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43-449: Ollantay is a dramatic play, originally written in the Quechua language. It is considered by some to be of Inca origin—and as such the oldest and deepest expression of Quechua literature—while others believe it to be of colonial Hispanic origin. The oldest known manuscript of Ollantay belonged to the priest Antonio Valdés (18th century), who for some time was thought to be

86-701: A baby girl, fruit of her love with Ollantay, that she names Ima Sumac ("how beautiful"). Ollantay, on learning that Cusi Coyllur is no longer in the palace, believes that she has been murdered and decides to leave the imperial capital Cusco together with his servant and confidant Piqui Chaqui ("flea foot"). He threatens to one day return and destroy Cusco, then flees to the city which carries his name, Ollantaytambo , where he and his followers arm themselves and prepare for battle. The Inca ruler Pachacutec orders his general Rumi Nawi ("Stone-eyed") to gather forces and march to confront Ollantay. Ollantay sends his general Orqo Waranka ("A thousand mountains") to ambush Rumi Nawi in

129-494: A father and the generosity of a king" ( Los rigores de un padre y la generosidad de un rey ); since then different versions have been published in a variety of languages. It was first assumed that Antonio Valdés, priest of Sicuani , was the author of Ollantay . English historian Clements R. Markham proposed this in the 19th century, and many others assumed it to be correct, including Dr. Raúl Porras Barrenechea . However, this theory of authorship has two major shortcomings: It

172-1043: A fourth, a northern or Peruvian branch. The latter causes complications in the classification, however, as various dialects (e.g. Cajamarca–Cañaris , Pacaraos , and Yauyos ) have features of both Quechua I and Quechua II, and so are difficult to assign to either. Torero classifies them as the following: Willem Adelaar adheres to the Quechua I / Quechua II (central/peripheral) bifurcation. But, partially following later modifications by Torero, he reassigns part of Quechua II-A to Quechua I: Ancash (Huaylas–Conchucos) Alto Pativilca–Alto Marañón–Alto Huallaga Yaru Wanka (Jauja–Huanca) Yauyos–Chincha (Huangáscar–Topará) Pacaraos Lambayeque (Cañaris) Cajamarca Lincha Laraos Kichwa ("Ecuadorian" or Highlands and Oriente) Chachapoyas (Amazonas) Lamas (San Martín) Ayacucho Cusco Puno (Collao) Northern Bolivian (Apolo) Southern Bolivia Santiago del Estero Landerman (1991) does not believe

215-458: A ghostly appearance that Tupac finally recognizes as his sister in a moment of anagnorisis . Cusi Coyllur tells her story, and a magnanimous Tupac Yupanqui frees her and immediately gives her hand to Ollantay, ending the Inca drama on a happy note. [REDACTED] Media related to Ollantay (play) at Wikimedia Commons Quechua languages Although Quechua began expanding many centuries before

258-597: A mountain pass, defeating Rumi's forces but allowing him to escape. Other battles ensue. Ten years later Pachacutec dies without having defeated Ollantay, and his son Tupac Yupanqui succeeds him. Meanwhile, in the Acllahuasi, Cusi Coyllur has endured hardship at the hands of Mama Caca ("Stone Mother") but also found an ally in Pitu Salla ("Twinned Love"), who has raised Cusi's daughter Ima Sumac as her own. When Ima accidentally discovers her true heritage, she proposes to go to

301-535: A reference point, the overall degree of diversity across the family is a little less than that of the Romance or Germanic families, and more of the order of Slavic or Arabic . The greatest diversity is within Central Quechua, or Quechua I, which is believed to lie close to the homeland of the ancestral Proto-Quechua language. Alfredo Torero devised the traditional classification, the three divisions above, plus

344-587: A roughly 10-month-long voyage of exploration into the Pacific around 1470, under the reign of his father, reportedly visiting islands he called Nina Chumpi ("fire belt") and Hawa Chumpi ("outer belt", also spelled Avachumpi, Hahua chumpi ). The voyage is mentioned in the History of the Incas by Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa , as well as in the works of Martín de Murúa and Miguel Cabello de Balboa . Pedro Sarmiento described

387-553: A secret shared only with the Queen Ccoya Anahuarqui. Despite ominous omens from the Inca high priest, Ollantay decides to ask the Inca king for his daughter's hand. Pachacutec, reminding Ollantay of his humble origins, reproaches Ollantay for his audacity and angrily expels him from the court. Cusi Coyllur is then imprisoned in the Acllahuasi ("house of chosen women") where she is to expiate her sins; there she gives birth to

430-574: A significant influence on other native languages of the Americas, such as Mapuche . It is difficult to measure the number of Quechua speakers. The number of speakers given varies widely according to the sources. The total in Ethnologue 16 is 10 million, primarily based on figures published 1987–2002, but with a few dating from the 1960s. The figure for Imbabura Highland Quechua in Ethnologue , for example,

473-532: A special fondness for the city of Quito , which he rebuilt with architects from Cuzco . During this time his father Pachacuti reorganized the kingdom of Cuzco into the Tawantinsuyu , the "region of four provinces". Topa Inca led extensive military conquests to extend the Inca empire across much of Southern America. He became Sapa Inca (sole ruler) in his turn upon his father's death in 1471, ruling until his own death in 1493. He conquered Chimor , which occupied

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516-578: A true genetic classification is possible and divides Quechua II so that the family has four geographical–typological branches: Northern, North Peruvian, Central, and Southern. He includes Chachapoyas and Lamas in North Peruvian Quechua so Ecuadorian is synonymous with Northern Quechua. Quechua I (Central Quechua, Waywash ) is spoken in Peru's central highlands, from the Ancash Region to Huancayo . It

559-514: A young age. Topa Inca launched multiple large-scale expeditions to the north during his period as Auqui, subduing regions such as Hatun Xauxa, the Bombon Plateau, and Huaylas . Cities and sites the army he commanded besieged and captured at this time include Curamba, Huaylla-Pucara, Canta, and, most importantly, Chan Chan . He extended the realm along the Andes through modern Ecuador , and developed

602-459: Is 300,000, an estimate from 1977. The missionary organization FEDEPI, on the other hand, estimated one million Imbabura dialect speakers (published 2006). Census figures are also problematic, due to under-reporting. The 2001 Ecuador census reports only 500,000 Quechua speakers, compared to the estimate in most linguistic sources of more than 2 million. The censuses of Peru (2007) and Bolivia (2001) are thought to be more reliable. Additionally, there

645-691: Is a secondary division in Quechua II between the grammatically simplified northern varieties of Ecuador, Quechua II-B, known there as Kichwa , and the generally more conservative varieties of the southern highlands, Quechua II-C, which include the old Inca capital of Cusco . The closeness is at least in part because of the influence of Cusco Quechua on the Ecuadorean varieties in the Inca Empire. Because Northern nobles were required to educate their children in Cusco, this

688-455: Is an unknown number of speakers in emigrant communities. There are significant differences among the varieties of Quechua spoken in the central Peruvian highlands and the peripheral varieties of Ecuador, as well as those of southern Peru and Bolivia. They can be labeled Quechua I (or Quechua B, central) and Quechua II (or Quechua A, peripheral). Within the two groups, there are few sharp boundaries, making them dialect continua . However, there

731-402: Is named the senior general and deputy of the Inca ruler, while Orqo Waranka is named ruler of the state of Antisuyu . Soon afterwards, Ima Sumac enters the imperial palace to ask for clemency for her imprisoned mother. Although Tupac doesn't yet know whom this is, he takes an interest in the case and together with Ollantay goes to the Acllahuasi. There they find a woman with very long hair and

774-479: Is the most diverse branch of Quechua, to the extent that its divisions are commonly considered different languages. Quechua II (Peripheral Quechua, Wamp'una "Traveler") This is a sampling of words in several Quechuan languages: Tupac Yupanqui Topa Inca Yupanqui or Túpac Inca Yupanqui ( Quechua : Tupa Inka Yupanki ~ Thupaq Inka Yupanki ), also Topa Inga Yupangui , erroneously translated as "noble Inca accountant" (before 1471 – 1493)

817-750: The Chavín and Wari civilizations. Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of the central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire . The Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke a form of Quechua, which in the Cuzco region particularly has been heavily influenced by Aymara , hence some of the characteristics that still distinguish the Cuzco form of Quechua today. Diverse Quechua regional dialects and languages had already developed in different areas, influenced by local languages, before

860-588: The Incas , that previous expansion also meant that it was the primary language family within the Inca Empire. The Spanish also tolerated its use until the Peruvian struggle for independence in the 1780s. As a result, various Quechua languages are still widely spoken today, being co-official in many regions and the most spoken language lineage in Peru , after Spanish. The Quechua linguistic homeland may have been Central Peru. It has been speculated that it may have been used in

903-537: The University of San Marcos , completed and defended the first thesis in the language group in 2019; it concerned the works of poet Andrés Alencastre Gutiérrez and it was also the first non-Spanish native language thesis done at that university. Currently, there are different initiatives that promote Quechua in the Andes and across the world: many universities offer Quechua classes, a community-based organization such as Elva Ambía 's Quechua Collective of New York promote

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946-570: The Americas. As a result of Inca expansion into Central Chile , there were bilingual Quechua- Mapudungu Mapuche in Central Chile at the time of the Spanish arrival . It has been argued that Mapuche, Quechua, and Spanish coexisted in Central Chile , with significant bilingualism, during the 17th century. Alongside Mapudungun, Quechua is the indigenous language that has influenced Chilean Spanish

989-595: The Inca Empire expanded and further promoted Quechua as the official language of the Empire. After the Spanish conquest of Peru in the 16th century, Quechua continued to be used widely by the indigenous peoples as the "common language." It was officially recognized by the Spanish administration, and many Spaniards learned it in order to communicate with local peoples. The clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as

1032-406: The Inca armies, Ollantay is a warrior of common origin who has been decorated and elevated to the nobility in return for his service to the empire. He falls in love with Cusi Coyllur (or Kusi Quyllur, "happy star"), the daughter of the Inca ruler Pachacutec , but this love is prohibited due to his commoner background. Nevertheless, blinded by love, he pursues a secret relationship with Cusi Coyllur,

1075-467: The Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century, the prestige of Quechua had decreased sharply. Gradually its use declined so that it was spoken mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated and conservative rural areas. Nevertheless, in the 21st century, Quechua language speakers number roughly 7 million people across South America, more than any other indigenous language family in

1118-663: The Nation of Peru and the National Library of Peru , respectively. Two others are found in the Dominican Convert of Cuzco, and the third was published by Johann Jakob von Tschudi on the basis of a manuscript with origins in La Paz , Bolivia. Ollantay is divided into three acts. It is written predominantly in octosyllable verse alternating with hendecasyllable verse, and contains both blank verse and assonant rhyme. A general of

1161-557: The country. The major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechua languages is the lack of written materials, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups. Quechua, along with Aymara and minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language . In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural bilingual education (IBE) in Peru , Bolivia , and Ecuador . Even in these areas,

1204-460: The dialects is the basic criterion that defines Quechua not as a single language, but as a language family. The complex and progressive nature of how speech varies across the dialect continua makes it nearly impossible to differentiate discrete varieties; Ethnologue lists 45 varieties which are then divided into two groups; Central and Peripheral. Due to the non-intelligibility between the two groups, they are all classified as separate languages. As

1247-427: The expedition as follows: Historians and anthropologists such as María Rostworowski , Waldemar Espinoza, José Antonio del Busto Duthurburu and Jean Hervé Daude, believe that the two islands mentioned by the chroniclers are Mangareva and Easter Island , where oral traditions have claimed that a group of long-eared hanau eepe came to the island from an unknown land. Some historians, however, are skeptical that

1290-412: The gates are opened, Rumi Nawi's men capture Ollantay, Orqo Waranka, and other rebels without resistance, eventually bringing them to Cusco to face Tupac Yupanqui's judgement. After consultation with his advisors and his generals, Tupac condemns the prisoners to death, but then reverses himself at the last minute and not only pardons them, but decides to give them high-ranking posts in the empire. Ollantay

1333-857: The governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations. Some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for social advancement. Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings. Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua. Similarly, Quechua phrases and words are commonly used by Spanish speakers. In southern rural Bolivia, for instance, many Quechua words such as wawa (infant), misi (cat), waska (strap or thrashing), are as commonly used as their Spanish counterparts, even in entirely Spanish-speaking areas. Quechua has also had

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1376-625: The language of evangelization . The oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás , who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua general de los indios de los reynos del Perú (Grammar or Art of the General Language of the Indians of the Kingdoms of Peru) in 1560. Given its use by the Catholic missionaries,

1419-439: The language, and governments are training interpreters in Quechua to serve in healthcare, justice, and bureaucratic facilities. In 1975, Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages. Ecuador conferred official status on the language in its 2006 constitution, and in 2009, Bolivia adopted a new constitution that recognized Quechua and several other indigenous languages as official languages of

1462-548: The most. Quechua-Aymara and mixed Quechua-Aymara- Mapudungu toponymy can be found as far south as Osorno Province in Chile (latitude 41° S). In 2017 the first thesis defense done in Quechua in Europe was done by Peruvian Carmen Escalante Gutiérrez at Pablo de Olavide University ( Sevilla ). The same year Pablo Landeo wrote the first novel in Quechua without a Spanish translation. A Peruvian student, Roxana Quispe Collantes of

1505-495: The new Inca king and ask for clemency for her mother. At the same time, new Inca ruler Tupac Yupanqui resolves to finally defeat and capture Ollantay, and sends Rumi Nawi, who promises to redeem his earlier failure. Rumi Nawi employs a deceptive plan: he presents himself at the gates of Ollantaytambo covered in wounds, pretending that the new Inca ruler has abused him and suggesting that he would like to join Ollantay's rebellion. When

1548-753: The northern coast of what is now Peru , the largest remaining rival to the Incas. He conquered the province of Antisuyu and subdued the Qulla people . He imposed rules and taxes, creating two Suyuyoc Apu (Governor Generals), one in Jauja and the other in Tiahuanaco . The fortress Saksaywaman , established by Pachacuti on the high plateau above Cusco, was constructed throughout Topa Inca Yupanqui's reign. Topa Inca died about 1493 in Chincheros , leaving two legitimate sons, and 90 illegitimate sons and daughters. Chuqui Ocllo, one of

1591-582: The original author; however, other differing manuscripts have been found that suggest the existence of a common, more remote, origin. The most widely accepted theory is that the story is of Incan origin and was preserved through oral tradition until it was adapted for theatrical presentation in colonial times. Ollantay was first published in 1857 by Johann Jakob von Tschudi , in Quechua and German. The first Spanish version appeared in Lima in 1868, published by José Sebastián Barranca and subtitled "The tribulations of

1634-516: The play. Three hypotheses have emerged regarding the origin of Ollantay : There are six original copies of this play. One is from around 1770 and attributed to the priest Antonio Valdés, and is held in the Convent of Santo Domingo in Cuzco , Peru. Two are believed to be derived from this one, written by Dr. Justo Pastor Justiniani and Justo Apu Sahuaraura Inca , and held in the General Archive of

1677-485: The range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas. In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended the administrative and religious use of Quechua. They banned it from public use in Peru after the Túpac Amaru II rebellion of indigenous peoples. The Crown banned "loyal" pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vega's Comentarios Reales . Despite a brief revival of the language immediately after

1720-464: The wives of Topa Yupanqui, convinced him that his son Capac Huari would succeed him, however, Topa Inca Yupanqoi changed his mind and decided on his son Titu Cusi Hualpa (who would later become emperor Huayna Capac ). This provoked anger in Chuqui Ocllo and she poisoned Topa Inca. She and her favorite son were both killed soon after Topa Inca's death. Topa Inca Yupanqui is also credited with leading

1763-413: Was also suggested that the author was Justo Pastor Justiniani, but evidence later surfaced indicating that he served only as a copyist. Similarly, Juan Espinoza Medrano (aka El Lunarejo), a celebrated mestizo writer of the 17th century, was also considered a possible author. The lack of any documentary evidence supporting these possibilities has been taken to indicate a more likely pre-colonial origin for

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1806-585: Was maintained as the prestige dialect in the north. Speakers from different points within any of the three regions can generally understand one another reasonably well. There are nonetheless significant local-level differences across each. ( Wanka Quechua , in particular, has several very distinctive characteristics that make the variety more challenging to understand, even for other Central Quechua speakers.) Speakers from different major regions, particularly Central or Southern Quechua, are not able to communicate effectively. The lack of mutual intelligibility among

1849-575: Was the tenth Sapa Inca (1471–93) of the Inca Empire , fifth of the Hanan dynasty. His father was Pachacuti , and his son was Huayna Capac . Topa Inca belonged to the Qhapaq Panaca (one of the clans of Inca nobles). His quya (principal wife) was his older sister, Mama Ocllo . His father appointed him to head the Inca army before his reign as emperor, granting him the title of Auqui , or crown prince, at

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