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136-471: In 2017, the organisation was listed as undesirable by Russia's Prosecutor General, and its website banned in Russia. On 27 May 2021, Open Russia announced to cease its operations in Russia to protect its members from the risk of facing criminal prosecution and being imprisoned in the country. "Open Media" is now known as "Mozhem Obyasnit". This first incarnation of Open Russia has been described by The Guardian as

272-612: A naturalized U.S. citizen . The army sent him to study engineering at Lafayette College in Pennsylvania under the Army Specialized Training Program , but the program was canceled and Kissinger was reassigned to the 84th Infantry Division . There, he made the acquaintance of Fritz Kraemer , a fellow immigrant from Germany who noted Kissinger's fluency in German and his intellect and arranged for him to be assigned to

408-581: A shaving brush factory during the day. Kissinger studied accounting at the City College of New York , excelling academically as a part-time student while continuing to work. His studies were interrupted in early 1943, when he was drafted into the U.S. Army . Kissinger underwent basic training at Camp Croft in Spartanburg, South Carolina . On June 19, 1943, while stationed in South Carolina, he became

544-655: A "decaying" alliance as he believed that there was nothing at present to stop the Red Army from overrunning Western Europe in a conventional forces conflict. The "linkage" concept more applied to the question of security as Kissinger noted that the United States was going to sacrifice NATO for the sake of " citrus fruits ". According to notes taken by H. R. Haldeman , Nixon "ordered his aides to exclude all Jewish-Americans from policy-making on Israel", including Kissinger. One note quotes Nixon as saying "get K. [Kissinger] out of

680-419: A "foreign agent". In August 2015, however, a Moscow court ordered investigators to return confiscated documents and ordered a retrial. Henry Kissinger Henry Alfred Kissinger (May 27, 1923 – November 29, 2023) was an American diplomat and political scientist who served as United States Secretary of State from 1973 to 1977 and National Security Advisor from 1969 to 1975, in

816-640: A Moscow court ordered the ban and blockage of the messaging app Telegram under anti-terrorism laws, for refusing to cooperate with the FSB and provide access to encrypted communications. Sales of virtual private network services increased significantly in the wake of the ban. The FSB has also started lobbying against any "external" satellite Internet access initiatives, including proposals to introduce stricter controls against satellite Internet receivers, as well as opposition against Roskosmos taking orders to bring OneWeb satellites to space. In December 2018, Google

952-625: A Nixon campaign aide, Richard Allen , to state he was willing to do anything to help Nixon win. After Nixon became president in January 1969, Kissinger was appointed as National Security Advisor . By this time, he was arguably "one of the most important theorists about foreign policy ever to be produced by the United States", according to his official biographer Niall Ferguson . Kissinger served as National Security Advisor and Secretary of State under President Richard Nixon and continued as Secretary of State under Nixon's successor Gerald Ford . With

1088-509: A United Nations member and asked him to consider the "two Chinas" compromise to avoid offending American public opinion. Zhou responded with his claim that the People's Republic was the legitimate government of all China, and no compromise was possible. Kissinger said that the United States could not totally sever ties with Chiang, who had been an ally in World War II. Kissinger told Nixon that Bush

1224-562: A businessman. Kissinger's family was German-Jewish . His great-great-grandfather Meyer Löb adopted "Kissinger" as his surname in 1817, taking it from the Bavarian spa town of Bad Kissingen . In his childhood, Kissinger enjoyed playing soccer. He played for the youth team of SpVgg Fürth , one of the nation's best clubs at the time. In a 2022 BBC interview, Kissinger vividly recalled being nine years old in 1933 and learning of Adolf Hitler's election as Chancellor of Germany , which proved to be

1360-588: A case involving the blocking of websites critical of the government (including that of Garry Kasparov ), as the plaintiffs' freedom of speech had been violated. Russia was rated "partly free" in Freedom on the Net by Freedom House in 2009 (score 49), 2011 (score 52), 2012 (score 52), 2013 (score 54), and 2014 (score 60) and as "not free" in 2015 (score 62), 2016 (score 65), 2017 (score 66), and 2018 (score 67) where scores range from 0 (most free) to 100 (least free). Russia

1496-657: A ceasefire to gain more time for Israel to push across the Suez Canal to the African side, and wanted to be perceived as a mere presidential emissary who needed to consult the White House all the time as a stalling tactic. Kissinger promised the Israeli prime minister Golda Meir that the United States would replace its losses in equipment after the war, but sought initially to delay arms shipments to Israel, as he believed it would improve

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1632-605: A charitable organization. Its board included Henry Kissinger and Lord Jacob Rothschild . According to the Moscow Times , the earlier incarnation of Open Russia funded “many philanthropic projects, including educational projects for young people, the Federation of Internet Education, the Club of Regional Journalism and projects of human rights NGOs .” After Khodorkovsky's arrest in 2003, his deputy Leonid Nevzlin took over Open Russia. He

1768-794: A condition for a final settlement. We had long passed that threshold". In the fall of 1972, both Kissinger and Nixon were frustrated with Thiệu's refusal to accept any sort of peace deal calling for withdrawal of American forces. On October 21 Kissinger and the American ambassador Ellsworth Bunker arrived in Saigon to show Thiệu the peace agreement. Thiệu refused to sign the peace agreement and demanded very extensive amendments that Kissinger reported to Nixon "verge on insanity". Though Nixon had initially supported Kissinger against Thiệu, H.R. Haldeman and John Ehrlichman urged him to reconsider, arguing that Thiệu's objections had merit. Nixon wanted 69 amendments to

1904-508: A consultant to government agencies, think tanks , and the presidential campaigns of Nelson Rockefeller and Nixon before being appointed as national security advisor and later secretary of state by President Nixon. An advocate of a pragmatic approach to geopolitics known as Realpolitik , Kissinger pioneered the policy of détente with the Soviet Union , orchestrated an opening of relations with China , engaged in " shuttle diplomacy " in

2040-413: A court order. As of January 2018, companies registered in Russia as "organizers of information dissemination", such as online messaging applications, will not be permitted to allow unidentified users. The federal telecommunications regulator Roskomnadzor can issue warnings to the editorial board of mass media and websites registered as mass media concerning "abuse of mass media freedom." According to

2176-447: A dozen books on diplomatic history and international relations . His advice was sought by American presidents of both major political parties. Kissinger was born Heinz Alfred Kissinger on May 27, 1923, in Fürth , Bavaria, Germany. He was the son of homemaker Paula ( née  Stern ), from Leutershausen , and Louis Kissinger, a schoolteacher. He had a younger brother, Walter, who was

2312-461: A few clicks to read and become aware of various issues and points of view, maybe he deserves to be fed bland, one-sided government propaganda. In a November 2009 address to the Federal Assembly , then President of Russia Dmitry Medvedev acknowledged that Russia was ranked only as the world's 63rd country based on estimates of the level of communications infrastructure development. He stressed

2448-806: A great deal of order and very little justice; it was not the sort of place likely to inspire devotion to order in the abstract." Nevertheless, many scholars, including Kissinger's biographer Walter Isaacson , have argued that his experiences influenced the formation of his realist approach to foreign policy. Kissinger spent his high-school years in the German-Jewish community in Washington Heights, Manhattan . Although Kissinger assimilated quickly into American culture, he never lost his pronounced German accent , due to childhood shyness that made him hesitant to speak. After his first year at George Washington High School , he completed school at night while working in

2584-591: A party hosted by Clare Boothe Luce in 1967, saying that he found him more "thoughtful" than he expected. During the Republican primaries in 1968, Kissinger again served as the foreign policy adviser to Rockefeller and in July 1968 called Nixon "the most dangerous of all the men running to have as president". Initially upset when Nixon won the Republican nomination, the ambitious Kissinger soon changed his mind about Nixon and contacted

2720-491: A penchant for secrecy and conducted numerous "backchannel" negotiations, such as that through the Soviet Ambassador to the United States, Anatoly Dobrynin , that excluded State Department experts. Historian David Rothkopf looked at the personalities of Nixon and Kissinger, saying: They were a fascinating pair. In a way, they complemented each other perfectly. Kissinger was the charming and worldly Mr. Outside who provided

2856-410: A poem in support of Ukraine—"inciting hatred" etc. A separate class of materials blocked due to "extremism" are several religious publications, mostly Muslim and Jehovah's Witnesses . Bans can be challenged in courts, and in some cases these appeals are successful. In 2015, Russia's Security Council proposed a number of further Internet controls to prevent hostile "influence on the population of

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2992-410: A political and public relations disaster for Kissinger as he agreed that Vietnam was a "useless war", implied that he preferred to have dinner with Lê Đức Thọ over Nguyễn Văn Thiệu (in her 1976 book Interview with History , Fallaci recalled that Kissinger agreed with many of her negative sentiments towards Thiệu in a private discussion before the interview), and engaged in a now infamous exchange with

3128-524: A profound turning point for the Kissinger family. During Nazi rule , Kissinger and his friends were regularly harassed and beaten by Hitler Youth gangs. Kissinger sometimes defied the segregation imposed by Nazi racial laws by sneaking into soccer stadiums to watch matches, often receiving beatings from security guards. As a result of the Nazis' anti-Semitic laws , Kissinger was unable to gain admittance to

3264-702: A secret meeting of Kissinger and Thọ in Paris came the decisive breakthrough in the talks. Thọ began with "a very realistic and very simple proposal" for a ceasefire that would see the Americans pull all their forces out of Vietnam in exchange for the release of all the POWs in North Vietnam. Kissinger accepted Thọ's offer as the best deal possible, saying that the "mutual withdrawal formula" had to be abandoned as it been "unobtainable through ten years of war ... We could not make it

3400-426: A series of live talks that toured across Russia. To date there have been seven online forums hosted by Open Russia on topics ranging from healthcare reform to combating corruption. Open Russia reported that it will support twenty-five candidates in the upcoming September parliamentary elections . Although it has yet to choose the candidates it will support, the organization has stated it already has two candidates from

3536-460: A serious economic rival by 1970. Applying his favorite " linkage " concept, Nixon intended henceforward economic relations with Europe would not be severed from security relations, and if the EEC states wanted changes in American tariff and monetary policies, the price would be defense spending on their part. Kissinger in particular as part of the "Year of Europe" wanted to "revitalize" NATO, which he called

3672-467: A significant relaxation in U.S.–Soviet tensions and played a crucial role in 1971 talks with the People's Republic of China premier Zhou Enlai . The talks concluded with a rapprochement between the United States and China, and the formation of a new strategic anti-Soviet Sino-American alignment. He was jointly awarded the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize with Lê Đức Thọ for helping to establish a ceasefire and U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam. The ceasefire, however,

3808-578: A spy for the FBI . Kissinger's doctoral dissertation was titled Peace, Legitimacy, and the Equilibrium (A Study of the Statesmanship of Castlereagh and Metternich ) . Stephen Graubard, Kissinger's friend, asserted that Kissinger primarily pursued such endeavor to instruct himself on the history of power play between European states in the 19th century. In his doctoral dissertation, Kissinger first introduced

3944-468: A video about insufficient school places in Krasnodar Krai on their Facebook pages, because the video was authored by "Open Russia", who is considered an "undesirable organization" by Russian authorities. The watchdog also noted an increasing trend of law enforcement using article 20.33 of the administrative violations code ("undesirable organizations"), which seems to be gradually replacing article 282 of

4080-477: A wartime measure amid the invasion of Ukraine . Internet rights monitor NetBlocks reported that Twitter and Facebook platforms were restricted, or throttled , across multiple providers on 26 February and 27 February respectively, with the bans becoming near-total by 4 March. Media in the Russian Federation, including the internet, is regulated by Roskomnadzor ( Federal Service for Supervision in

4216-479: A wide array of content which was frequently abused by the law enforcement and administration for blanket blocking of publications criticizing state policy or describing daily problems of life in Russia. Popular opposition websites encouraging protests against the court rulings in Bolotnaya Square case were for example blocked for "calling for illegal action"; Dumb Ways to Die , a public transport safety video,

Open Russia - Misplaced Pages Continue

4352-556: Is an amendment to existing anti-terrorism legislation which includes data localization and data retention provisions. Among other changes, it requires all web services to store the user data of Russian citizens on servers within the country. Sites which did not comply with this requirement by September 2016 may be added to the internet blacklist. Since August 2014, the law requires operators of free Wi-Fi hotspots (e.g. in restaurants, libraries, cafes etc.) to collect personal details of all users, identify them using passports, and store

4488-690: Is making clear that prison has, if anything, emboldened him in his desire to change his country.” The new Open Russia declared that it would focus on several key areas including independent media , political education, the rule of law, and support for political prisoners. Also featured is an extensive Reforms Program aimed at reforming law enforcement and the Constitution to ensure justice and democracy. In addition, Open Russia endorses free and fair elections, and, while staying out of direct political involvement, will lend support to candidates who also promote fair elections. Interviewed in an October 2014 article in

4624-584: Is used for the censorship of individual URLs , domain names , and IP addresses . It was originally introduced to block sites that contain materials advocating drug abuse and drug production , descriptions of suicide methods, and containing child pornography . It was subsequently amended to allow the blocking of materials that are classified as extremist by including them to the Federal List of Extremist Materials . According to Freedom House , these regulations have been frequently abused to block criticism of

4760-578: The Gymnasium and his father was dismissed from his teaching job. On August 20, 1938, when Kissinger was 15 years old, he and his family fled Germany to avoid further Nazi persecution. The family briefly stopped in London before arriving in New York City on September 5. Kissinger later downplayed the influence his experiences of Nazi persecution had had on his policies, writing that the "Germany of my youth had

4896-564: The Bangladesh Liberation War and Bangladesh genocide . Widely considered by scholars to have been an effective secretary of state, Kissinger was also accused by critics of war crimes for the civilian death toll of the policies he pursued and for his role in facilitating U.S. support for authoritarian regimes . After leaving government, Kissinger founded Kissinger Associates , an international geopolitical consulting firm which he ran from 1982 until his death. He authored over

5032-596: The Council on Foreign Relations . He released his book Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy the following year. The book, which criticized the Eisenhower administration 's massive retaliation nuclear doctrine, caused much controversy at the time by proposing the use of tactical nuclear weapons on a regular basis to win wars. That same year, he published A World Restored , a study of balance-of-power politics in post-Napoleonic Europe. From 1956 to 1958, Kissinger worked for

5168-780: The Counter Intelligence Corps (CIC), where he became a CIC Special Agent holding the enlisted rank of sergeant . He was given charge of a team in Hanover assigned to tracking down Gestapo officers and other saboteurs, for which he was awarded the Bronze Star . Kissinger drew up a comprehensive list of all known Gestapo employees in the Bergstraße region, and had them rounded up. By the end of July, 12 men had been arrested. In March 1947, Fritz Girke, Hans Hellenbroich, Michael Raaf, and Karl Stattmann were subsequently caught and tried by

5304-653: The Dachau Military Tribunal for killing two American prisoners of war. The four men were all found guilty and sentenced to death. They were executed by hanging at Landsberg Prison in October 1948. In June 1945, Kissinger was made commandant of the Bensheim metro CIC detachment, Bergstraße district of Hesse , with responsibility for denazification of the district. Although he possessed absolute authority and powers of arrest, Kissinger took care to avoid abuses against

5440-591: The Federal Security Service (FSB). It allows the agency to unilaterally monitor users' communications metadata and content, including phone calls, email traffic and web browsing activity. Metadata can be obtained without a warrant. In 2014, the system was expanded to include social media platforms, and the Ministry of Communications ordered companies to install new equipment with Deep Packet Inspection (DPI) capability. The "Bloggers law" (passed July 2014)

5576-572: The Federal Service for Supervision of Communications, Information Technology and Mass Media (Roskomnadzor) and the Federal Drug Control Service of Russia . At the time of introduction the list was described as a means for the protection of children from harmful content; particularly content which glorifies drug usage, advocates suicide or describes suicide methods, or contains child pornography. In 2013 legislative amendments allowed

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5712-633: The Operations Research Office , the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency , Department of State , and the RAND Corporation . Keen to have a greater influence on U.S. foreign policy , Kissinger became foreign policy advisor to the presidential campaigns of Nelson Rockefeller , supporting his bids for the Republican nomination in 1960, 1964, and 1968. Kissinger first met Richard Nixon at

5848-593: The Rockefeller Brothers Fund as director of its Special Studies Project . He served as the director of the Harvard Defense Studies Program between 1958 and 1971. In 1958, he also co-founded the Center for International Affairs with Robert R. Bowie where he served as its associate director. Outside of academia, he served as a consultant to several government agencies and think tanks, including

5984-773: The Scunthorpe problem .) TLS extensions that would prevent censorship using SNI, such as Encrypted SNI, were already blocked in 2020. In July 2021 GlobalCheck project, which monitors the actual scale and efficiency of the censorship, for the first time noticed widespread use of deep packet inspection (DPI) across large mobile providers which resulted in domains related to political activist Alexei Navalny being efficiently blocked across around 50% of Russian networks. The DPI solution, called TSPU ( Russian : ТСПУ, технические средства противодействия угрозам, English: technical measures for threat protection), has been introduced in 2019 legislation that also proposed isolation of Russian segment of

6120-532: The Senator Charles Sumner Prize, an award given to the best dissertation "from the legal, political, historical, economic, social, or ethnic approach, dealing with any means or measures tending toward the prevention of war and the establishment of universal peace" by a student under the Harvard Department of Government. It was published in 1957 as A World Restored: Metternich, Castlereagh and

6256-547: The Wall Street Journal , Khodorkovsky said he planned to use Open Russia to push for a constitutional conference that would shift power away from the presidency and toward the legislature and judiciary. This stems, from Khodorkovsky's opinion, from the root cause of Russia's problems - namely the absence of the rule of law. On September 13–14, 2014, Open Russia presented talks by Lyudmila Ulytskaya , Arina Borodina, and Dmitry Olshansky. The foundation's Open Lecture projected

6392-754: The formalization of relations between the two countries, ending 23 years of diplomatic isolation and mutual hostility. The result was the formation of a tacit strategic anti- Soviet alliance between China and the United States. Kissinger's diplomacy led to economic and cultural exchanges between the two sides and the establishment of " liaison offices " in the Chinese and American capitals, though full normalization of relations with China would not occur until 1979. Kissinger discussed being involved in Indochina prior to his appointment as National Security Adviser to Nixon. According to Kissinger, his friend Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. ,

6528-628: The invasion by Warsaw Pact troops of Czechoslovakia in August 1968. Nixon felt his administration had neglected relations with the Western European states in his first term and in September 1972 decided that if he was reelected that 1973 would be the "Year of Europe" as the United States would focus on relations with the states of the European Economic Community (EEC) which had emerged as

6664-504: The "Law on Mass Media", such abuse can include "extremist" content, information on recreational drug use , the propagation of cruelty and violence, as well as obscene language . If a media outlet receives two warnings within a year, Roskomnadzor can request a court order shutting down the media outlet entirely. In July 2012, Russia's State Duma passed a law requiring the establishment of an Internet blacklist . The law took effect on 1 November 2012. The blacklist Is administered by

6800-412: The "hemorrhage of state secrets" to the media was making diplomacy impossible. On August 1, 1972, Kissinger met Thọ again in Paris, and for first time, he seemed willing to compromise, saying that political and military terms of an armistice could be treated separately and hinted that his government was no longer willing to make the overthrow of Thiệu a precondition. On the evening of October 8, 1972, at

6936-606: The 1970 Cambodian campaign and subsequent widespread bombing of Khmer Rouge targets in Cambodia . For his role in planning the U.S. bombing of Cambodia, scholars have stated that Kissinger bears substantial responsibility for the killing of between 50,000 and 150,000 Cambodian civilians and also the destabilization of Cambodia that the U.S. bombing campaign caused, which contributed to the Khmer Rouge's ascendance to power. The Paris peace talks had become stalemated by late 1969 owing to

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7072-557: The Ambassador to Saigon, employed Kissinger as a consultant, leading to Kissinger visiting Vietnam once in 1965 and twice in 1966, where Kissinger realized that the United States "knew neither how to win or how to conclude" the Vietnam War. Kissinger also stated that in 1967, he served as an intermediary for negotiations between the United States and North Vietnam , with Kissinger providing the American position, while two Frenchmen provided

7208-515: The Bangladesh–Pakistan War in which he described Indian prime minister Indira Gandhi as a " bitch " and a " witch ". He also said "the Indians are bastards", shortly before the war. Kissinger later expressed his regret over the comments. As National Security Adviser under Nixon, Kissinger pioneered the policy of détente with the Soviet Union , seeking a relaxation in tensions between

7344-620: The Chinese did not want a Vietnamese-dominated Indochina . We didn't want the Vietnamese to dominate. I don't believe we did anything for Pol Pot. But I suspect we closed our eyes when some others did something for Pol Pot." On November 4, 1972, Kissinger agreed to an interview with Italian journalist Oriana Fallaci . Kissinger, who rarely engaged in one-on-one interviews with the press and knew very little about Fallaci, accepted her request after reportedly being impressed with her 1969 interview with Võ Nguyên Giáp . The interview turned out to be

7480-469: The Internet. The change, passed under the rationale of protecting Russian network from external attacks, has been described by activists as actually introduced with intention of strengthening the content censorship that has proven ineffective in many cases in the past. The introduction of TSPU devices was associated by a number of problems experienced by players of World of Warships and other games, that

7616-726: The Middle East as he settled into the State Department. Kissinger later admitted that he was so engrossed with the Paris peace talks to end the Vietnam war that he and others in Washington missed the significance of the Egyptian-Saudi alliance . Egyptian president Anwar Sadat expelled Soviet advisors from Egypt in May 1972, attempting to signal to the U.S. that he was open to disentangling Egypt from

7752-670: The Middle East to end the Yom Kippur War , and negotiated the Paris Peace Accords , which ended American involvement in the Vietnam War . For his role in negotiating the accords, he was awarded the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize , which sparked controversy . Kissinger is also associated with controversial U.S. policies including its bombing of Cambodia , involvement in the 1973 Chilean coup d'état , support for Argentina's military junta in its Dirty War , support for Indonesia in its invasion of East Timor , and support for Pakistan during

7888-595: The North Vietnamese position. When he came into office in 1969, Kissinger favored a negotiating strategy under which the United States and North Vietnam would sign an armistice and agreed to pull their troops out of South Vietnam while the South Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were to agree to a coalition government. Kissinger had doubts about Nixon's theory of " linkage ", believing that this would give

8024-450: The Paris talks and told Nixon: "They're just a bunch of shits. Tawdry, filthy shits". On January 8, 1973, Kissinger and Thọ met again in Paris and the next day reached an agreement, which in main points was essentially the same as the one Nixon had rejected in October with only cosmetic concessions to the Americans. Thiệu once again rejected the peace agreement, only to receive an ultimatum from Nixon which caused Thiệu to reluctantly accept

8160-453: The Parnas party it is considering. Open Russia, along with other dissident groups, was the target of an intensified crackdown by the Russian government in the 2010s. In mid-2017, the Prosecutor General of Russia designated Open Russia as "undesirable" under the 2015 Russian undesirable organizations law , effectively banning its activities in Russia. Amnesty International noted that, while previous civil society groups had been targeted by

8296-408: The Problems of Peace 1812–1822 . Kissinger remained at Harvard as a member of the faculty in the Department of Government where he served as the director of the Harvard International Seminar between 1951 and 1971. In 1955, he was a consultant to the National Security Council 's Operations Coordinating Board . During 1955 and 1956, he was also study director in nuclear weapons and foreign policy at

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8432-414: The Russian government increased its pressure against opposition voices, where a draft law was being processed that increased the criminal liability of participants of undesirable organisations and enables them to be jailed. Based on this, Open Russia announced on 27 May 2021 that it would stop its operations in Russia in order to protect its members from criminal prosecution and the risk of being imprisoned in

8568-450: The Soviet Union leverage over the United States and unlike Nixon was less concerned about the ultimate fate of South Vietnam. Though Kissinger did not regard South Vietnam as important in its own right, he believed it was necessary to support South Vietnam to maintain the United States as a global power, believing that none of America's allies would trust the United States if South Vietnam were abandoned too quickly. In early 1969, Kissinger

8704-566: The Soviet Union, it is not an American concern. Maybe a humanitarian concern." He had a negative view of American Jews who lobbied for aid to Soviet Jews, calling them "bastards" and "self-serving". He went on to state that, "If it were not for the accident of my birth, I would be antisemitic " and "any people who has been persecuted for two thousand years must be doing something wrong." In September 1973, Nixon fired William P. Rogers as Secretary of State and replaced him with Kissinger. He would later state he had not been given enough time to know

8840-698: The Soviet sphere of influence; Kissinger offered secret talks on a settlement for the Middle East, though nothing came of the offer. By March 1973, Sadat had moved back towards the Soviets, closing the largest arms package between Egypt and the Soviet Union and allowing for the return of Soviet military personnel and advisors to Egypt. On October 6, 1973, at 6:15 am, assistant secretary for Near Eastern affairs Joseph Sisco , informed Kissinger that Egypt and Syria were about to go to war with Israel. Sisco had been warned by U.S ambassador to Israel, Kenneth Keating , who two hours previously had been urgently summoned by Israel's Prime Minister Golda Meir who believed conflict

8976-569: The Sphere of Telecom, Information Technologies and Mass Communications ) , a branch of the Ministry of Telecom and Mass Communications . Roskomnadzor, along with several other agencies such as the Federal Drug Control Service , the Federal Consumer Protection Service , and the office of the Prosecutor General , can block certain classes of content without a court order: Calls for unsanctioned public actions, content deemed extremist, materials that violate copyright, information about juvenile victims of crime, child abuse imagery, information encouraging

9112-519: The Thai foreign minister: "You should tell the Cambodians that we will be friends with them. They are murderous thugs but we won't let that stand in our way." In a 1998 interview, Kissinger said: "some countries, the Chinese in particular supported Pol Pot as a counterweight to the Vietnamese supported people and We at least tolerated it." Kissinger said he did not approve of this due to the genocide and said he "would not have dealt with Pol Pot for any purpose whatsoever." He further said: "The Thais and

9248-420: The U.S. Congress passed a bill limiting American aid to South Vietnam to $ 700 million annually. By November 1974, Kissinger lobbied Leonid Brezhnev to end Soviet military aid to North Vietnam. The same month, he also lobbied Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai to end Chinese military aid to North Vietnam. On April 15, 1975, Kissinger testified before the Senate Appropriations Committee , urging Congress to increase

9384-420: The United Nations George H. W. Bush was lobbying for the " two Chinas " formula, Kissinger was removing favorable references to Taiwan from a speech that then Secretary of State William P. Rogers was preparing, as he expected the country to be expelled from the United Nations. During his second visit to Beijing, Kissinger told Zhou that according to a public opinion poll 62% of Americans wanted Taiwan to remain

9520-488: The United States, to be joined by all of the other oil-producing Arab states except Iraq and Libya . Internet censorship in Russia In Russia, internet censorship is enforced on the basis of several laws and through several mechanisms. Since 2012, Russia maintains a centralized internet blacklist (known as the "single register") maintained by the Federal Service for Supervision of Communications, Information Technology and Mass Media ( Roskomnadzor ). The list

9656-546: The Vietnam war ended and the rest to be pulled out as Sino-American relations improved. In October 1971, as Kissinger was making his second trip to the People's Republic, the issue of which Chinese government deserved to be represented in the United Nations came up again. Out of concern to not be seen abandoning an ally, the United States tried to promote a compromise under which both Chinese regimes would be United Nations members , although Kissinger called it "an essentially doomed rearguard action". While American ambassador to

9792-731: The War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam", signed the previous January. According to Irwin Abrams in 2001, this prize was the most controversial to date. For the first time in the history of the Peace Prize, two members left the Nobel Committee in protest. Thọ rejected the award, telling Kissinger that peace had not been restored in South Vietnam. Kissinger wrote to the Nobel Committee that he accepted

9928-435: The attention of law enforcement who, at times, have cut off internet service for particular speakers. The Guardian noted that in September 2014 “Russian state media appeared to enforce a blackout on news coverage of Khodorkovky’s project.” According to Khodorkovky's spokeswoman Olga Pispanen, the project's website was targeted by distributed denial of service attacks. Also, some activists were reportedly prevented from joining

10064-566: The award "with humility", and "donated the entire proceeds to the children of American service members killed or missing in action in Indochina". After the Fall of Saigon in 1975, Kissinger attempted to return the award. By the summer of 1974, the U.S. embassy reported that morale in the ARVN had fallen to dangerously low levels and it was uncertain how much longer South Vietnam would last. In August 1974,

10200-570: The blacklist, and instructional material on how to do so. A number of individual instances of censorship were taken by Russian citizens to the European Court of Human Rights (Vladimir Kharitonov v. Russia, OOO Flavus and Others v. Russia, Engels v. Russia) and in 2020 ruled that actions of Russian law enforcement in these cases was in clear violation of articles 10 and 13 of the European Convention on Human Rights . The implementation of

10336-577: The blocking of content "suspected in extremism", "calling for illegal meetings", "inciting hatred" and any other actions "violating the established order". This content can be blocked without a court order by the office of the Prosecutor General. In July 2017, Vladimir Putin signed a bill, which took effect 1 November 2017, which bans all software and websites related to circumventing internet filtering in Russia, including anonymizers and Virtual private network (VPN) services which do not implement

10472-572: The business daily Vedomosti reported on a draft law by the Ministry of Telecom and Mass Communications titled "On an Autonomous Internet System". The bill calls for placing the domains .ru and .рф under government control and would make installation of the Russian state surveillance system SORM mandatory. A ban on all software and websites related to circumventing internet filtering in Russia, including VPN software , anonymizers , and instructions on how to circumvent government website blocking,

10608-484: The ceremony in Nizhny Novgorod and Yaroslavl. The first forum featured by Open Russia, on September 20, 2014, had over 70,000 viewers. Political analyst Mark Urnov  [ ru ] called Open Russia a “sorely needed” project that represented an “antidote” to the current realities of Russian life. The New York Times noted that when Khodorkovky made his first U.S. appearance since his release from prison, he

10744-400: The chaotic nature of the web, there is plenty of Russian-language material on political and social issues that is well-written and represents a wide range of views. This does not mean, though, that most Russians are well-informed of the important political and social issues of today. But this is largely a matter of personal choice, not government restrictions. If somebody is too lazy to make just

10880-419: The comedic "cowboy" comparison which infuriated Nixon. For several weeks afterwards, he refused to see Kissinger and even contemplated firing him. At one point, Kissinger, in desperation, drove up unannounced to Nixon's San Clemente residence but was rejected by Secret Service personnel at the gates. Kissinger later claimed that it was "the single most disastrous conversation I have ever had with any member of

11016-404: The concept of "legitimacy", which he defined as: "Legitimacy as used here should not be confused with justice. It means no more than an international agreement about the nature of workable arrangements and about the permissible aims and methods of foreign policy". An international order accepted by all of the major powers is "legitimate" whereas an international order not accepted by one or more of

11152-410: The contrary, if you really want to know, I care nothing about popularity. I'm not at all afraid of losing my public; I can allow myself to say what I think. I'm referring to what's genuine in me. If I were to let myself be disturbed by the reactions of the public, if I were to act solely on the basis of a calculated technique, I would accomplish nothing. Nixon was enraged by the interview, in particular

11288-419: The country, especially young people, intended to weaken cultural and spiritual values". Prevention of this "influence" also includes active countermeasures such as actions targeted at the population and young people of the states attempting to weaken Russia's cultural values. Another initiative proposes giving Roskomnadzor right to block any domain within the .ru TLD without a court order. In February 2016,

11424-402: The country. In July 2022, a former head of the organisation, Andrey Pivovarov, was sentenced to four years in prison for "carrying out the activities of an undesirable organization", alleging he was still working with the organization based in London, after he made Facebook posts allegedly criticizing the Federal Security Service and supporting opposition protesters. The forums have attracted

11560-572: The criminal code ("extremism") as the primary censorship instrument. In April 2021 Roskomnadzor started enforcing throttling of Twitter traffic in Russia. The throttling was implemented with detection of domains t.co, twimg.com, and twitter.com wrapped in wildcards. Target website domains are being detected mostly in Server Name Indication part of TLS handshake. The latter resulted in throttling of all domains that contained "t.co" substring, including microsof t.co m etc. (An example of

11696-445: The data. The " Yarovaya law " (passed July 2016) is a package of several legislative amendments which include extensions to data retention. Among other changes, it requires telecom operators to store recordings of phone conversations, text messages and users' internet traffic for up to 6 months, as well as metadata for up to 3 years. This data as well as "all other information necessary" is available to authorities on request and without

11832-556: The death of George Shultz in February 2021, Kissinger was the last surviving member of the Nixon administration Cabinet. The relationship between Nixon and Kissinger was unusually close, and has been compared to the relationships of Woodrow Wilson and Colonel House , or Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry Hopkins . In all three cases, the State Department was relegated to a backseat role in developing foreign policy. Kissinger and Nixon shared

11968-733: The division's military intelligence . Kissinger saw combat with the division and volunteered for hazardous intelligence duties during the Battle of the Bulge . On April 10, 1945, he participated in the liberation of the Hannover-Ahlem concentration camp, a subcamp of the Neuengamme concentration camp . At the time, Kissinger wrote in his journal, "I had never seen people degraded to the level that people were in Ahlem. They barely looked human. They were skeletons." After

12104-415: The draft peace agreement included in the final treaty and ordered Kissinger back to Paris to force Thọ to accept them. Kissinger regarded Nixon's 69 amendments as "preposterous" as he knew Thọ would never accept them. As expected, Thọ refused to consider any of the 69 amendments, and on December 13, 1972, left Paris for Hanoi. Kissinger by this stage was worked up into a state of fury after Thọ walked out of

12240-452: The driving force behind the rapprochement with China was Nixon. In April 1970, both Nixon and Kissinger promised Chiang Ching-kuo , the son of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek , that they would never abandon Taiwan or make any compromises with Mao Zedong , although Nixon did speak vaguely of his wish to improve relations with the People's Republic. Kissinger made two trips to the People's Republic in July and October 1971 (the first of which

12376-465: The fact that they believe in me when you sway or convince somebody, you shouldn't confuse them. Nor can you even simply calculate. Some people think that I carefully plan what are to be the consequences, for the public, of any of my initiatives or efforts. They think this preoccupation is always on my mind. Instead the consequences of what I do, I mean the public's judgment, have never bothered me. I don't ask for popularity, I'm not looking for popularity. On

12512-446: The federal government or local administrations. A law prohibiting "abuse of mass media freedom" implements a process for the shutting down of online media outlets. In March 2019 the bill which introduced fines for those who are deemed (by the government) to be spreading "fake news" and show "blatant disrespect" toward the state authorities was signed into law. In June 2020, the European Court of Human Rights ruled against Russia in

12648-612: The first telegram from the U.S. consul general in East Pakistan , Archer K. Blood , and 20 members of his staff, which informed the U.S. that their allies West Pakistan were undertaking, in Blood's words, "a selective genocide" targeting the Bengali intelligentsia, supporters of independence for East Pakistan, and the Hindu minority. In the second, more famous, Blood Telegram the word ' genocide '

12784-466: The government had a consistent, strategic approach to taking control over the information in electronic media. 2007 cyberattacks on Estonia and cyberattacks during the Russo-Georgian War (2008) may have been "an indication of the government’s active interest in mobilizing and shaping activities in Russian cyberspace". First countrywide judicial censorship measures were taken by the government in

12920-431: The grace and intellectual-establishment respectability that Nixon lacked, disdained and aspired to. Kissinger was an international citizen. Nixon very much a classic American. Kissinger had a worldview and a facility for adjusting it to meet the times, Nixon had pragmatism and a strategic vision that provided the foundations for their policies. Kissinger would, of course, say that he was not political like Nixon—but in fact he

13056-520: The great powers is "revolutionary" and hence dangerous. Thus, when after the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the leaders of Britain , France , Austria , Prussia , and Russia agreed to co-operate in the Concert of Europe to preserve the peace after Austria, Prussia, and Russia participated in a series of three Partitions of Poland , in Kissinger's viewpoint this international system was "legitimate" because it

13192-438: The hard-pressing Fallaci, with Kissinger comparing himself to a cowboy leading the Nixon administration: Fallaci : I suppose that at the root of everything there's your success. I mean, like a chess player, you've made two or three good moves. China, first of all. People like chess players who checkmate the king. Kissinger : Yes, China has been a very important element in the mechanics of my success. And yet that's not

13328-406: The initial shock, however, Kissinger was relatively silent about his wartime service. During the American advance into Germany, Kissinger, though only a private , was put in charge of the administration of the city of Krefeld because of a lack of German speakers on the division's intelligence staff. Within eight days he had established a civilian administration. Kissinger was then reassigned to

13464-462: The law, the designation of Open Russia marked the first time that the Russian government banned "a civil society group that was founded by Russians and operates only in Russia." The group is the target of Internet censorship by the Russian authorities : in December 2017, Roskomnadzor added Open Russia's website to its registry of blocked sites. Ahead of the parliamentary elections in September 2021,

13600-655: The likelihood of Pakistani victory against Bengali rebels. Kissinger was particularly concerned about the expansion of Soviet influence in the Indian subcontinent as a result of a treaty of friendship recently signed by India and the Soviet Union, and sought to demonstrate to China (Pakistan's ally and an enemy of both India and the Soviet Union) the value of a tacit alliance with the United States. Kissinger had also come under fire for private comments he made to Nixon during

13736-788: The local population by his command. In 1946, Kissinger was reassigned to teach at the European Command Intelligence School at Camp King and, as a civilian employee following his separation from the army, continued to serve in this role. Kissinger recalled that his experience in the army "made me feel like an American". Kissinger earned his Bachelor of Arts summa cum laude , Phi Beta Kappa in political science from Harvard College in 1950, where he lived in Adams House and studied under William Yandell Elliott . His senior undergraduate thesis, titled The Meaning of History: Reflections on Spengler , Toynbee and Kant ,

13872-674: The main newspapers were available online, some even opting for Web as a sole information outlet. Russia's press agencies (including the most important Ria-Novosti and Itar-Tass ) were also well represented in the Web. In April 2008 Agence France-Presse noted that, "The Internet is the freest area of the media in Russia, where almost all television and many newspapers are under formal or unofficial government control". As reported by Kirill Pankratov in April 2009 in The Moscow Times : Even discounting

14008-447: The main point. The main point. ... Well, yes, I'll tell you. What do I care? The main point arises from the fact that I've always acted alone. Americans like that immensely. Americans like the cowboy who leads the wagon train by riding ahead alone on his horse, the cowboy who rides all alone into the town, the village, with his horse and nothing else. Maybe even without a pistol, since he doesn't shoot. He acts, that's all, by being in

14144-567: The military aid budget to South Vietnam by another $ 700 million to save the ARVN as the PAVN was rapidly advancing on Saigon , which was refused. Kissinger maintained at the time, and until his death, that if only Congress had approved of his request for another $ 700 million South Vietnam would have been able to resist. In November 1975, seven months after the Khmer Rouge took power, Kissinger told

14280-471: The necessity to provide broadband Internet access to the whole Russian territory in five years, and to manage the transition to digital TV, as well as the 4G of cellular wireless standards. In 2010 OpenNet Initiative noted, that while "the absence of overt state-mandated Internet filtering in Russia has led some observers to conclude that the Russian Internet represents an open and uncontested space",

14416-474: The obstructionism of the South Vietnamese delegation. The South Vietnamese president Nguyễn Văn Thiệu did not want the United States to withdraw from Vietnam, and out of frustration with him, Kissinger began secret peace talks with Le Duc Thọ in Paris parallel to the official talks that the South Vietnamese were unaware of. In June 1971, Kissinger supported Nixon's effort to ban the Pentagon Papers saying

14552-399: The odds of making peace along the lines of United Nations Security Council Resolution 242 . In 1973, Meir requested $ 850 million worth of American arms and equipment to replace its materiel losses. Nixon instead sent some $ 2 billion worth. The arms lift enraged King Faisal of Saudi Arabia , and he retaliated on October 20, 1973, by placing a total embargo on oil shipments to

14688-462: The peace agreement. On January 27, 1973, Kissinger and Thọ signed a peace agreement that called for the complete withdrawal of all U.S. forces from Vietnam by March in exchange for North Vietnam freeing all the U.S. POWs. Along with Thọ, Kissinger was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize on December 10, 1973, for their work in negotiating the ceasefires contained in the Paris Peace Accords on "Ending

14824-460: The play— Haig handle it". In 1973, Kissinger did not feel that pressing the Soviet Union concerning the plight of Jews being persecuted there was in the interest of U.S. foreign policy. In a conversation with Nixon shortly after a meeting with Israeli prime minister Golda Meir on March 1, 1973, Kissinger stated, "The emigration of Jews from the Soviet Union is not an objective of American foreign policy, and if they put Jews into gas chambers in

14960-407: The population). In 2012, 75.9 million Russians (53% of the population) had access. In December 2015, most of the country, 92.8 million Russians (70% of the population) had Internet access. Following his visit to Russia in 2004, Álvaro Gil-Robles , then Commissioner for Human Rights of Council of Europe , noted the high quality of news and reaction speed of Russia's Internet media. Virtually all

15096-535: The presidential administrations of Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford . Born in Germany, Kissinger emigrated to the United States in 1938 as a Jewish refugee fleeing Nazi persecution . He served in the U.S. Army during World War II. After the war, he attended Harvard University , where he excelled academically. He later became a professor of government at the university and earned an international reputation as an expert on nuclear weapons and foreign policy . He acted as

15232-417: The press". Fallaci described the interview with the evasive, monotonous, non-expressive Kissinger as the most uncomfortable and most difficult she ever did, criticizing Kissinger as a "intellectual adventurer" and a self-styled Metternich . Nixon supported Pakistani dictator Yahya Khan in the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. Kissinger sneered at people who "bleed" for "the dying Bengalis " and ignored

15368-485: The rest of the Internet in the event the government directs such action, as required by a law taking effect in November 2019. The government's justification was to counteract potential cyber attacks from the United States, but some worried it might create an online " Iron Curtain ". As of late February 2022, two of the world's leading social media platforms Facebook and Twitter have been restricted in Russia by Roskomnadzor as

15504-764: The right place at the right time. In short, a Western. Fallaci : I see. You see yourself as a kind of Henry Fonda , unarmed and ready to fight with his fists for honest ideals. Alone, courageous ... Kissinger : Not necessarily courageous. In fact, this cowboy doesn't have to be courageous. All he needs is to be alone, to show others that he rides into the town and does everything by himself. This amazing, romantic character suits me precisely because to be alone has always been part of my style or, if you like, my technique. Together with independence. Oh, that's very important in me and for me. And finally, conviction. I've always been convinced that I had to do whatever I've done. And people feel it, and believe in it. And I care about

15640-715: The two superpowers. As a part of this strategy, he negotiated the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (culminating in the SALT I treaty ) and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty with Leonid Brezhnev , General Secretary of the Soviet Communist Party . Negotiations about strategic disarmament were originally supposed to start under the Lyndon Johnson administration but were postponed in protest upon

15776-421: The use of drugs, and descriptions of suicide. Other content can be blocked with a court order. Internet service providers (ISPs) are held legally responsible for any illegal content that is accessible to their users (intermediary liability). In 2004 only a minority of Russians (8% of the population) had Internet access. In May 2008, some 32.7 million users in Russia had access to the Internet (almost 30% of

15912-472: The wake of the 2011–13 Russian protests . This included the Internet blacklist law, implemented in November 2012. The criteria for inclusion in the blacklist initially included child pornography , advocating suicide and illegal drugs . In 2013, the blacklist law was amended with content "suspected in extremism", "calling for illegal meetings", "inciting hatred" and "violating the established order". The law allowed for flexible interpretation and inclusion of

16048-483: The weekend at Key Biscayne discussing Spiro Agnew 's imminent resignation. According to Kissinger his urgent calls to the Soviets and Egyptians were ineffective. On October 12, under Nixon's direction, and against Kissinger's initial advice, while Kissinger was on his way to Moscow to discuss conditions for a cease-fire, Nixon sent a message to Brezhnev giving Kissinger full negotiating authority. Kissinger wanted to stall

16184-642: Was "too soft and not sophisticated" enough to properly represent the United States at the United Nations and expressed no anger when the United Nations General Assembly voted to expel Taiwan and give China's seat on the United Nations Security Council to the People's Republic. Kissinger's trips paved the way for the groundbreaking 1972 summit between Nixon, Zhou, and Chinese Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong , as well as

16320-472: Was accepted by the leaders of all five of the Great Powers of Europe. Notably, Kissinger's Primat der Außenpolitik (Primacy of foreign policy) approach to diplomacy took it for granted that as long as the decision-makers in the major states were willing to accept the international order, then it is "legitimate" with questions of public opinion and morality dismissed as irrelevant. His dissertation also won him

16456-549: Was again used to describe the events, and further that with its continuing support for West Pakistan the U.S. government had "evidenced ... moral bankruptcy ". As a direct response to the dissent against U.S. policy, Kissinger and Nixon ended Archer Blood's tenure as United States consul general in East Pakistan and put him to work in the State Department's Personnel Office. Christopher Clary argues that Nixon and Kissinger were unconsciously biased, leading them to overestimate

16592-506: Was attended by prominent Russian activists and émigrés , including Sergei Guriyev and Yevgeny Chichvarkin . The Guardian reported that Khodorkovky's relaunch of Open Russia “appears to break his promise to steer clear of politics, which he made after being pardoned by president Vladimir Putin in December.” The New York Times stated, however, that Khodorkovsky had in fact “agreed to stay out of politics until August, when he would have been released anyway. Now freed from that commitment, he

16728-425: Was blocked as "suicide propaganda"; websites discussing federalization of Siberia—as "attack on the foundations of the constitution"; an article on a gay activist being fired from job as well as LGBT support communities—as "propaganda of non-traditional sex relations"; publishing Pussy Riot logo—as "insult of the feelings of believers"; criticism of overspending of local governor—"insult of the authorities"; publishing

16864-1055: Was described as a side effect of the devices blocking a broad range of UDP ports. In 2021 a new regulation was passed that requires all operators of instant messaging services in Russia to establish identity of users creating accounts in these services by means of verification of their mobile number. SIM card registration using passport is mandatory since 2010's. Using a public Wi-Fi also requires registration using mobile number. In November 2021 users in Russia started reporting issues with accessing Tor , while Roskomnadzor published an announcement on introduction of centralized blocking of "means of circumvention" of censorship. In December 2021, dissident authors Andrei Soldatov and Irina Borogan accused western technology companies like Keysight Technologies , Supermicro and Silicom of helping authorities in Moscow block Tor. Russia's System of Operational-Investigatory Measures (SORM) requires telecommunications operators to install hardware provided by

17000-445: Was fined 500,000 rubles for not removing blacklisted sites from its search results. In March 2019, legislation was passed to ban the publication of "unreliable socially significant information" , and materials that show "clear disrespect" for the Russian Federation or "bodies exercising state power". Russian media freedom watchdog Roskomsvoboda reported that a number of people were charged with administrative fines for simply sharing

17136-456: Was imminent. Prioritising detante , Kissinger's first phone call (at 6:40 am) was to Soviet ambassador and good friend Anatoly Dobrynin . He would later make calls to British ambassador Rowland Baring and the U.N. secretary-general Kurt Waldheim . Kissinger did not inform President Richard Nixon or White House chief of staff Alexander Haig about the start of the Yom Kippur War until either 8:35 or 9:25 am. as both were spending

17272-454: Was just as political as Nixon, just as calculating, just as relentlessly ambitious ... these self-made men were driven as much by their need for approval and their neuroses as by their strengths. A proponent of Realpolitik , Kissinger played a dominant role in United States foreign policy between 1969 and 1977. In that period, he extended the policy of détente . This policy led to

17408-526: Was made in secret) to confer with Premier Zhou Enlai , then in charge of Chinese foreign policy . During his visit to Beijing, the main issue turned out to be Taiwan, as Zhou demanded the United States recognize that Taiwan was a legitimate part of the People's Republic, pull U.S. forces out of Taiwan, and end military support for the Kuomintang regime. Kissinger gave way by promising to pull U.S. forces out of Taiwan, saying two-thirds would be pulled out when

17544-503: Was not durable. Thọ declined to accept the award and Kissinger appeared deeply ambivalent about it—he donated his prize money to charity, did not attend the award ceremony, and later offered to return his prize medal. As National Security Advisor in 1974, Kissinger directed the much-debated National Security Study Memorandum 200 . Kissinger initially had little interest in China when he began his work as National Security Adviser in 1969, and

17680-772: Was on Reporters Without Borders list of countries under surveillance from 2010 to 2013 and was moved to the Internet Enemies list in 2014. Russia was found to engage in selective Internet filtering in the political and social areas and evidence of filtering was found in the conflict/security and Internet tools areas by the OpenNet Initiative in December 2010. Since at least 2015, Russia has been collaborating with Chinese Great Firewall security officials in implementing its data retention and filtering infrastructure. In September 2019, Roskomnadzor began installing equipment to isolate Russia, including mobile phones, from

17816-406: Was opposed to the plans for Operation Menu , the bombing of Cambodia, fearing that Nixon was acting rashly with no plans for the diplomatic fall-out, but on March 16, 1969, Nixon announced the bombing would start the next day. As he saw the president was committed, he became more supportive. Kissinger played a key role in bombing Cambodia to disrupt raids into South Vietnam from Cambodia, as well as

17952-504: Was over 400 pages long, and provoked Harvard's current cap on the length of undergraduate theses (35,000 words). He earned his Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy at Harvard University in 1951 and 1954, respectively. In 1952, while still a graduate student at Harvard, he served as a consultant to the director of the Psychological Strategy Board , and founded a magazine, Confluence . At that time, he sought to work as

18088-684: Was passed in 2017. According to data published by the Russian Society for Internet Users founded by members of the Presidential Council for Human Rights , instances of censorship increased by a factor of 1.5 from 2013 to 2014. The incidents documented include not only instances of Internet blocking but also the use of force to shut down Internet users, such as beatings of bloggers or police raids. Human rights NGO Agora reported that instances of Internet censorship increased ninefold from 2014 to 2015, rising from 1,019 to 9,022. In April 2018,

18224-541: Was praised for his resolve. The Times continued their praise, noting "notion of prison as cleansing the soul and ennobling the spirit is a powerful motif in Russian literature", citing Dostoyevsky and Solzhenitsyn . In April 2015, security officers raided Open Russia's Moscow office. In May 2015 the Russian Justice Ministry requested the Prosecutor General to launch a probe into Open Russia's activities. The Justice Ministry has demanded Open Russia label itself

18360-440: Was re-launched on September 20, 2014, as “a nationwide community platform designed to bring together all Russians interested in creating a better life for themselves and their children” during videoconference supporting marches against Putin 's policies, with nearly all of the regional locations experiencing Internet connection problems just moments before the conference, sabotage and storming the halls" The online relaunch ceremony

18496-447: Was succeeded by Nikolay Bychkov . By 2005, Open Russia had 23 regional affiliates. On February 24, 2005, Russia's Federal Tax Service initiated an inspection of Open Russia, its third such probe in 12 months, which in the opinion of Open Russia was meant "to sully the only structure left in the hands of Mikhail Khodorkovsky.” The first incarnation of Open Russia closed in 2006 when Russian authorities froze its bank accounts. Open Russia

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