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85-587: He was the son of the Ilkhan ruler Arghun , brother and successor of Mahmud Ghazan (5th successor of Genghis Khan), and great-grandson of the Ilkhanate founder Hulagu . Öljaitü was born to Arghun and his third wife, Keraite Christian Uruk Khatun on 24 March 1282 during his father's viceroyalty in Khorasan . He was given the name Khar-banda (mule driver) at birth, raised as Buddhist and later baptised in 1291, receiving

170-407: A cold climate receiving annual precipitation adequate to sustain temperate forests and shrubs . Mountain chains harbor pastures and forested valleys, totaling approximately 16 million hectares (160,000 km ), including firs and countryside is mostly oaks , conifers , platanus , willow , poplar and, to the west of Kurdistan, olive trees . The region north of the mountainous region on

255-675: A military operation wherein the Iraqi government forces attacked the Kurds, defeating them and forcing them to abandon the referendum. A month later, Iraq declared full victory over ISIS and re-established control over all previously occupied territory. Following the Kurds’ failed attempt to achieve independence, the government of Iraq has exacted severe punishment against KRI in a number of punitive measures. Some Kurdish officials in Iraq have described this as evidence of

340-406: A Kurdish majority, while others campaign for greater autonomy within the existing national boundaries. The delineation of the region remains disputed and varied, with some maps greatly exaggerating its boundaries. Historically, the word "Kurdistan" is first attested in 11th century Seljuk chronicles. Many disparate Kurdish dynasties, emirates, principalities, and chiefdoms were established from

425-654: A Mongol embassy led by Buscarello de Ghizolfi to the French king Philip IV of France , Pope Clement V , and Edward I of England . The letter to Philip IV, the only one to have survived, describes the virtues of concord between the Mongols and the Franks: "We, Sultan Oljaitu. We speak. We, who by the strength of the Sky, rose to the throne (...), we, descendant of Genghis Khan (...). In truth, there cannot be anything better than concord. If anybody

510-669: A battle near Amid and Siverek in 1062 as to have taken place in Kurdistan . The second record occurs in the prayer from the colophon of an Armenian manuscript of the Gospels , written in 1200. A later use of the term Kurdistan is found in Empire of Trebizond documents in 1336 and in Nuzhat al-Qulub , written by Hamdallah Mustawfi in 1340. According to Sharaf al-Din Bitlisi in his Sharafnama ,

595-551: A capital of the same name. The pashalics of Kirkook and Solimania also comprise part of Upper Curdistan. Lower Curdistan comprises all the level tract to the east of the Tigris, and the minor ranges immediately bounding the plains and reaching thence to the foot of the great range, which may justly be denominated the Alps of western Asia. The northern, northwestern and northeastern parts of Kurdistan are referred to as upper Kurdistan, and includes

680-507: A domed shrine he built in Soltaniyeh. Later, alienated by the factional strife between the Sunnis, Oljeitu changed his school of thought to Shi'a Islam in 1310. At some point, he even considered converting to Tengriism in early 1310. Mamluk historian al-Safadi mentioned in his biographical dictionary Aʻyan al-ʻAsr that Oljeitu had once again became Sunni in the last few years before his death in

765-766: A hunting accident. A final settlement with the Mamluks would only be found when Oljeitu's son signed the Treaty of Aleppo with the Mamluks in 1322. Öljaitü had thirteen consorts with several issues, albeit only one surviving son and daughter: Öljaitü also allegedly had an additional son, Ilchi who was claimed as an ancestor of the Arghun and Tarkhan dynasties of Afghanistan and India. Ilkhan (title) Il Khan (also il-khan , ilkhan , elkhan , etc.), in Turkic languages and Mongolian ,

850-555: A large part of the army deserted. The remainder – three hundred Mongols and four hundred Arabs – were crushed by a horde of four thousand Bedouin led Muhammad ibn Isa (brother of Muhanna ibn Isa ) in March 1317. He died in Soltaniyeh on 17 December 1316, having reigned for twelve years and nine months. Afterwards, Rashid al-Din Hamadani was accused of having caused his death by poisoning and

935-482: A last campaign against the Mamluks , in which he was unsuccessful, though he reportedly briefly took Damascus . It was when Mamluk emirs, former governor of Aleppo —Shams al-Din Qara Sonqur and governor of Tripoli —al-Afram defected to Öljaitü. Despite extradition requests from Egypt , ilkhan invested Qara Sonqur (now under the new name Aq Sonqur) with the governorate of Maragheh and al-Afram with Hamadan . Qara Sonqur

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1020-471: A thorough delineation is difficult, the Encyclopaedia of Islam delineated Kurdistan as following: In Turkey, the Kurds inhabit the whole of the eastern region of the country. According to Trotter (1878), the limit of their extent to the north was the line Divriği — Erzurum — Kars ... The Kurds also occupy the western slopes of Ararat, the districts of Kağızman and Tuzluca . On the west they extend in

1105-457: A wide belt beyond the course of the Euphrates, and, in the region of Sivas , in the districts of Kangal and Divriği. Equally, the whole region includes areas to the east and south-east of these limits... Turkish Kurdistan numbers at least 17 of them almost totally: in the north-east, the provinces of Erzincan , Erzurum and Kars ; in the centre, going from west to east and from north to south,

1190-413: A year in the plains, and between 700 and 3,000 mm a year on the high plateau between mountain chains. The mountainous zone along the borders with Iran and Turkey experiences dry summers , rainy and sometimes snowy winters, and damp springs, while to the south the climate progressively transitions toward semi-arid and desert zones. Kurdistan is one of the most mountainous regions in the world with

1275-596: Is a terrorist group and has acted accordingly. According to 2016 estimate Kurdish Institute of Paris , total population of Kurdistan is around 34.5 million, and Kurds making 86% of population of Northern Kurdistan. There are Arab , Turkic , Assyrian (Syriac), Armenian and Azerbaijani minorities in Northern Kurdistan. In Southern Kurdistan there are Christian (Assyrian and Armenian) and Turkish (Turkmen) minorities as well. Iraqi and Syrian Turkmen share close ties with Turkish people and do not identify with

1360-757: Is a title of leadership. It combines the title khan with the prefix el/il , from the word ulus – 'tribe, clan', 'the people', 'nation', 'homeland', 'state', 'tribal union', etc. The exact meaning depends on context: In the context of the Hulaguid dynasty , commonly known as the Ilkhanate , the title Ilkhan was borne by the descendants of Hulagu and later other Borjigin princes in Persia , starting from c. 1259-1265. Two interpretations have been proposed: Kurdistan Kurdistan ( Kurdish : کوردستان , romanized :  Kurdistan , lit.   'land of

1445-419: Is given in the text of Sharafnama , written by Prince Sharaf al-Din Bitlisi in 1597. The emirates included Baban , Soran , Badinan and Garmiyan in the south; Bakran, Bohtan (or Botan) and Badlis in the north, and Mukriyan and Ardalan in the east. The earliest medieval attestation of the toponym Kurdistan is found in a 12th-century Armenian historical text by Matteos Urhayeci . He described

1530-458: Is home to an estimated 6 to 8 million Kurds. In A Dictionary of Scripture Geography (published 1846), John Miles describes Upper and Lower Kurdistan as following: Modern Curdistan is of much greater extent than the ancient Assyria, and is composed of two parts the Upper and Lower. In the former is the province of Ardelan, the ancient Arropachatis, now nominally a part of Irak Ajami, and belonging to

1615-485: Is not self-ruled. Kurds fighting in the Syrian Civil War were able to take control of large sections of northern Syria and establish self-governing regions in an Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (commonly called Rojava), where they seek autonomy in a federal Syria after the war. Kurdistan means "Land of the Kurds" and was first attested in 11th-century Seljuk chronicles. The exact origins of

1700-616: The Financial Times indicating Turkey's readiness to accept an independent Kurdistan in northern Iraq. This became increasingly less likely, however, when in July 2017, the Iraqi government declared victory in the Battle of Mosul against ISIS in the group’s last stronghold in the country. Following this, in September 2017, Iraqi Kurds held a one-sided independence referendum which eventually triggered

1785-628: The Assyrian inhabitants of the lower town. An important change in administration happened in 1312 when Öljaitü's vizier Sa'd al-Din Savaji was arrested on charges of corruption and executed on 20 February 1312. He was soon replaced by Taj al-Din Ali Shah, who would head the Ilkhanate civil administration until 1323. Another victim of the purge was Taj al-Din Avaji, a follower of Sa'd al-Din. Öljaitü also finally launched

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1870-661: The Encyclopaedia of Islam , Kurdistan covers around 190,000 km (73,000 sq mi) in Turkey, 125,000 km (48,000 sq mi) in Iran, 65,000 km (25,000 sq mi) in Iraq, and 12,000 km (4,600 sq mi) in Syria, with a total area of approximately 392,000 km (151,000 sq mi). Turkish Kurdistan encompasses a large area of Eastern Anatolia Region and southeastern Anatolia of Turkey and it

1955-685: The Kurd Dagh ;..., to the east of the Euphrates where the river enters Syria near Jarablus ; and finally, a belt of 250 km. in length by 30 km. in depth in the Jazira . Many of the maps delineating Kurdistan are greatly exaggerated, also incorporating non-Kurdish regions, which has made the subject very controversial. Various groups, among them the Guti , Hurrians , Mannai ( Mannaeans ), and Armenians , lived in this region in antiquity. The original Mannaean homeland

2040-633: The Persian Gulf near Bushehr , and included the Lur inhabited areas of southern Zagros . The historian Jordi Tejel has identified "Greater Kurdistan" as being one of the "Kurdish myths" that the Kurdistan Democratic Party of Syria (KDPS) were involved in promoting to Kurds in Syria. An academic source published by the University of Cambridge has described maps of greater Kurdistan created in

2125-480: The Safavid and Ottoman empires. A major division of Kurdistan occurred in the aftermath of the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, and was formalized in the 1639 Treaty of Zuhab . In a geography textbook of late Ottoman military school by Ahmet Cevad Kurdistan span over the cities Erzurum , Van , Urfa , Sulaymanyah , Kirkuk , Mosul and Diyarbakir among others and was one out of six regions of Ottoman Asia. After

2210-915: The Turkmen of Turkmenistan and Central Asia . Kurdistan has also significant Caucasian population, Caucasians of Kurdistan included Chechens and Ingushes in Varto , Ossetians in Ahlat and Circassians . From early stage on, these Caucasians went through a process of Kurdification and thereby had Kurdish as their mother tongue. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica , Kurdistan covers about 190,000 km (or 73,000 square miles), and its chief towns are Diyarbakır (Amed), Bitlis (Bedlîs) and Van (Wan) in Turkey, Erbil (Hewlêr) and Sulaymaniyah in Iraq, and Kermanshah (Kirmanşan), Sanandaj (Sine), Ilam and Mahabad (Mehabad) in Iran. According to

2295-478: The military coup of 1980 , the Kurdish language was officially prohibited in public and private life. Many people who spoke, published, or sang in Kurdish were arrested and imprisoned. Throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, political parties that represented Kurdish interests were banned. In 1983, the Kurdish provinces were included in the state of emergency region , which was placed under martial law in response to

2380-502: The red fox , goitered gazelle , Eurasian otter , striped hyena , Persian fallow deer , long-eared hedgehog , onager , mangar and the Euphrates softshell turtle . Birds include, the hooded crow , common starling , Eurasian magpie , European robin , water pipit , spotted flycatcher , namaqua dove , saker falcon , griffon vulture , little crake and collared pratincole , among others. Mountains are important geographical and symbolic features of Kurdish life, as evidenced by

2465-509: The 1937 Dersim rebellion . All were forcefully put down by the authorities. The region was declared a closed military area from which foreigners were banned between 1925 and 1965. In an attempt to deny their existence , the Turkish government categorized Kurds as " Mountain Turks " until 1991. The words "Kurds", "Kurdistan", or "Kurdish" were officially banned by the Turkish government. Following

2550-474: The 1940s and forward as: "These maps have become some of the most influential propaganda tools for the Kurdish nationalist discourse. They depict a territorially exaggerated version of the territory of Kurdistan, extending into areas with no majority Kurdish populations. Despite their production with political aims related to specific claims on the demographic and ethnographic structure of the region, and their questionable methodologies, they have become 'Kurdistan in

2635-570: The 8th to 19th centuries. Administratively, the 20th century saw the establishment of the short-lived areas of the Kurdish state (1918–1919), Kingdom of Kurdistan (1921–1924), Kurdistansky Uyezd i.e. "Red Kurdistan" (1923–1929), Republic of Ararat (1927–1930), and Republic of Mahabad (1946). In Iraq, following the Aylūl Revolt , the government entered into an agreement with the rebellious Kurds, granting Kurds local self-rule. Soon after, however,

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2720-767: The Grand Master of the Knights Hospitallers Guillaume de Villaret about military plans for a Crusade envisaged a Mongol invasion of Syria as a preliminary to a Western intervention (1307/8). Byzantine Emperor Andronicus II gave a daughter in marriage to Oljeitu and asked the Ilkhan's assistance against growing the power of the Ottomans . In 1305, Oljeitu promised his father in law 40,000 men, and in 1308 dispatched 30,000 men to recover many Byzantine towns in Bithynia and

2805-495: The Ilkhanate court in 1315, ilkhan on his part provided Humaydah an army of several thousand Mongols and Arabs under the command of Sayyid Talib al-Dilqandi to bring the Hijaz under Ilkhanid control. He also planned to exhume the bodies of the caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar from their graves in Medina . However, soon after the expedition passed Basra they received news of ilkhan's death, and

2890-674: The Ilkhanid army crushed a detachment of Osman I . On 4 April 1312, a Crusade was promulgated by Pope Clement V at the Council of Vienne . Another embassy was sent by Oljeitu to the West and to Edward II in 1313. That same year, the French king Philippe le Bel "took the cross", making the vow to go on a Crusade in the Levant, thus responding to Clement V's call for a Crusade. He was however warned against leaving by Enguerrand de Marigny , and died soon after in

2975-427: The Iraqi government to punish Kurdistan Region has resulted in the latter losing authorities it had previously possessed, and the future of Kurdish autonomy in Iraq has been called into question. Iraqi Kurdish officials have also complained of efforts by the Iraqi government to return to the pre-2003 centralized government and dismantle Kurdistan Region altogether. There is also a Kurdistan Province in Iran, which

3060-618: The Iraqi government’s aim to return to a centralised political system and abandon the federal system it adopted in 2005. In a leaked letter published by Al-Monitor in September 2023, Masrour Barzani , the prime minister of KRG warned about an imminent collapse of the federal model in Iraq (i.e. a return to centralism ) and urged the United States to intervene, saying: "I write to you now at another critical juncture in our history, one that I fear we may have difficulty overcoming. …[W]e are bleeding economically and hemorrhaging politically. For

3145-531: The Islamic name Muhammad . He participated in battles involving Ghazan's fight against Baydu . After his brother Ghazan's accession to throne, he was appointed as viceroy of Khorasan . Despite being appointed heir of Ghazan since 1299, after hearing news of his death he sought to eliminate potential rivals to throne. First such act was taken against Prince Alafrang, son of Gaykhatu . He was killed by an emissary of Öljaitü on 30 May 1304. Another powerful emir, Horqudaq

3230-641: The Kurdish-inhabited regions of eastern Anatolia was opposed by many Kurds, and has resulted in a long-running separatist conflict in which tens of thousands of lives have been lost. The region saw several major Kurdish rebellions, including the Koçgiri rebellion of 1920 under the Ottomans, then successive insurrections under the Turkish state, including the 1924 Sheikh Said rebellion , the Republic of Ararat in 1927, and

3315-587: The Kurds';; [ˌkʊɾdɪˈstɑːn] ), or Greater Kurdistan , is a roughly defined geo- cultural region in West Asia wherein the Kurds form a prominent majority population and the Kurdish culture , languages , and national identity have historically been based. Geographically, Kurdistan roughly encompasses the northwestern Zagros and the eastern Taurus mountain ranges. Kurdistan generally comprises

3400-663: The Orient, to Lake Dala our people are united and the roads are open." This message reassured the European nations that the Franco-Mongol alliance , or at least attempts towards such an alliance, had not ceased, even though the Khans had converted to Islam. Another embassy was sent to the West in 1307, led by Tommaso Ugi di Siena , an Italian described as Öljeitu's ildüchi ("Sword-bearer"). This embassy encouraged Pope Clement V to speak in 1307 of

3485-517: The Ramadan of 716 AH . He oversaw the end of construction of city of Soltaniyeh on Qongqur-Oleng plains in 1306. In 1309, Öljeitu founded a Dar al-Sayyedah (" Sayyed 's lodge") in Shiraz , Iran , and endowed it with an income of 10,000 Dinars a year. His tomb in Soltaniyeh , 300 km west of Tehran , remains the best known monument of Ilkhanid Persia . According to Ruy González de Clavijo , his body

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3570-603: The Syrian and Bar Hebraeus . They mention the mountains of Qardu, city of Qardu and country of Qardawaye. In the tenth and eleventh centuries, several Kurdish principalities emerged in the region: in the north the Shaddadids (951–1174) (in east Transcaucasia between the Kur and Araxes rivers) and the Rawadids (955–1221) (centered on Tabriz and which controlled all of Azerbaijan ), in

3655-500: The Uyghur noble Amir Sevinch as his guardian. Another descendant of Jochi Qasar, Baba Oghul arrived from Central Asia in the same year, pillaging Khwarazm on his way, causing much disturbance. Upon protests from Golden Horde emissaries, Öljaitü had to execute Baba, claiming he was not informed of such unauthorized acts. Öljaitü's reign is also remembered for a brief effort at Ilkhanid invasion of Hijaz . Humaydah ibn Abi Numayy , arrived at

3740-486: The activities of the militant separatist organization the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK). A guerrilla war took place through the 1980s and 1990s in which much of the countryside was evacuated, thousands of Kurdish villages were destroyed by the government , and numerous summary executions were carried out by both sides. Food embargoes were placed on Kurdish villages and towns. Tens of thousands were killed in

3825-526: The agreement collapsed . Later, during the Iraqi no-fly zones conflict , which followed the Gulf War , the Iraqi military withdrew from parts of northern Iraq, allowing the Kurds to fill the vacuum and regain lost control in those areas. After the invasion of Iraq , and since the creation of the new Iraqi federal state , the new constitution issued in 2005 recognises Kurdistan Region as a federal region; even though

3910-407: The areas from west of Amed to Lake Urmia. The lowlands of southern Kurdistan are called lower Kurdistan. The main cities in this area are Kirkuk and Arbil. Much of the region is typified by a continental climate – hot in the summer, cold in the winter. Despite this, much of the region is fertile and has historically exported grain and livestock . Precipitation varies between 200 and 400 mm

3995-434: The autonomous Kurdistan Regional Government . The word 'Kurdistan', whether written or spoken, can still lead to detention and prosecution in Turkey. Kurdistan has been characterized as an "international colony" by the scholar Ismail Besikci . The successful 2014 Northern Iraq offensive by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIS), and the resultant weakening of the ability of the Iraqi state to project power at

4080-676: The border with Iran and Turkey features meadow grasses and such wild trees as, Abies cilicica , Fagus sylvatica , Quercus calliprinos , Quercus brantii , Quercus infectoria , Quercus ithaburensis , Quercus macranthera , Cupressus sempervirens , Platanus orientalis , Pinus brutia , Juniperus foetidissima , Juniperus excelsa , Juniperus oxycedrus , Prunus cerasus , Salix alba , Fraxinus excelsior , Paliurus spina-christi , Olea europaea , Ficus carica , Populus euphratica , Populus nigra , Crataegus monogyna , Crataegus azarolus , Prunus cerasifera , rose hips , Cercis siliquastrum , pistachio trees , pear and Sorbus graeca . The desert in

4165-480: The boundaries of the Kurdish land begin at the Strait of Hormuz in the Persian Gulf and stretch on an even line to the end of Malatya and Marash . Evliya Çelebi , who traveled in the region between 1640 and 1655, mentioned that Kurdistan includes Erzurum , Van , Hakkari , Cizre , Imaddiya , Mosul , Shahrizor , Harir , Ardalan , Baghdad , Derne, Derteng, until Basra . In the 16th century, after prolonged wars, Kurdish-inhabited areas were split between

4250-399: The collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the Allies contrived to split Kurdistan (as detailed in the ultimately unratified Treaty of Sèvres ) among several countries, including Kurdistan, Armenia and others. However, the reconquest of these areas by the forces of Kemal Atatürk (and other pressing issues) caused the Allies to accept the renegotiated Treaty of Lausanne (1923) and the borders of

4335-417: The constitution does not include the term “autonomy”, it emphasises decentralisation and devolution , allowing regions and governorates to administer local affairs. In practice, however, only Kurdistan Region has exercised this authority granted by the constitution. In September 2017, Iraqi Kurds held a one-sided independence referendum , which eventually failed and was abandoned. The subsequent effort by

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4420-520: The east the Hasanwayhids (959–1015) (in Zagros between Shahrizor and Khuzistan ) and the Annazids (990–1116) (centered in Hulwan ) and in the west the Marwanids (990–1096) to the south of Diyarbakır and north of Jazira . Kurdistan in the Middle Ages was a collection of semi-independent and independent states called emirates . It was nominally under indirect political or religious influence of Khalifs or Shahs . A comprehensive history of these states and their relationship with their neighbors

4505-440: The first time in my tenure as prime minister, I hold grave concerns that this dishonorable campaign against us may cause the collapse of … the very model of a Federal Iraq that the United States sponsored in 2003 and purported to stand by since." According to a report published in 2024 by the Washington Institute for Near East Policy , Kurdistan Region's autonomy "hangs in the balance" due to several punitive measures imposed against

4590-399: The following four regions: southeastern Turkey ( Northern Kurdistan ), northern Iraq ( Southern Kurdistan ), northwestern Iran ( Eastern Kurdistan ), and northern Syria ( Western Kurdistan ). Some definitions also include parts of southern Transcaucasia . Certain Kurdish nationalist organizations seek to create an independent nation state consisting of some or all of these areas with

4675-479: The former by the government of Iraq in an effort to punish it and ultimately strip it completely of its autonomy. Various sources have reported that Al-Nusra has issued a fatwā calling for Kurdish women and children in Syria to be killed, and the fighting in Syria has led tens of thousands of refugees to flee to Iraq's Kurdistan region . As of 2015, Turkey was actively supporting Al-Nusra, but as of January 2017, Turkey's foreign ministry has said that Al-Nusra

4760-469: The instability in Syria and Iraq that exists as of 2014, attested that "Kurdistan may exist by 2030". The weakening of the Iraqi state following the 2014 Northern Iraq offensive by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant has also presented an opportunity for independence for Iraqi Kurdistan, augmented by Turkey's move towards acceptance of such a state although it opposes moves toward Kurdish autonomy in Turkey and Syria. The incorporation into Turkey of

4845-411: The late emir Danishmend's son Bujai. Bujai was successful after a siege from 5 February to 24 June 1306, finally capturing the citadel. A corps of Frankish mangonel specialists is known to have accompanied the Ilkhanid army in this conquest. Another important event of 1307 was the completion of the Jami al-Tawarikh by Rashid al-Din on 14 April 1307. Later in 1307, a revolt broke in Kurdistan under

4930-411: The leadership of certain Musa, who claimed to be the Mahdi . The uprising was swiftly defeated. Another religious revolt, this time by 10.000 strong Christians, broke out in Irbil . Despite Mar Yahballaha 's best efforts to avert the impending doom, the citadel was at last taken after a siege by Ilkhanate troops and Kurdish tribesmen on 1 July 1310, and all the defenders were massacred, including many of

5015-407: The liwaʾs of Kirkuk , Arbil and Sulaymaniyah (entirely Kurdish) and, in the... nahiyas of Khanaqin and Mandali , where they are neighbours of the Kurds of Iran to the west of the Zagros. In Syria, they constitute three distinct belts, in the north of the country and to the south of the highway which forms a frontier and where they are in direct contact with their compatriots in Turkey... [I]n

5100-505: The minds of Kurds' and the boundaries they indicate have been readily accepted." At the end of the 1991 Gulf War , the Coalition established a no-fly zone over northern Iraq to provide humanitarian relief to and safeguard the Kurds who would be subjected to Iraqi air attacks. Amid the withdrawal of Iraqi forces from three northern provinces, Kurdistan Region emerged in 1992 as an autonomous entity inside Iraq with its own local government and parliament. A 2010 US report, written before

5185-467: The modern Iraq-Turkey border, while Hazza is 12 km southwest of modern Erbil . In another passage in the same document, the region of the Khabur River is also identified as land of the Kurds . According to Al-Muqaddasi and Yaqut al-Hamawi , Tamanon was located on the south-western or southern slopes of Mount Judi and south of Cizre . Other geographical references to the Kurds in Syriac sources appear in Zuqnin chronicle, writings of Michael

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5270-411: The modern Republic of Turkey, leaving the Kurds without a self-ruled region. Other Kurdish areas were assigned to the new British and French mandated states of Iraq and Syria . At the San Francisco Peace Conference of 1945, the Kurdish delegation proposed consideration of territory claimed by the Kurds, which encompassed an area extending from the Mediterranean shores near Adana to the shores of

5355-427: The modern names of Kurds and Kurdistan; T. A. Sinclair and other scholars have dismissed this identification as false, while a common association is asserted in the Columbia Encyclopedia . Some of the ancient districts of Kurdistan and their corresponding modern names: One of the earliest records of the phrase land of the Kurds is found in an Assyrian Christian document of late antiquity , describing

5440-430: The name Kurd are unclear. The suffix -stan ( Persian : ـستان, translit. stân ) is Persian for land. "Kurdistan" was also formerly spelled Curdistan . One of the ancient names of this region was Corduene . The 19th-century Kurdistan Eyalet was the first time that the Ottoman Empire used the term 'Kurdistan' to refer to an administrative unit rather than a geographical region. Albeit admitting

5525-494: The name Nikolya ( Nicholas ) after Pope Nicholas IV . However, according to Tarikh-i Uljaytu (History of Oljeitu), Öljeitu was at first known as "Öljei Buqa", and then "Temüder", and finally "Kharbanda". Various c. Same source also mentions that it rained when he was born, and the delighted Mongols called him by the Mongolian name Öljeitu (Өлзийт), meaning auspicious. He was later converted to Sunni Islam along with his brother Ghazan. Like his brother, he changed his first name to

5610-419: The north west division called Al Jobal. It contains five others namely, Betlis, the ancient Carduchia, lying to the south and south west of the lake Van. East and south east of Betlis is the principality of Julamerick, south west of it is the principality of Amadia. the fourth is Jeezera ul Omar, a city on an island in the Tigris, and corresponding to the ancient Bezabde. the fifth and largest is Kara Djiolan, with

5695-407: The provinces of Malatya , Tunceli , Elazığ , Bingöl , Muş , Karaköse ( Ağrı ), then Adıyaman , Diyarbakır , Siirt , Bitlis and Van ; Finally, the southern provinces of Şanlıurfa , Mardin and Çölamerik ( Hakkarî )... [Kurds] inhabit the north-west of Iran. Firstly in the provinces of West Azerbaijan , to the east of Lake Rida'iyya ..., the districts of Maku , Kotur , Shahpur , and to

5780-487: The same year, establishing an intra-Mongol peace. His reign also saw a wave of migration from Central Asia during 1306. Certain Borjigid princes, such as Mingqan Ke'un (grandson of Ariq Böke and grandfather of future Arpa Ke'un ), Sarban (son of Kaidu ), Temür (a descendant of Jochi Qasar ) arrived in Khorasan with 30.000 or 50.000 followers. He undertook an expedition to Herat against the Kartid ruler Fakhr al-Din in 1306, but succeeded only briefly; his emir Danishmend

5865-404: The saying "Kurds have no friends but the mountains." Mountains are regarded as sacred by the Kurds . Included in the region are Mount Judi and Ararat (both prominent in Kurdish folklore), Zagros , Qandil , Shingal , Mount Abdulaziz , Kurd Mountains , Jabal al-Akrad , Shaho, Gabar, Hamrin , and Nisir . Iraqi Kurdistan is a region relatively rich in water, especially for countries in

5950-407: The south is mostly steppe and would feature xeric plants such as palm trees , tamarix , date palm , fraxinus , poa , white wormwood and chenopodiaceae . The steppe and desert in the south, by contrast, have such species as palm trees and date palm . Animals found in the region include the Syrian brown bear , wild boar , gray wolf , the golden jackal , Indian crested porcupine ,

6035-406: The south of the lake, Mahabad (ex-Sabla); in the province of Ardalan, called the province of Kurdistan , whose capital is Senna or Sanandaj , Hawraman ; in the province of Kermanshah , Qasr-e Shirin ... In Iraq, the Kurds occupy the north and northeast of the country in the liwaʾs or provinces of Duhok ... Left outside their administration are Sinjar and Shekhan , peopled by the Yazidis ;

6120-626: The stories of Assyrian saints of the Middle East , such as Abdisho . When the Sasanian Marzban asked Mar Abdisho about his place of origin, he replied that according to his parents, they were originally from Hazza, a village in Assyria . However, they were later driven out of Hazza by pagans , and settled in Tamanon, which according to Abdisho was in the land of the Kurds. Tamanon lies just north of

6205-611: The strong possibility that the Mongols could remit the Holy Land to the Christians, and to declare that the Mongol embassy from Öljeitu "cheered him like spiritual sustenance". Relations were quite warm: in 1307, the Pope named John of Montecorvino the first Archbishop of Khanbalik and Patriarch of the Orient. European nations accordingly prepared a crusade, but were delayed. A memorandum drafted by

6290-508: The time, also presented a "golden opportunity" for the Kurds to increase their independence and possibly declare an independent Kurdish state. The Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant , who took more than 80 Turkish persons captive in Mosul during their offensive, is an enemy of Turkey, making Kurdistan useful for Turkey as a buffer state. On 28 June 2014 Hüseyin Çelik , a spokesman for the ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP), made comments to

6375-506: The violence and hundreds of thousands were forced to leave their homes. Turkey has historically feared that a Kurdish state in Northern Iraq would encourage and support Kurdish separatists in the adjacent Turkish provinces, and have therefore historically strongly opposed Kurdish independence in Iraq. However, following the chaos in Iraq after the US invasion , Turkey has increasingly worked with

6460-534: The vying Parthian and Roman empires. Corduene became a vassal state of the Roman Republic in 66 BC and remained allied with the Romans until AD 384. After 66 BC, it passed another 5 times between Rome and Persia. Corduene was situated to the east of Tigranocerta , that is, to the east and south of present-day Diyarbakır in south-eastern Turkey. Some historians have correlated a connection between Corduene with

6545-649: Was Asil al-Din, son of Nasir al-Din Tusi as his father's successor to head Maragheh observatory . Another political decision was revoking Kerman from Qutluqkhanid Qutb al-Din Shah Jahan on 21 April 1304. Öljaitü appointed his father-in-law and uncle Irinjin as viceroy of Anatolia on 27 June 1305. He received ambassadors from the Yuan dynasty (19 September 1305), Chagatai Khanate (in persons of Chapar, son of Kaidu and Duwa , son of Baraq ) and Golden Horde (8 December 1305) in

6630-435: Was executed. Oljeitu was succeeded by his son Abu Sa'id . Öljaitü had been professing Buddhism, Christianity and Islam throughout his life. After succeeding his brother, Öljeitu became influenced by Shi'a theologians Al-Hilli and Maitham Al Bahrani . Although another source indicates he converted to Islam through the persuasions of his wife. Upon Al-Hilli's death, Oljeitu transferred his teacher's remains from Baghdad to

6715-509: Was killed during the ambush. He started his second military campaign in June 1307 towards Gilan . It was a success thanks to combines forces of emirs like Sutai , Esen Qutluq, Irinjin , Sevinch, Chupan , Toghan and Mu'min. Despite initial success, his commander-in-chief Qutluqshah was defeated and killed during the campaign, which paved way for Chupan to rise in ranks. Following this, he ordered another campaign against Kartids, this time commanded by

6800-467: Was later exhumed by Miran Shah . Trading contacts with European powers were very active during the reign of Öljeitu. The Genoese had first appeared in the capital of Tabriz in 1280, and they maintained a resident Consul by 1304. Oljeitu also gave full trading rights to the Venetians through a treaty in 1306 (another such treaty with his son Abu Said was signed in 1320). According to Marco Polo , Tabriz

6885-510: Was later given Oljath —daughter of Abaqa Khan on 17 January 1314. Meanwhile, relations between other Mongol realms were getting heated. The new khan of Golden Horde, Ozbeg sent an emissary to Öljaitü, renewing his claims to Azerbaijan on 13 October 1312. Öljaitü also supported the latter during Chagatai-Yuan war in 1314, annexing Southern Afghanistan after expelling Qara'unas . After repelling Chagatai armies, he appointed his son Abu Sa'id to govern Khorasan and Mazandaran in 1315 with

6970-667: Was likewise captured and executed. He arrived in the Ujan plain on 9 July 1304 and was crowned on 19 July 1304. Rashid al-Din wrote that he adopted the name Oljeitu following Yuan emperor Öljeitu Temür enthroned in Dadu . His full regnal title was Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad Khudabanda Öljaitü Sultan. Upon accession, he made several appointments, such Qutluqshah to the post of commander-in-chief of Ilkhanate army, Rashid al-Din and Sa'd al-Din Savaji as his viziers on 22 July 1304. Another appointment

7055-428: Was not in concord with either you or ourselves, then we would defend ourselves together. Let the Sky decide!" He also explained that internal conflicts between the Mongols were now over: "Now all of us, Timur Khagan , Tchapar, Toctoga , Togba and ourselves, main descendants of Gengis-Khan, all of us, descendants and brothers, are reconciled through the inspiration and the help of God. So that, from Nangkiyan (China) in

7140-547: Was situated east and south of the Lake Urmia , roughly centered around modern-day Mahabad . The region came under Persian rule during the reign of Cyrus the Great and Darius I . The Kingdom of Corduene , which emerged from the declining Seleucid Empire , was located to the south and south-east of Lake Van between Persia and Mesopotamia and ruled northern Mesopotamia and southeastern Anatolia from 189 BC to AD 384 as vassals of

7225-470: Was specialized in the production of gold and silk, and Western merchants could purchase precious stones in quantities. After his predecessors Arghun and Ghazan , Öljeitu continued diplomatic overtures with the West, and re-stated Mongol hopes for an alliance between the Christian nations of Europe and the Mongols against the Mamluks, even though Öljeitu himself had converted to Islam. In April 1305, he sent

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