border, which they had crossed a short distance away earlier in the day. Meanwhile, the Indonesian armed forces led by Lieutenant General Ahmad Yani became increasingly concerned with the worsening domestic situation in Indonesia and began secretly contacting
8755-517: The territory by 1969. Thus by the close of 1962, Indonesia had achieved a considerable diplomatic victory, which possibly emboldened its self-perception as a notable regional power. It was in the context of this recent diplomatic victory that Indonesia cast its attention to the British proposal for a unified Malaysian state. Before the British government announced the East of Suez policy in 1968, it had already begun re-evaluating their commitment to maintaining
8858-463: The threat of an Indonesian invasion of Dutch New Guinea. The Dutch, facing mounting diplomatic pressure from the Indonesians, and also the Americans, who were anxious to keep Indonesia from becoming Communist aligned, yielded and agreed to a diplomatic compromise, allowing the Indonesians to gain control of the territory in exchange for pledging to hold a self-determination plebiscite (the Act of Free Choice ) in
8961-581: The two sides began in May 1966, and a final peace agreement was signed on 11 August 1966 with Indonesia formally recognising Malaysia. Before Konfrontasi , Sukarno sought to develop an independent Indonesian foreign policy, focused on the annexation of Dutch New Guinea as a conclusion of the Indonesian National Revolution , and establishing Indonesia's credentials as a notable international power supporting its own agenda distinct from those of
9064-465: The village of Gumbang, South West of Kuching, later in the month. Only about half returned. The confrontation could be said to have started from a military perspective with the Tebedu attack. Before Indonesia's declaration of confrontation against the proposed Malaysian state on 20 January 1963, the Cobbold Commission in 1962 had reported on the viability of a Malaysian state, finding that there
9167-669: The west, and no road existed linking East and West Kalimantan. The lack of roads and tracks suitable for vehicles on both sides of the border meant that movement was limited to foot tracks mostly unmarked on any map, as well as water and air movement. There were many large rivers on both sides of the border, and these were the primary means of movement. There were also quite a few small grass airstrips suitable for light aircraft, as dropping zones for parachuted supplies, and helicopters. The equator lies about 160 kilometres (100 mi) south of Kuching , and most of northern Borneo receives over 3,000 mm (120 in) of rain each year. Borneo
9270-453: Was 28% Chinese and 54% Malay. There was a large Indonesian population in Tawau in southern Sabah and a large and economically active Chinese one in Sarawak. Despite their population size, Dayaks were spread through the country in village longhouses and were not politically organised. Sarawak was divided into five administrative divisions. Sabah, whose capital city was Jesselton ( Kota Kinabalu ) on
9373-544: Was British policy that units did not do repeat tours in the same area. Generally units on their first tour were not allowed to undertake more audacious operations so those conducted in their first and only tour by 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment between May and July 1965 on the Sungei Koemba river, at Kindau and again at Babang may not have been representative of those by more experienced Gurkha and British battalions, even if there were successful. An example of
9476-536: Was a leftist who had fought in Indonesia in their war for independence. Following these meetings, Indonesia began training a small volunteer force called the North Kalimantan National Army (TNKU) in Kalimantan. On 8 December 1962, the TNKU staged an insurrection—the Brunei revolt . The insurrection was an abject failure, as the poorly trained and equipped forces were unable to capture key objectives such as
9579-462: Was a post-war project to move tactical short-range radio communications in the forward battle area from HF using amplitude modulation to low-band VHF using frequency modulation . This followed the similar move by the US Army in the latter part of WWII which had demonstrated significant advantages. Where the use of VHF was not practical, HF sets using narrow band phase modulation (NBPhM) were developed as
9682-578: Was an armed conflict from 1963 to 1966 that stemmed from Indonesia 's opposition to the creation of the state of Malaysia from the Federation of Malaya . After Indonesian president Sukarno was deposed in 1966, the dispute ended peacefully. The creation of Malaysia was a merger of the Federation of Malaya (now Peninsular Malaysia ), Singapore and the British Crown colonies of North Borneo and Sarawak (collectively known as British Borneo , now East Malaysia ) in September 1963. Vital precursors to
9785-401: Was divided into four provinces, of which East Kalimantan and West Kalimantan bordered British Borneo. The capital of the West Kalimantan is Pontianak on the west coast, about 100 miles (160 km) from the border, and the capital of East Kalimantan is Samarinda on the south coast, some 350 kilometres (220 mi) from the border. There were no roads in the border area other than some in
9888-537: Was not possible everywhere. Secondly, almost all guns were deployed singly in company or platoon bases. These sections did their own technical fire control and responded directly to fire orders from observers. This meant that most Claret operations were supported by only a single gun, which in turn meant that each gun had far more than its standard scale of ammunition. The vast majority of Claret tasks were undertaken by British infantry units, including all Gurkha battalions. Special forces operations were undertaken by
9991-718: Was originally proposed by A. M. Azahari , leader of the Parti Rakyat Brunei (Brunei People's Party), who had forged links with Sukarno 's nationalist movement, together with Ahmad Zaidi, in Java in the 1940s. However, the Brunei People's Party was in favour of joining Malaysia on the condition it was unified with the three territories of northern Borneo with their own sultan, and hence was strong enough to resist domination by Malaya, Singapore, Malay administrators or Chinese merchants. The North Kalimantan (or Kalimantan Utara) proposal
10094-400: Was seen as a post- decolonisation alternative by local opposition against the Malaysia plan. Local opposition throughout the Borneo territories was primarily based on economic, political, historical and cultural differences between the Borneo states and Malaya, as well as the refusal to be subjected under peninsular political domination. Both Azahari and Zaidi went into exile in Indonesia during
10197-538: Was sprung after several days leaving some 5 Indonesians killed. The platoon withdrew without interference. However, Claret operations did not always go to plan. In late 1965 intelligence reported the existence of a previously unknown base in the estuarine area west of Tawau at the eastern end of the Border. The Reconnaissance Platoon of the Scots Guards , well into their second tour, conducted an operation to ascertain whether
10300-517: Was sufficient support in the Borneo colonies for the creation of a larger Malaysian state. However, due to hardening Indonesian and Philippine opposition to the Malaysia proposal, a new round of negotiations was proposed to hear the Indonesian and Philippine points of opposition. To resolve the dispute the would-be member states of Malaysia met representatives of Indonesia and the Philippines in Manila for several days, starting on 30 July 1963. Just days before
10403-764: Was to seize the initiative and put the Indonesians on the defensive instead of allowing Indonesian forces to be safely based in Kalimantan and attack when and where they chose. However, it was important not to cause the Indonesians to lose face and possibly escalate the conflict, or to enable Indonesia to present evidence of 'imperialist aggression', so Claret operations were highly classified and never publicised, although it seems that some British journalists were aware of what transpired. British casualties on Claret operations were publicly reported as being in East Malaysia. These operations involved both special forces and infantry. Special forces were mostly reconnaissance patrols crossing
10506-417: Was to withdraw after a contact, but staying in the area often led to further ambushing opportunities. Ambushes were the most common tactic, often lasting several days. However, Indonesians did not usually move at night so ambushes could withdraw to a harbour position. Because aircraft were not allowed to fly across the border casualties had to be evacuated by foot until they were back across the border, except in
10609-618: Was used in some areas and new A13 HF radios appeared in early 1966. Intelligence for these operations came from several sources. These included SAS patrols, Border Scouts (many of whom had relatives in Kalimantan), information from locals gathered by Border Scouts, Military Intelligence Officers and Field Intelligence NCOs, and probably police Special Branch and others. SIGINT collection is unknown. Infantry operations typically lasted 5 to 10 days. The fighting patrols had to be self-contained and carry all their ammunition and rations. Normal practice
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