Nias people are an ethnic group native to Nias , an island off the west coast of North Sumatra , Indonesia . In the Nias language , the Nias people are known as Ono Niha , which means 'descendants of humans'. Nias island is known as Tanö Niha , with Tanö meaning 'land' in the Nias language.
105-482: The Nias people are a community that continues living within the norms and practices of their indigenous culture. The customary law of the Nias people is generally referred to as fondrakö , which regulates all aspects of life from birth to death. Historical evidence of megalithic structures and stone carvings that are found in the interior of the island proved that ancient Nias people practiced megalith culture. The caste system
210-551: A Sheikh priestly lineage assigned to the tribe. Pre-Islamic Sassanid society was immensely complex, with separate systems of social organisation governing numerous different groups within the empire. Historians believe society comprised four social classes , which linguistic analysis indicates may have been referred to collectively as "pistras". The classes, from highest to lowest status, were priests ( Asravan ), warriors ( Arteshtaran ), secretaries ( Dabiran ), and commoners ( Vastryoshan ). In Yemen there exists
315-433: A defensive vantage point, and in times of peace, a ventilated and comfortable place from which to observe the street below. The interiors are built from planed and polished hardwood boards - often ebony - that are slotted into each other using tongue and groove joinery. The internal timbers often feature bas-relief carvings of ancestors, jewelry, animals, fish and boats with a balance of male and female elements that
420-456: A devastating effect on the island. More than 80% of modern public buildings were destroyed. Traditional homes were more earthquake-resistant and most survived. Reconstruction efforts were hampered by the death of many traditional craftsmen, and the fact that NGOs lacked knowledge of Niasian building methods. The cost of repairing damaged traditional homes was estimated to be similar to building new ones, because collapsing support pillars meant that
525-702: A family, often the founder of the village. The adu suraha salawa were usually placed on a wall or on an altar ( daro-daro ). Another large ancestor statues are the adu hörö . Adu hörö ancestor statues are large, elongated, armless, and wear high, forked headdresses. These statues are generally found in Central Nias, and rarely in South Nias. Other wooden figures do not represent the ancestors. These wooden figures were created to heal specific illnesses, protect villages, or invoke supernatural beings to aid through rituals. These statues were generally crudely made, as opposed to
630-497: A hereditary caste, the African -descended Al-Akhdam who are kept as perennial manual workers. Estimates put their number at over 3.5 million residents who are discriminated, out of a total Yemeni population of around 22 million. Various sociologists have reported caste systems in Africa. The specifics of the caste systems have varied in ethnically and culturally diverse Africa; however,
735-524: A higher caste if the terms of the marriage did not imply equality. However, men are systematically shielded from the negative implications of the agreement. Geographical factors also determine adherence to the caste system. Many Northern villages are more likely to participate in exogamous marriage, due to a lack of eligible suitors within the same caste. Women in North India have been found to be less likely to leave or divorce their husbands since they are of
840-570: A hilt made of brass. The sheath of the balato contains a spherical bundle of rattan ( ragö balatu ) which performed as a protective amulet. This protective amulet is usually attached to a variety of objects e.g. animal fangs which are formed so that it looks like the jaw of the mythical lasara . The balato is only reserved for the highest nobles as a kind of proof of the authority and the social rank of its owner. Some prominent chiefs covered their armor with sheets of gold. Helmets can be made of iron or tightly woven palm fibers. The oval-shaped shield
945-427: A kind of feast to raise the rank of a person. Dedicating stone monuments publicly is considered one of the several requirements that must be done by a person to prove that he has fulfilled the right to claim a higher rank and to receive honorary titles. The behu is a type of megalith in the form of a vertical column. Behu was erected in front of the house of the host to commemorate former great celebrations held by
1050-593: A later volume by Dena Freeman writing with Pankhurst. In a review published in 1977, Todd reports that numerous scholars report a system of social stratification in different parts of Africa that resembles some or all aspects of caste system. Examples of such caste systems, he claims, are to be found in Ethiopia in communities such as the Gurage and Konso . He then presents the Dime of Southwestern Ethiopia, amongst whom there operates
1155-675: A manner similar to castas in Spanish colonies such as Mexico , and caste system studies in British colonies such as India. In the Philippines, pre-colonial societies do not have a single social structure. The class structures can be roughly categorised into four types: During the period of the Yuan dynasty , ruler Kublai Khan enforced a Four Class System , which was a legal caste system. The order of four classes of people in descending order were: There
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#17328689199461260-534: A member of the samurai class to marry a peasant, craftsman, or merchant, but this was done through a loophole in which a person from a lower class was adopted into the samurai class and then married. Since there was an economic advantage for a poor samurai class person to marry a wealthy merchant or peasant class woman, they would adopt a merchant or peasant class woman into the samurai class as an adopted daughter and then marry her. Japan had its own untouchable caste, shunned and ostracised, historically referred to by
1365-473: A narrow staircase with a small trap door above. The steeply pitched roofs can reach 16 metres (50 feet) in height. Apart from a strong defence against enemies, omo sebua has proven earthquake resistance. Nias ( Indonesian : Pulau Nias , Nias language: Tanö Niha ) is a rugged island 140 km off the mainland port of Sibolga at the western coast of Sumatra , separated by the Mentawai Strait . Nias
1470-460: A relatively lower caste system, and have higher restrictions on their freedoms. On the other hand, Pahari women, of the northern mountains, have much more freedom to leave their husbands without stigma. This often leads to better husbandry as his actions are not protected by social expectations. Chiefly among the factors influencing the rise of exogamy is the rapid urbanisation in India experienced over
1575-404: A result of new sub-lineages arising and number of clans increasing over time due to division as Yazidis settled in different places and countries. Division could occur in one family, if there were a few brothers in one clan, each of them could become the founder of their own Pîr sub-clan ( Kurdish : ber ). Mirîds are the lay caste and are divided into tribes , who are each affiliated to a Pîr and
1680-488: A review of social stratification systems in Africa, Richter reports that the term caste has been used by French and American scholars to many groups of West African artisans. These groups have been described as inferior, deprived of all political power, have a specific occupation, are hereditary and sometimes despised by others. Richter illustrates caste system in Ivory Coast , with six sub-caste categories. Unlike other parts of
1785-819: A separate, untouchable category in Varna classifications. Scholars believe that the Varnas system was never truly operational in society and there is no evidence of it ever being a reality in Indian history. The practical division of the society had always been in terms of Jatis (birth groups), which are not based on any specific religious principle but could vary from ethnic origins to occupations to geographic areas. The Jātis have been endogamous social groups without any fixed hierarchy but subject to vague notions of rank articulated over time based on lifestyle and social, political, or economic status. Many of India's major empires and dynasties like
1890-414: A small trap door above a narrow staircase for access. The steeply pitched roofs reach heights of 16 metres (50 feet); gables project dramatically at both the front and rear, providing both shade and shelter from tropical rains, and giving the building a hooded, towering appearance. With structural members slotted together rather than nailed or bound, the structures have a proven earthquake resistance. Like
1995-507: A social classification. Marriage between certain classes was generally prohibited. In particular, marriage between daimyo and court nobles was forbidden by the Tokugawa shogunate because it could lead to political maneuvering. For the same reason, marriages between daimyo and high-ranking hatamoto of the samurai class required the approval of the Tokugawa shogunate. It was also forbidden for
2100-576: A supposedly 'egalitarian' ancient Tibetan society. In Japan's history, social strata based on inherited position rather than personal merit, were rigid and highly formalised in a system called mibunsei (身分制). At the top were the Emperor and Court nobles ( kuge ), together with the Shōgun and daimyō . Older scholars believed that there were Shi-nō-kō-shō ( 士農工商 , four classes ) of "samurai, peasants ( hyakushō ), craftsmen, and merchants ( chōnin )" under
2205-428: A system which Todd claims can be unequivocally labelled as caste system. The Dime have seven castes whose size varies considerably. Each broad caste level is a hierarchical order that is based on notions of purity, non-purity and impurity. It uses the concepts of defilement to limit contacts between caste categories and to preserve the purity of the upper castes. These caste categories have been exclusionary, endogamous and
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#17328689199462310-512: Is a fixed social group into which an individual is born within a particular system of social stratification : a caste system . Within such a system, individuals are expected to marry exclusively within the same caste ( endogamy ), follow lifestyles often linked to a particular occupation, hold a ritual status observed within a hierarchy, and interact with others based on cultural notions of exclusion , with certain castes considered as either more pure or more polluted than others. The term "caste"
2415-406: Is a list of implements and provisions manufactured by the Nias people. Today the Nias people are almost always presented as a warlike people known for their headhunting tradition and inter-village conflicts in the past, where the manufacture of weapons was highly regarded above agricultural implements. Despite this, none of the war-like activities are carried out by the Nias people as the majority of
2520-484: Is a theoretical four-part division, jāti (community) refers to the thousands of actual endogamous social groups prevalent across the subcontinent. The classical authors scarcely speak of anything other than the varnas , as it provided a convenient shorthand; but a problem arises when colonial Indologists sometimes confuse the two. Upon independence from Britain, the Indian Constitution listed 1,108 Jatis across
2625-451: Is a traditional house style of the Nias people from Nias island, Indonesia . They are built only for the houses of the village's chiefs. Situated in the centre of a village, omo sebua s are built on massive ironwood piles and have towering roofs. Nias culture, with its frequent inter-village warfare, has made the design of omo sebua impregnable to attack. The houses' sole access is through
2730-558: Is also applied to morphological groupings in eusocial insects such as ants , bees , and termites . The paradigmatic ethnographic example of caste is the division of India's Hindu society into rigid social groups. Its roots lie in South Asia's ancient history and it still exists; however, the economic significance of the caste system in India has been declining as a result of urbanisation and affirmative action programs. A subject of much scholarship by sociologists and anthropologists,
2835-419: Is also recognized in Nias society, whereby the highest level out of the 12 levels in the Nias caste system is Balugu . To reach this level of caste , one must be able to carry out big festivals by inviting thousands of people and slaughtering thousands of pigs for several days. According to the people of Nias, one of the mythical origins of the Nias tribe comes from a tree of life called Tora Sigaru'a which
2940-524: Is assigned a heredity-based class and socio-political rank over which the individual exercises no control but which determines all aspects of his or her life." Called Songbun , Barbara Demick describes this "class structure" as an updating of the hereditary "caste system", a combination of Confucianism and Communism . It originated in 1946 and was entrenched by the 1960s, and consisted of 53 categories ranging across three classes: loyal, wavering, and impure. The privileged "loyal" class included members of
3045-473: Is essential for Niassan concepts of cosmic harmony. The more opulent houses are further decorated with freestanding wooden carvings and the internally exposed rafters are adorned with jaw bones from pigs that were sacrificed for the workers' feast at the time of the houses' completion. The December 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami caused (only) coastal damage to Nias, but the March 2005 Nias earthquake had
3150-593: Is known as the baluse in South Nias, while the North Nias produced a hexagonal-shaped shield known as the dange . Deterioration in Niassan culture began to occur since the end of the 19th-century. Missionary works had contributed to the decline of original Nias culture. Evangelization in Nias such as those performed by the German Protestant Rhenish Missionary Society had been responsible to
3255-588: Is located at a place called Tetehöli Ana'a . According to the myth, it is said that the arrival of the first human on Nias island began in the days of King Sirao, whose nine sons had been banished from Tetehöli Ana'a for fighting over the throne. Hence the nine sons of King Sirao were considered as the first people to set foot on the island of Nias . Archaeological research has been conducted on Nias Island since 1999. The observations found that there has been human habitation on Nias island since 12,000 years ago through migration from Asia to Nias island during
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3360-543: Is part of the North Sumatra province with Gunungsitoli as its administrative center. The island covers an area of 4,771 km ; the largest of its 131 chain of islands parallel to the Sumatran coast. The population of the island is 639,675 people including Malay , Batak , Chinese ) and the indigenous inhabitants Ono Niha . Once a megalithic head-hunting society, its economy was based on agriculture and pig-rearing, and
3465-405: Is persistence of caste in Indian politics . Caste associations have evolved into caste-based political parties. Political parties and the state perceive caste as an important factor for mobilisation of people and policy development. Studies by Bhatt and Beteille have shown changes in status, openness, mobility in the social aspects of Indian society. As a result of modern socio-economic changes in
3570-519: Is significant controversy over the social classes of Tibet , especially with regards to the serfdom in Tibet controversy . Heidi Fjeld has put forth the argument that pre-1950s Tibetan society was functionally a caste system, in contrast to previous scholars who defined the Tibetan social class system as similar to European feudal serfdom , as well as non-scholarly western accounts which seek to romanticise
3675-445: Is still a common practice in India and Hindu culture. Men are expected to marry within their caste, or one below, with no social repercussions. If a woman marries into a higher caste, then her children will take the status of their father. If she marries down, her family is reduced to the social status of their son in law. In this case, the women are bearers of the egalitarian principle of the marriage. There would be no benefit in marrying
3780-402: Is still largely nominal; Nias continues to celebrate its own indigenous culture and traditions as the primary form of spiritual expression. Niassan society is highly stratified and chiefs, particularly in the south of island, had access to a wealth of material resources and human labor. It was with this wealth that the early twentieth century saw the chiefs of the isolated island build themselves
3885-461: Is still uncertain if the migration started from Taiwan to Nias or vice versa. Nias people practice a clan system that follows the paternal lineage. Clans generally come from the existing village settlements. The predominant religion is Protestant Christianity. Six out of seven Niasans are Protestant; the remainder are about evenly divided between Muslim and Catholic. Whilst the first missionaries visited Nias in 1865, Christianity grew rapidly in
3990-490: Is that of butcher. It originates in the Khitan invasion of Korea in the 11th century. The defeated Khitans who surrendered were settled in isolated communities throughout Goryeo to forestall rebellion. They were valued for their skills in hunting, herding, butchering, and making of leather, common skill sets among nomads. Over time, their ethnic origin was forgotten, and they formed the bottom layer of Korean society. In 1392, with
4095-418: Is that of the various beasts, usually a lasara (a mythical animal with the body of a deer and a dragon's head), a hornbill, a stag, or a multi-headed mixture of all. Before displaying the osa-osa in front of houses, they were paraded around the village with the host seated, or even standing on top of the osa-osa . Nias people produce household objects carved with zoomorphic, floral, or geometric motifs. Below
4200-555: The Tira of Sudan, the exclusionary principle has been driven by evolving social factors. Among the Igbo of Nigeria – especially Enugu , Anambra , Imo , Abia , Ebonyi , Edo and Delta states of the country – scholar Elijah Obinna finds that the Osu caste system has been and continues to be a major social issue. The Osu caste is determined by one's birth into a particular family irrespective of
4305-514: The 1901 Census of India led by colonial administrator Herbert Hope Risley, all the jātis were grouped under the theoretical varnas categories. According to political scientist Lloyd Rudolph , Risley believed that varna , however ancient, could be applied to all the modern castes found in India, and "[he] meant to identify and place several hundred million Indians within it." The terms varna (conceptual classification based on occupation) and jāti (groups) are two distinct concepts: while varna
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4410-639: The Austronesian peoples . The ancestors of the Nias people are also thought to have come from Taiwan through the Philippines 4,000 to 5,000 years ago. Ten years of research involving blood samples of 440 Nias people in 11 villages on Nias island showed the Y-chromosome and DNA mitochondria of the Nias people are very similar to the Taiwanese aborigines and Filipino peoples . The observation has also found that
4515-641: The Gupta Empire . From 1901 onwards, for the purposes of the Decennial Census , the British colonial authorities arbitrarily and incorrectly forced all Jātis into the four Varna categories as described in ancient texts. Herbert Hope Risley , the Census Commissioner, noted that "The principle suggested as a basis was that of classification by social precedence as recognized by native public opinion at
4620-707: The John Minsheu 's Spanish dictionary (1569), means "race, lineage, tribe or breed". When the Spanish colonised the New World , they used the word to mean a 'clan or lineage'. It was, however, the Portuguese who first employed casta in the primary modern sense of the English word 'caste' when they applied it to the thousands of endogamous, hereditary Indian social groups they encountered upon their arrival in India in 1498. The use of
4725-517: The Korean Workers' Party and Korean People's Army officers' corps, the wavering class included peasants, and the impure class included collaborators with Imperial Japan and landowners . She claims that a bad family background is called "tainted blood", and that by law this "tainted blood" lasts three generations. There are three hereditary groups, often called castes, in Yazidism . Membership in
4830-503: The Paleolithic period. There are indications of migration as far as 30,000 years ago. During that period the Hòa Bình , Vietnam civilization was similar to that in Nias island. Therefore, it was presumed that the origins of the Nias people came from an area in mainland Asia that is in modern-day Vietnam . New genetic research has found that the Nias people of North Sumatra came from
4935-661: The Rahanweyn agro-pastoral clans and the occupational clans such as the Madhiban were traditionally sometimes treated as outcasts. As Gabboye, the Madhiban along with the Yibir and Tumaal (collectively referred to as sab ) have since obtained political representation within Somalia , and their general social status has improved with the expansion of urban centers. Omo sebua The Omo sebua
5040-517: The Sunjata epic, led to the formation of blacksmith and bard castes among the people that ultimately became the Mali empire. As West Africa evolved over time, sub-castes emerged that acquired secondary specialisations or changed occupations. Endogamy was prevalent within a caste or among a limited number of castes, yet castes did not form demographic isolates according to Tamari. Social status according to caste
5145-598: The Tukulor , Songhay , Dogon , Senufo , Minianka , Moors, Manding , Soninke , Wolof , Serer , Fulani , and Tuareg . Castes appeared among the Malinke people no later than 14th century, and was present among the Wolof and Soninke , as well as some Songhay and Fulani populations, no later than 16th century. Tamari claims that wars, such as the Sosso-Malinke war described in
5250-478: The jonow slaves as inferior. Similarly, the Wolof in Senegal is divided into three main groups, the geer (freeborn/nobles), jaam (slaves and slave descendants) and the underclass neeno . In various parts of West Africa, Fulani societies also have class divisions. Other castes include Griots , Forgerons , and Cordonniers . Tamari has described endogamous castes of over fifteen West African peoples, including
5355-435: The omo sebua , commoners' homes are rectangular in plan. As a defensive measure, interconnecting doors link each house, allowing villagers to walk the full length of the terrace without setting foot on the street below. Both the commoners' houses and the aristocracy's omo sebua have bowed galleries underneath the large overhanging eaves . Presumed to have been inspired by the bulbous sterns of Dutch galleons , they provided
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#17328689199465460-402: The sangmin ( 상민-常民 : literally 'commoner'), farmers working their own fields. Korea also had a serf population known as the nobi . The nobi population could fluctuate up to about one third of the population, but on average the nobi made up about 10% of the total population. In 1801, the vast majority of government nobi were emancipated, and by 1858 the nobi population stood at about 1.5% of
5565-443: The "Osus" people as "owned by deities" and outcasts. The Songhai economy was based on a caste system. The most common were metalworkers, fishermen, and carpenters. Lower caste participants consisted of mostly non-farm working immigrants, who at times were provided special privileges and held high positions in society. At the top were noblemen and direct descendants of the original Songhai people, followed by freemen and traders. In
5670-513: The Center and South Nias. Stones were used to construct different objects and structures. Nias village features impressive stoneworks e.g. large staircases and broad paved streets. Ritual objects e.g. the behu (vertical column), standing columns, jumping stones, obelisks, altars, and sarcophagi are among the many stone objects produced by the Nias people. Stone monuments were central to the Owasa festival,
5775-521: The Hindu caste system is sometimes used as an analogical basis for the study of caste-like social divisions existing outside Hinduism and India. In colonial Spanish America , mixed-race castas were a category within the Hispanic sector but the social order was otherwise fluid. The English word caste ( / k ɑː s t , k æ s t / ) derives from the Spanish and Portuguese casta , which, according to
5880-572: The Latin American casta system and South Asian caste systems (the former giving its name to the latter), it is controversial to what extent the two phenomena are really comparable. Modern India's caste system is based on the superimposition of an old four-fold theoretical classification called varna on the social ethnic grouping called jāti . The Vedic period conceptualised a society as consisting of four types of varnas , or categories: Brahmin , Kshatriya , Vaishya and Shudra , according to
5985-678: The Manjo were commonly referred to as hunters, given the lowest status equal only to slaves." The Borana Oromo of southern Ethiopia in the Horn of Africa also have a class system, wherein the Wata, an acculturated hunter-gatherer group, represent the lowest class. Though the Wata today speak the Oromo language , they have traditions of having previously spoken another language before adopting Oromo. The traditionally nomadic Somali people are divided into clans, wherein
6090-664: The Mauryas, Shalivahanas, Chalukyas, Kakatiyas among many others, were founded by people who would have been classified as Shudras, under the Varnas system, as interpreted by the British rulers. It is well established that by the 9th century, kings from all the four Varnas, including Brahmins and Vaishyas, had occupied the highest seat in the monarchical system in Hindu India, contrary to the Varna theory. In many instances, as in Bengal, historically
6195-406: The Nias people have been converted to Christianity. Nevertheless, the Nias people were still known as a skillful weapon and armor-makers. The Nias people used a variety of materials for the creation of their weaponry: leather, cord or woven fibres, precious metal, iron, and brass. The Nias used spears, swords and blades as their weapon. The Nias spear ( toto'a doho in the south, toho in the north)
6300-586: The Yazidi society and a caste is conferred by birth. Pîrs and Sheikhs are the priestly castes , which are represented by many sacred lineages ( Kurdish : Ocax ). Sheikhs are in charge of both religious and administrative functions and are divided into three endogamous houses, Şemsanî, Adanî and Qatanî who are in turn divided into lineages. The Pîrs are in charge of purely religious functions and traditionally consist of 40 lineages or clans, but approximately 90 appellations of Pîr lineages have been found, which may have been
6405-418: The ancestor statues through prayers. Ancestor figures were believed to ensure fertility for the family, livestock, and agricultural land. Sacrifices were made to the ancestor statues, especially on important events e.g. births, marriages, and deaths. Ancestor statues were placed in the main room of the house, sometimes more than a hundred. Missionary work in 1930 had recorded the removal of 'over 2000 "idols" from
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#17328689199466510-406: The ancient wooden structures from rot, insects, and wear, and hence replaced by other more generic structures. Another reason why not so many old houses were rebuilt is because of the over-harvesting of the forests. In the past, Nias villages, especially those of South Nias, were strategically built on top of a ridge or hill and were surrounded by ramparts and security gates. Entry into this village
6615-485: The antiquated system of arranged endogamy. India has also implemented a form of Affirmative Action, locally known as "reservation groups". Quota system jobs, as well as placements in publicly funded colleges, hold spots for the 8% of India's minority, and underprivileged groups. As a result, in states such as Tamil Nadu or those in the north-east , where underprivileged populations predominate, over 80% of government jobs are set aside in quotas. In education, colleges lower
6720-401: The centre of the village and are built on massive ironwood piles and have towering roofs. The piles rest on large stone slabs and diagonal beams of the similar dimension and material providing longitudinal and lateral bracing, enhancing flexibility and stability in earthquakes. The warring culture built them to intimidate with size and the houses are virtually impregnable to attack with only
6825-425: The country as Scheduled Castes in 1950, for positive discrimination . This constitution would also ban discrimination of the basis of the caste, though its practice in India remained intact. The Untouchable communities are sometimes called Scheduled Castes , Dalit or Harijan in contemporary literature. In 2001, Dalits were 16.2% of India's population. Most of the 15 million bonded child workers are from
6930-426: The country, India is experiencing significant changes in the dynamics and the economics of its social sphere. While arranged marriages are still the most common practice in India, the internet has provided a network for younger Indians to take control of their relationships through the use of dating apps. This remains isolated to informal terms, as marriage is not often achieved through the use of these apps. Hypergamy
7035-403: The daimyo, with 80% of peasants under the 5% samurai class, followed by craftsmen and merchants. However, various studies have revealed since about 1995 that the classes of peasants, craftsmen, and merchants under the samurai are equal, and the old hierarchy chart has been removed from Japanese history textbooks. In other words, peasants, craftsmen, and merchants are not a social pecking order, but
7140-575: The destruction of Niassan wooden statues as well the suppression of the unique culture of Nias society e.g. ancestor worship, magical practices, the Owasa festivals (noblemen rank-elevation festivals) headhunting and slave trading. However since 1955, conservation of the traditional culture of the Ono Niha has improved tremendously by the Roman Catholic Church through cultural integration into liturgy, architecture and art." Caste A caste
7245-450: The early 1900s when the Dutch established control of the island, however, was adopted and spread by local ministers. Nias people live in highly organized villages. Nias villages often possess impressive stone monuments and large houses that stand on earthquake-resistant timber pylons. Most of these villages have lost their old houses because of their deterioration and difficulties in maintaining
7350-417: The family would make a wooden statue known as adu zatua . The statue was unveiled on the fourth day after the death of the person. The shape of the wooden statue reflects the status of the person who used it: the more powerful the owner, the more impressive the statue will be. Nias people believed that the deceased person's spirits resided in the statue, so all events that occurred in the family were shared with
7455-504: The finely carved ancestor figures. Joachim von Brenner-Felsach classified more than 60 types of non-ancestor wooden figures. Many ancestor figures were destroyed in 1916 by Christian missionary movements which saw them as an old blasphemous religious symbol. Some were sold to collectors and can be found in museums or private collections around the world. The Nias produced one of the most impressive megalith cultures in Indonesia, especially
7560-500: The following features are common – it has been a closed system of social stratification, the social status is inherited, the castes are hierarchical, certain castes are shunned while others are merely endogamous and exclusionary. In some cases, concepts of purity and impurity by birth have been prevalent in Africa. In other cases, such as the Nupe of Nigeria, the Beni Amer of East Africa, and
7665-623: The foundation of the Confucian Joseon dynasty , Korea systemised its own native class system. At the top were the two official classes, the Yangban , which literally means "two classes". It was composed of scholars ( munban ) and warriors ( muban ). Scholars had a significant social advantage over the warriors. Below were the jung-in ( 중인-中人 : literally "middle people"). This was a small class of specialised professions such as medicine, accounting, translators, regional bureaucrats, etc. Below that were
7770-478: The genes in today's Nias people no longer carry any traces of the ancient Nias people, as of those whose remains were found in the Togi Ndrawa cave, Central Nias . Archaeological findings of the stone tools found showed that humans lived in the cave over 12,000 years ago. The genetic diversity of the Nias people is very low compared to other groups of people, especially about the Y chromosome. This indicates that there
7875-695: The grand omo sebua . Villages in the island's south are laid out either in a single long cobblestone street or to a cruciform plan with the chief's house at one overlooking the street. They can be large with up to 5,000 residents. Villages were built with defence in mind, strategically sited on high ground and are reached by steep stone stairways and are surrounded by stone walls. Smaller villages, however, would not have been defendable in former slave-trading days. In contrast with houses of northern Nias, which are free-standing, oval in shape and built on piles, southern Nias houses are built in terraces forming long rows. Omo sebua , or chief's houses, are situated in
7980-431: The host. The more behu displayed in front of the host's house, the more powerful his position is in the village. Noblemen display behu that is larger and more abundant in numbers than the commoners. A behu with an anthropomorphic form is known as the osa-osa . The osa-osa is depicted as wearing traditional Nias attire e.g. the kalabubu necklace and pendant earrings ( fondulu or saro dalinga ). The osa-osa' s head
8085-407: The house of a new northern convert.' Some missionaries even recorded houses collapsing under the weight of these ancestor figures. Small adu zatua were bound together horizontally using rattan and pegs. In North Nias, a large impressive ancestor figure is known as adu suraha salawa (Nias language for "portraits of honored ancestors"). The adu suraha salawa represents the first known ancestor of
8190-571: The insulting term eta , now called burakumin . While modern law has officially abolished the class hierarchy, there are reports of discrimination against the buraku or burakumin underclasses. The burakumin are regarded as "ostracised". The burakumin are one of the main minority groups in Japan , along with the Ainu of Hokkaidō and those of Korean or Chinese descent. The baekjeong ( 백정 ) were an "untouchable" outcaste of Korea. The meaning today
8295-543: The kings and rulers had been called upon, when required, to mediate on the ranks of Jātis , which might number in thousands all over the subcontinent and vary by region. In practice, the jātis may or may not fit into the Varna classes and many prominent Jatis , for example the Jats and Yadavs, straddled two Varnas i.e. Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, and the Varna status of Jātis itself was subject to articulation over time. Starting with
8400-443: The last century. It is well known that urban centers tend to be less reliant on agriculture and are more progressive as a whole. As India's cities boomed in population, the job market grew to keep pace. Prosperity and stability were now more easily attained by an individual, and the anxiety to marry quickly and effectively was reduced. Thus, younger, more progressive generations of urban Indians are less likely than ever to participate in
8505-408: The lowest castes. Independent India has witnessed caste-related violence . In 2005, government recorded approximately 110,000 cases of reported violent acts, including rape and murder, against Dalits. The socio-economic limitations of the caste system are reduced due to urbanisation and affirmative action . Nevertheless, the caste system still exists in endogamy and patrimony , and thrives in
8610-552: The marks necessary for the Dalits to enter. The Nepali caste system resembles in some respects the Indian jāti system, with numerous jāti divisions with a varna system superimposed. Inscriptions attest the beginnings of a caste system during the Licchavi period. Jayasthiti Malla (1382–1395) categorised Newars into 64 castes (Gellner 2001). A similar exercise was made during the reign of Mahindra Malla (1506–1575). The Hindu social code
8715-463: The more numerous Hutu and the least numerous Twa regarded, by birth, as respectively, second and third in the hierarchy of Rwandese society. These groups were largely endogamous, exclusionary and with limited mobility. In Ethiopia, there have been a number of studies of castes. Broad studies of castes have been written by Alula Pankhurst has published a study of caste groups in SW Ethiopia . and
8820-518: The most common surname and its bongwan in the local area. Along with this example, activists within and outside the Korean government had based their visions of a new relationship between the government and people through the concept of citizenship, employing the term inmin ("people") and later, kungmin ("citizen"). The Committee for Human Rights in North Korea reported that "Every North Korean citizen
8925-498: The nature of the work of its members. Varna was not an inherited category and the occupation determined the varna. However, a person's Jati is determined at birth and makes them take up that Jati's occupation; members could and did change their occupation based on personal strengths as well as economic, social and political factors. A 2016 study based on the DNA analysis of unrelated Indians determined that endogamous jatis originated during
9030-593: The old registration system signified household members according to their hierarchical social status, the new system called for an occupation. While most Koreans by then had surnames and even bongwan , although still substantial number of cheonmin , mostly consisted of serfs and slaves, and untouchables did not. According to the new system, they were then required to fill in the blanks for surname in order to be registered as constituting separate households. Instead of creating their own family name, some cheonmins appropriated their masters' surname, while others simply took
9135-493: The politics of democracy, where caste provides ready made constituencies to politicians. The globalisation and economic opportunities from foreign businesses has influenced the growth of India's middle-class population. Some members of the Chhattisgarh Potter Caste Community (CPCC) are middle-class urban professionals and no longer potters unlike the remaining majority of traditional rural potter members. There
9240-495: The present day, and manifesting itself in the facts that particular castes are supposed to be the modern representatives of one or other of the castes of the theoretical Indian system." Varna , as mentioned in ancient Hindu texts, describes society as divided into four categories: Brahmins (scholars and yajna priests), Kshatriyas (rulers and warriors), Vaishyas (farmers, merchants and artisans) and Shudras (workmen/service providers). The texts do not mention any hierarchy or
9345-487: The religion practised by the individual. Once born into Osu caste, this Nigerian person is an outcast, shunned and ostracised, with limited opportunities or acceptance, regardless of his or her ability or merit. Obinna discusses how this caste system-related identity and power is deployed within government, Church and indigenous communities. The osu class systems of eastern Nigeria and southern Cameroon are derived from indigenous religious beliefs and discriminate against
9450-466: The same time, the baekjeong began to resist open social discrimination. They focused on social and economic injustices affecting them, hoping to create an egalitarian Korean society. Their efforts included attacking social discrimination by upper class, authorities, and "commoners", and the use of degrading language against children in public schools. With the Gabo reform of 1896, the class system of Korea
9555-585: The social identity inherited. Among the Kafa , there were also traditionally groups labelled as castes. "Based on research done before the Derg regime, these studies generally presume the existence of a social hierarchy similar to the caste system. At the top of this hierarchy were the Kafa, followed by occupational groups including blacksmiths (Qemmo), weavers (Shammano), bards (Shatto), potters, and tanners (Manno). In this hierarchy,
9660-426: The spelling caste , with this latter meaning, is first attested in English in 1613. In the Latin American context, the term caste is sometimes used to describe the casta system of racial classification, based on whether a person was of pure European, Indigenous or African descent, or some mix thereof, with the different groups being placed in a racial hierarchy; however, despite the etymological connection between
9765-521: The textbook jāti system found in India. Ancient Sri Lankan texts such as the Pujavaliya, Sadharmaratnavaliya and Yogaratnakaraya and inscriptional evidence show that the above hierarchy prevailed throughout the feudal period. The repetition of the same caste hierarchy even as recently as the 18th century, in the Kandyan-period Kadayimpoth – Boundary books as well indicates the continuation of
9870-730: The total population of Korea. The hereditary nobi system was officially abolished around 1886–87 and the rest of the nobi system was abolished with the Gabo Reform of 1894, but traces remained until 1930. The opening of Korea to foreign Christian missionary activity in the late 19th century saw some improvement in the status of the baekjeong . However, everyone was not equal under the Christian congregation, and even so protests erupted when missionaries tried to integrate baekjeong into worship, with non- baekjeong finding this attempt insensitive to traditional notions of hierarchical advantage. Around
9975-469: The tradition right up to the end of Sri Lanka's monarchy. Balinese caste structure has been described as being based either on three categories—the noble triwangsa (thrice born), the middle class of dwijāti (twice born), and the lower class of ekajāti (once born), much similar to the traditional Indian BKVS social stratification — or on four castes The Brahmana caste was further subdivided by Dutch ethnographers into two: Siwa and Buda. The Siwa caste
10080-595: The world, mobility is sometimes possible within sub-castes, but not across caste lines. Farmers and artisans have been, claims Richter, distinct castes. Certain sub-castes are shunned more than others. For example, exogamy is rare for women born into families of woodcarvers. Similarly, the Mandé societies in Gambia , Ghana , Guinea , Ivory Coast , Liberia , Senegal and Sierra Leone have social stratification systems that divide society by ethnic ties. The Mande class system regards
10185-600: Was inherited by off-springs automatically; but this inheritance was paternal. That is, children of higher caste men and lower caste or slave concubines would have the caste status of the father. Ethel M. Albert in 1960 claimed that the societies in Central Africa were caste-like social stratification systems. Similarly, in 1961, Maquet notes that the society in Rwanda and Burundi can be best described as castes. The Tutsi , noted Maquet, considered themselves as superior, with
10290-597: Was later set up in the Gorkha Kingdom by Ram Shah (1603–1636). McKim Marriott claims a social stratification that is hierarchical, closed, endogamous and hereditary is widely prevalent, particularly in western parts of Pakistan. Frederik Barth in his review of this system of social stratification in Pakistan suggested that these are castes. The caste system in Sri Lanka is a division of society into strata, influenced by
10395-438: Was mainly used for hunting; the shaft is made of dark hardwood of nibung palm wrapped with rattan. Another type of spear is the burusa , with a triangle-shaped head. The Nias sword ( gari ) is a combat weapon; both the sword and its sheath have a simple undecorated form. The most well-known of the Nias weapons is the balato or tolögu , a steel sword with a protective amulet believed to possess magical power. The balato has
10500-518: Was officially abolished. Following the collapse of the Gabo government , the new cabinet, which became the Gwangmu government after the establishment of the Korean Empire , introduced systematic measures for abolishing the traditional class system. One measure was the new household registration system, reflecting the goals of formal social equality , which was implemented by the loyalists' cabinet. Whereas
10605-562: Was once a "bottleneck" population in the history of Nias . Studies have also found that the Nias people do not share any genes with ethnicities living in the Andaman - Nicobar islands in the Indian Ocean , which are geographically considered neighbours. Although it is known that there was a migration of the Austronesian peoples between Taiwan and the Indonesian archipelago including Nias , it
10710-400: Was provided by only two gates via steep staircases. The gates lead to a straight paved avenue that runs through the village center, with a row of traditional houses on the sides of the avenue. Close to the main square of the village was the house of the village founders, the omo sebua . In Nias villages, the space in front of each house was the property of the inhabitants. This "front courtyard"
10815-411: Was subdivided into five: Kemenuh, Keniten, Mas, Manuba and Petapan. This classification was to accommodate the observed marriage between higher-caste Brahmana men with lower-caste women. The other castes were similarly further sub-classified by 19th-century and early-20th-century ethnographers based on numerous criteria ranging from profession, endogamy or exogamy or polygamy, and a host of other factors in
10920-630: Was supplemented by export of captured slaves in inter-village warfare. Although its isolation has contributed to the uniqueness of its culture, the Nias Island chain has been trading with other cultures, other islands, and even mainland Asia since prehistoric time. The predominant religion is Protestant Christianity with over 75% of the population; the remaining are about evenly divided Muslim (mostly immigrants from elsewhere in Indonesia) and Catholic . However adherence to either Christian or Muslim religions
11025-587: Was used for mundane activities e.g. drying harvests before storing them. Villages in Central Nias were usually smaller than their southern counterpart. The houses are also positioned farther away from the main avenue. The people of Nias placed great value on wooden figures or adu . The sole purpose of the Nias figures was to fulfill ritual needs, whether it was to ensure wealth or to perform specific beneficial rites. Niassan figures vary in size, from as small as 20 centimetres (7.9 in) in height to more than 2 metres (6.6 ft) tall. When an elderly person died,
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