The Oceanium is a public aquarium that opened in 2001 in Diergaarde Blijdorp , a zoo in Rotterdam , Netherlands . The Oceanium lies in the expansion area of the zoo, which includes a new entrance and parking area, and was the biggest project to date for the zoo. The area around the Oceanium is home to projects depicting the Americas .
92-603: The Oceanium is also home to scientific research into the conservation of coral . On the roof of the Oceanium is the largest solar power plant in the Netherlands within the built-up area. The plant has been given the name 'Sunport'. The 5000 square meter roof area of the Oceanium contains around 3400 black/grey colored solar panels , with a combined capacity of 510 kilowatt peak. The solar power station supplies approximately 325,000 kWh of electricity per year. Blijdorp immediately uses
184-557: A species : see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology) . The rules for the scientific names of organisms are laid down in the nomenclature codes , which allow each species a single unique name that, for animals (including protists ), plants (also including algae and fungi ) and prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ), is Latin and binomial in form; this contrasts with common or vernacular names , which are non-standardized, can be non-unique, and typically also vary by country and language of usage. Except for viruses ,
276-453: A symbiotic relationship with a class of dinoflagellate algae , zooxanthellae of the genus Symbiodinium , which can form as much as 30% of the tissue of a polyp. Typically, each polyp harbors one species of alga, and coral species show a preference for Symbiodinium . Young corals are not born with zooxanthellae, but acquire the algae from the surrounding environment, including the water column and local sediment. The main benefit of
368-420: A calcified material. The polyps of stony corals have six-fold symmetry. In stony corals, the tentacles are cylindrical and taper to a point, but in soft corals they are pinnate with side branches known as pinnules. In some tropical species, these are reduced to mere stubs and in some, they are fused to give a paddle-like appearance. Coral skeletons are biocomposites (mineral + organics) of calcium carbonate, in
460-491: A calcium carbonate base, with polyps that bear six stiff tentacles, and soft coral (Alcyonacea and ahermatypic coral) which are pliable and formed by a colony of polyps with eight feather-like tentacles. These two classifications arose from differentiation in gene expressions in their branch tips and bases that arose through developmental signaling pathways such as Hox , Hedgehog , Wnt , BMP etc. Scientists typically select Acropora as research models since they are
552-417: A commonly highly abundant bacterium in corals, has exhibited codiversification with its host. This hints at an intricate set of relationships between the members of the coral holobiont that have been developing as evolution of these members occurs. A study published in 2018 revealed evidence of phylosymbiosis between corals and their tissue and skeleton microbiomes. The coral skeleton, which represents
644-520: A full moon. A full moon is equivalent to four to six hours of continuous dim light exposure, which can cause light-dependent reactions in protein. Corals contain light-sensitive cryptochromes , proteins whose light-absorbing flavin structures are sensitive to different types of light. This allows corals such as Dipsastraea speciosa to detect and respond to changes in sunlight and moonlight. Moonlight itself may actually suppress coral spawning. The most immediate cue to cause spawning appears to be
736-643: A later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg. ; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the "valid taxon" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is " correct name " or "current name" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split. Prokaryote and virus codes of nomenclature also exist which serve as
828-409: A list of types of trees, and the 11th-century French commentator Rashi describes it as "a type of tree (מין עץ) that grows underwater that goes by the (French) name 'coral'." The Persian polymath Al-Biruni (d.1048) classified sponges and corals as animals, arguing that they respond to touch. Nevertheless, people believed corals to be plants until the eighteenth century when William Herschel used
920-621: A long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776. Within the same kingdom, one generic name can apply to one genus only. However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera. For example,
1012-574: A microscope to establish that coral had the characteristic thin cell membranes of an animal . Presently, corals are classified as species of animals within the sub-classes Hexacorallia and Octocorallia of the class Anthozoa in the phylum Cnidaria . Hexacorallia includes the stony corals and these groups have polyps that generally have a 6-fold symmetry. Octocorallia includes blue coral and soft corals and species of Octocorallia have polyps with an eightfold symmetry, each polyp having eight tentacles and eight mesenteries . The group of corals
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#17330852056121104-441: A multi-domain marine animal symbiosis. The gammaproteobacterium Endozoicomonas is emerging as a central member of the coral's microbiome, with flexibility in its lifestyle. Given the recent mass bleaching occurring on reefs, corals will likely continue to be a useful and popular system for symbiosis and dysbiosis research. Astrangia poculata , the northern star coral, is a temperate stony coral , widely documented along
1196-514: A new colony. Although some corals are able to catch plankton and small fish using stinging cells on their tentacles, most corals obtain the majority of their energy and nutrients from photosynthetic unicellular dinoflagellates of the genus Symbiodinium that live within their tissues. These are commonly known as zooxanthellae and give the coral color. Such corals require sunlight and grow in clear, shallow water, typically at depths less than 60 metres (200 feet; 33 fathoms), but corals in
1288-409: A reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of "names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature". An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for
1380-400: A single polyp and eventually develops into a juvenile and then adult by asexual budding and growth. Within a coral head, the genetically identical polyps reproduce asexually , either by budding (gemmation) or by dividing, whether longitudinally or transversely. Budding involves splitting a smaller polyp from an adult. As the new polyp grows, it forms its body parts . The distance between
1472-415: A skeleton composed of calcium carbonate to strengthen and protect the organism. This is deposited by the polyps and by the coenosarc , the living tissue that connects them. The polyps sit in cup-shaped depressions in the skeleton known as corallites . Colonies of stony coral are markedly variable in appearance; a single species may adopt an encrusting, plate-like, bushy, columnar or massive solid structure,
1564-453: A subset of coral-associated bacteria. Many corals in the order Scleractinia are hermatypic , meaning that they are involved in building reefs. Most such corals obtain some of their energy from zooxanthellae in the genus Symbiodinium . These are symbiotic photosynthetic dinoflagellates which require sunlight; reef-forming corals are therefore found mainly in shallow water. They secrete calcium carbonate to form hard skeletons that become
1656-427: A taxon; however, the names published in suppressed works are made unavailable via the relevant Opinion dealing with the work in question. In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's "available name" is a validly published name . An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval. ; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej. ;
1748-643: A third nature ( tertia natura )". Petrus Gyllius copied Pliny, introducing the term zoophyta for this third group in his 1535 book On the French and Latin Names of the Fishes of the Marseilles Region ; it is popularly but wrongly supposed that Aristotle created the term. Gyllius further noted, following Aristotle, how hard it was to define what was a plant and what was an animal. The Babylonian Talmud refers to coral among
1840-455: A total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. "Official" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no "official" standing such as Index Fungorum for fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and
1932-531: Is paraphyletic because the sea anemones are also in the sub-class Hexacorallia. The delineation of coral species is challenging as hypotheses based on morphological traits contradict hypotheses formed via molecular tree-based processes. As of 2020, there are 2175 identified separate coral species, 237 of which are currently endangered, making distinguishing corals to be the utmost of importance in efforts to curb extinction. Adaptation and delineation continues to occur in species of coral in order to combat
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#17330852056122024-409: Is coordinated by chemical communication. Corals predominantly reproduce sexually . About 25% of hermatypic corals (reef-building stony corals) form single-sex ( gonochoristic ) colonies, while the rest are hermaphroditic . It is estimated more than 67% of coral are simultaneous hermaphrodites . About 75% of all hermatypic corals "broadcast spawn" by releasing gametes — eggs and sperm —into
2116-596: Is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants , there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance, A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG). The type genus forms
2208-415: Is negatively buoyant, sinking onto the waiting egg carriers that harbor unfertilized eggs for weeks. Synchronous spawning events sometimes occur even with these species. After fertilization, the corals release planula that are ready to settle. The time from spawning to larval settlement is usually two to three days but can occur immediately or up to two months. Broadcast-spawned planula larvae develop at
2300-460: Is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be "similar", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists about whether enormous, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance,
2392-474: Is the type species , and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed. In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as "available" or "unavailable". Available names are those published in accordance with
2484-449: Is thought to have been laid down about two million years ago. Over time, corals fragment and die, sand and rubble accumulates between the corals, and the shells of clams and other molluscs decay to form a gradually evolving calcium carbonate structure. Coral reefs are extremely diverse marine ecosystems hosting over 4,000 species of fish, massive numbers of cnidarians, molluscs , crustaceans , and many other animals. At certain times in
2576-549: The Cambrian about 535 million years ago . Fossils are extremely rare until the Ordovician period, 100 million years later, when Heliolitida, rugose , and tabulate corals became widespread. Paleozoic corals often contained numerous endobiotic symbionts. Genus Genus ( / ˈ dʒ iː n ə s / ; pl. : genera / ˈ dʒ ɛ n ər ə / ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family as used in
2668-621: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ; the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the " valid " (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question. Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time; which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. "Unavailable" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to
2760-799: The International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names for zoological names. Totals for both "all names" and estimates for "accepted names" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom: The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists "uncertain" names (not researched therein) in addition to known "accepted" names;
2852-481: The biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses . In binomial nomenclature , the genus name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus. The composition of a genus is determined by taxonomists . The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including
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2944-404: The platypus belongs to the genus Ornithorhynchus although George Shaw named it Platypus in 1799 (these two names are thus synonyms ) . However, the name Platypus had already been given to a group of ambrosia beetles by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1793. A name that means two different things is a homonym . Since beetles and platypuses are both members of the kingdom Animalia,
3036-502: The red coral , korallion , in his book on stones, implying it was a mineral, but he described it as a deep-sea plant in his Enquiries on Plants , where he also mentions large stony plants that reveal bright flowers when under water in the Gulf of Heroes . Pliny the Elder stated boldly that several sea creatures including sea nettles and sponges "are neither animals nor plants, but are possessed of
3128-450: The Acropora genus, colony differentiation through up-regulation and down-regulation of DEs. Systematic studies of soft coral species have faced challenges due to a lack of taxonomic knowledge. Researchers have not found enough variability within the genus to confidently delineate similar species, due to a low rate in mutation of mitochondrial DNA . Environmental factors, such as
3220-420: The French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered "the founder of the modern concept of genera". The scientific name (or the scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name ; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature , the system of naming organisms , where it is combined with the scientific name of
3312-531: The Illumina platform are of insufficient length (approximately 250 base pairs) for the design of primers and probes. In 2019, Goldsmith et al. demonstrated Sanger sequencing was capable of reproducing the biologically relevant diversity detected by deeper next-generation sequencing , while also producing longer sequences useful to the research community for probe and primer design (see diagram on right). Reef-building corals are well-studied holobionts that include
3404-596: The International Union for Conservation of Nature's endangered species list and at risk of species loss. Ocean acidification (falling pH levels in the oceans) is threatening the continued species growth and differentiation of corals. Mutation rates of Vibrio shilonii , the reef pathogen responsible for coral bleaching , heavily outweigh the typical reproduction rates of coral colonies when pH levels fall. Thus, corals are unable to mutate their HSPs and other climate change preventative genes to combat
3496-405: The abundance and performance of the microalgal symbionts, as well as calcification and physiology of the host. Studies have also suggested that resident bacteria, archaea, and fungi additionally contribute to nutrient and organic matter cycling within the coral, with viruses also possibly playing a role in structuring the composition of these members, thus providing one of the first glimpses at
3588-407: The algae contribute to coral coloration; some colors, however, are due to host coral pigments, such as green fluorescent proteins (GFPs). Ejection increases the polyp's chance of surviving short-term stress and if the stress subsides they can regain algae, possibly of a different species, at a later time. If the stressful conditions persist, the polyp eventually dies. Zooxanthellae are located within
3680-487: The area has decreased and in some cases ceased. The area was previously considered a refuge for corals because mass bleaching events due to climate change had not been observed there. Coral restoration techniques for coral reef management are being developed to increase fertilization rates, larval development, and settlement of new corals. Brooding species are most often ahermatypic (not reef-building) in areas of high current or wave action. Brooders release only sperm, which
3772-442: The base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name Canidae ("Canids") based on Canis . However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is Carnivora ("Carnivores"). The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of
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3864-458: The capture of food. Polyps extend their tentacles, particularly at night, often containing coiled stinging cells ( cnidocytes ) which pierce, poison and firmly hold living prey paralyzing or killing them. Polyp prey includes plankton such as copepods and fish larvae. Longitudinal muscular fibers formed from the cells of the ectoderm allow tentacles to contract to convey the food to the mouth. Similarly, circularly disposed muscular fibres formed from
3956-507: The cell layers of the body wall. The mesoglea can contain skeletal elements derived from cells migrated from the ectoderm. The sac-like body built up in this way is attached to a hard surface, which in hard corals are cup-shaped depressions in the skeleton known as corallites . At the center of the upper end of the sac lies the only opening called the mouth, surrounded by a circle of tentacles which resemble glove fingers. The tentacles are organs which serve both for tactile sense and for
4048-558: The cold-water genus Lophelia which can survive as deep as 3,300 metres (10,800 feet; 1,800 fathoms). Some have been found as far north as the Darwin Mounds , northwest of Cape Wrath , Scotland, and others off the coast of Washington state and the Aleutian Islands . The classification of corals has been discussed for millennia, owing to having similarities to both plants and animals. Aristotle 's pupil Theophrastus described
4140-440: The colony during storms or other disruptions. The separated individuals can start new colonies. Corals are one of the more common examples of an animal host whose symbiosis with microalgae can turn to dysbiosis , and is visibly detected as bleaching. Coral microbiomes have been examined in a variety of studies, which demonstrate how oceanic environmental variations, most notably temperature, light, and inorganic nutrients, affect
4232-421: The colony thus creates a skeleton characteristic of the species which can measure up to several meters in size. Individual colonies grow by asexual reproduction of polyps. Corals also breed sexually by spawning : polyps of the same species release gametes simultaneously overnight, often around a full moon . Fertilized eggs form planulae, a mobile early form of the coral polyp which, when mature, settles to form
4324-797: The coral cytoplasm and due to the algae's photosynthetic activity the internal pH of the coral can be raised; this behavior indicates that the zooxanthellae are responsible to some extent for the metabolism of their host corals. Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease has been associated with the breakdown of host-zooxanthellae physiology. Moreover, Vibrio bacterium are known to have virulence traits used for host coral tissue damage and photoinhibition of algal symbionts. Therefore, both coral and their symbiotic microorganisms could have evolved to harbour traits resistant to disease and transmission. Corals can be both gonochoristic (unisexual) and hermaphroditic , each of which can reproduce sexually and asexually. Reproduction also allows coral to settle in new areas. Reproduction
4416-591: The coral itself together with its symbiont zooxanthellae (photosynthetic dinoflagellates), as well as its associated bacteria and viruses. Co-evolutionary patterns exist for coral microbial communities and coral phylogeny. It is known that the coral's microbiome and symbiont influence host health, however, the historic influence of each member on others is not well understood. Scleractinian corals have been diversifying for longer than many other symbiotic systems, and their microbiomes are known to be partially species-specific. It has been suggested that Endozoicomonas ,
4508-598: The corals supplementing their plankton diet with the products of photosynthesis produced by these symbionts . The polyps interconnect by a complex and well-developed system of gastrovascular canals, allowing significant sharing of nutrients and symbionts. The external form of the polyp varies greatly. The column may be long and slender, or may be so short in the axial direction that the body becomes disk-like. The tentacles may number many hundreds or may be very few, in rare cases only one or two. They may be simple and unbranched, or feathery in pattern. The mouth may be level with
4600-578: The dangers posed by the climate crisis. Corals are colonial modular organisms formed by asexually produced and genetically identical modules called polyps. Polyps are connected by living tissue to produce the full organism. The living tissue allows for inter module communication (interaction between each polyp), which appears in colony morphologies produced by corals, and is one of the main identifying characteristics for a species of coral. There are two main classifications for corals: hard coral (scleractinian and stony coral) which form reefs by
4692-434: The dark portion of the night between sunset and moonrise. Over the lunar cycle, moonrise shifts progressively later, occurring after sunset on the day of the full moon. The resulting dark period between day-light and night-light removes the suppressive effect of moonlight and enables coral to spawn. The spawning event can be visually dramatic, clouding the usually clear water with gametes. Once released, gametes fertilize at
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#17330852056124784-476: The eastern coast of the United States. The coral can live with and without zooxanthellae (algal symbionts), making it an ideal model organism to study microbial community interactions associated with symbiotic state. However, the ability to develop primers and probes to more specifically target key microbial groups has been hindered by the lack of full-length 16S rRNA sequences, since sequences produced by
4876-434: The electricity generated in the Oceanium itself, especially to cool the king penguins' enclosure. The solar power plant has cost nearly 3.9 million euros, including construction, maintenance and an educational program. The power station was officially opened by Ivo Opstelten , then mayor of Rotterdam. All aquaria in the Oceanium contain clean seawater, in total that is more than eight million liters of water. Only 2 to 5% of
4968-525: The endoderm permit tentacles to be protracted or thrust out once they are contracted. In both stony and soft corals, the polyps can be retracted by contracting muscle fibres, with stony corals relying on their hard skeleton and cnidocytes for defense. Soft corals generally secrete terpenoid toxins to ward off predators. In most corals, the tentacles are retracted by day and spread out at night to catch plankton and other small organisms. Shallow-water species of both stony and soft corals can be zooxanthellate ,
5060-426: The exoskeleton divide transversally into two parts. This means one has the basal disc (bottom) and the other has the oral disc (top); the new polyps must separately generate the missing pieces. Asexual reproduction offers the benefits of high reproductive rate, delaying senescence, and replacement of dead modules, as well as geographical distribution. Whole colonies can reproduce asexually, forming two colonies with
5152-446: The form "author, year" in zoology, and "standard abbreviated author name" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as " Canis Linnaeus, 1758" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus , also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply " Hibiscus L." (botanical usage). Each genus should have a designated type , although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this
5244-400: The form of calcite or aragonite. In scleractinian corals, "centers of calcification" and fibers are clearly distinct structures differing with respect to both morphology and chemical compositions of the crystalline units. The organic matrices extracted from diverse species are acidic, and comprise proteins, sulphated sugars and lipids; they are species specific. The soluble organic matrices of
5336-498: The framework of the reef. However, not all reef-building corals in shallow water contain zooxanthellae, and some deep water species, living at depths to which light cannot penetrate, form reefs but do not harbour the symbionts. There are various types of shallow-water coral reef, including fringing reefs, barrier reefs and atolls; most occur in tropical and subtropical seas. They are very slow-growing, adding perhaps one centimetre (0.4 in) in height each year. The Great Barrier Reef
5428-727: The generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, Canis lupus lupus for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics . The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example,
5520-593: The genus Leptoseris have been found as deep as 172 metres (564 feet; 94 fathoms). Corals are major contributors to the physical structure of the coral reefs that develop in tropical and subtropical waters, such as the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Australia . These corals are increasingly at risk of bleaching events where polyps expel the zooxanthellae in response to stress such as high water temperature or toxins. Other corals do not rely on zooxanthellae and can live globally in much deeper water, such as
5612-633: The geological past, corals were very abundant. Like modern corals, their ancestors built reefs, some of which ended as great structures in sedimentary rocks . Fossils of fellow reef-dwellers algae, sponges, and the remains of many echinoids , brachiopods , bivalves , gastropods , and trilobites appear along with coral fossils. This makes some corals useful index fossils . Coral fossils are not restricted to reef remnants, and many solitary fossils are found elsewhere, such as Cyclocyathus , which occurs in England's Gault clay formation. Corals first appeared in
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#17330852056125704-432: The idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of the same kind as other (analogous) genera. The term "genus" comes from Latin genus , a noun form cognate with gignere ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum , but
5796-430: The important reef builders that inhabit tropical oceans and secrete calcium carbonate to form a hard skeleton. A coral "group" is a colony of very many genetically identical polyps. Each polyp is a sac-like animal typically only a few millimeters in diameter and a few centimeters in height. A set of tentacles surround a central mouth opening. Each polyp excretes an exoskeleton near the base. Over many generations,
5888-436: The increase in temperature and decrease in pH at a competitive rate to these pathogens responsible for coral bleaching, resulting in species loss. For most of their life corals are sessile animals of colonies of genetically identical polyps . Each polyp varies from millimeters to centimeters in diameter, and colonies can be formed from many millions of individual polyps. Stony coral, also known as hard coral, polyps produce
5980-628: The largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae). By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 "accepted" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups. The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles , which have about 1180 genera,
6072-403: The most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus , contains over 3,000 species. Which species are assigned to a genus
6164-458: The most diverse genus of hard coral, having over 120 species. Most species within this genus have polyps which are dimorphic: axial polyps grow rapidly and have lighter coloration, while radial polyps are small and are darker in coloration. In the Acropora genus, gamete synthesis and photosynthesis occur at the basal polyps, growth occurs mainly at the radial polyps. Growth at the site of
6256-418: The most diverse of the three coral microbiomes, showed the strongest evidence of phylosymbiosis. Coral microbiome composition and richness were found to reflect coral phylogeny . For example, interactions between bacterial and eukaryotic coral phylogeny influence the abundance of Endozoicomonas , a highly abundant bacterium in the coral holobiont. However, host-microbial cophylogeny appears to influence only
6348-428: The name could not be used for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach published the replacement name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called "homonyms". Although this
6440-637: The new and adult polyps grows, and with it, the coenosarc (the common body of the colony). Budding can be intratentacular, from its oral discs, producing same-sized polyps within the ring of tentacles, or extratentacular, from its base, producing a smaller polyp. Division forms two polyps that each become as large as the original. Longitudinal division begins when a polyp broadens and then divides its coelenteron (body), effectively splitting along its length. The mouth divides and new tentacles form. The two polyps thus created then generate their missing body parts and exoskeleton. Transversal division occurs when polyps and
6532-416: The polyps of most are connected by sheets of tissue called coenosarc, and in some species these sheets are thick and the polyps deeply embedded in them. Some soft corals encrust other sea objects or form lobes. Others are tree-like or whip-like and have a central axial skeleton embedded at their base in the matrix of the supporting branch. These branches are composed of a fibrous protein called gorgonin or of
6624-441: The port side, so that the container ship has to discharge water. If the water quality is good, Blijdorp will have the opportunity to collect the water with an inland vessel that will transport it to the Oceanium. Coral Corals are colonial marine invertebrates within the subphylum Anthozoa of the phylum Cnidaria . They typically form compact colonies of many identical individual polyps . Coral species include
6716-526: The provisions of the ICZN Code, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated. According to "Glossary" section of the zoological Code, suppressed names (per published "Opinions" of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature) remain available but cannot be used as the valid name for
6808-412: The radial polyps encompasses two processes: asexual reproduction via mitotic cell proliferation , and skeleton deposition of the calcium carbonate via extra cellular matrix (EMC) proteins acting as differentially expressed (DE) signaling genes between both branch tips and bases. These processes lead to colony differentiation , which is the most accurate distinguisher between coral species. In
6900-440: The rise of temperatures and acid levels in our oceans account for some speciation of corals in the form of species lost . Various coral species have heat shock proteins (HSP) that are also in the category of DE across species. These HSPs help corals combat the increased temperatures they are facing which lead to protein denaturing, growth loss, and eventually coral death. Approximately 33% of coral species are on
6992-406: The same genotype. The possible mechanisms include fission, bailout and fragmentation. Fission occurs in some corals, especially among the family Fungiidae , where the colony splits into two or more colonies during early developmental stages. Bailout occurs when a single polyp abandons the colony and settles on a different substrate to create a new colony. Fragmentation involves individuals broken from
7084-563: The same night even when multiple species are present. Synchronous spawning may form hybrids and is perhaps involved in coral speciation . Environmental cues that influence the release of gametes into the water vary from species to species. The cues involve temperature change, lunar cycle , day length , and possibly chemical signalling. Other factors that affect the rhythmicity of organisms in marine habitats include salinity, mechanical forces, and pressure or magnetic field changes. Mass coral spawning often occurs at night on days following
7176-409: The skeleton, with the latter showing the greatest microbial richness. The zooxanthellae benefit from a safe place to live and consume the polyp's carbon dioxide , phosphate and nitrogenous waste. Stressed corals will eject their zooxanthellae, a process that is becoming increasingly common due to strain placed on coral by rising ocean temperatures. Mass ejections are known as coral bleaching because
7268-433: The skeletons allow to differentiate zooxanthellae and non-zooxanthellae specimens. Polyps feed on a variety of small organisms, from microscopic zooplankton to small fish. The polyp's tentacles immobilize or kill prey using stinging cells called nematocysts . These cells carry venom which they rapidly release in response to contact with another organism. A dormant nematocyst discharges in response to nearby prey touching
7360-497: The specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus , a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany . When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example, C. lupus in place of Canis lupus . Where species are further subdivided,
7452-412: The standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf 's scientific name is Canis lupus , with Canis ( Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and lupus (Latin for 'wolf') being
7544-548: The surface of the peristome, or may be projecting and trumpet-shaped. Soft corals have no solid exoskeleton as such. However, their tissues are often reinforced by small supportive elements known as sclerites made of calcium carbonate. The polyps of soft corals have eight-fold symmetry, which is reflected in the Octo in Octocorallia. Soft corals vary considerably in form, and most are colonial. A few soft corals are stolonate , but
7636-403: The taxon is termed a synonym ; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural code, and rejected or suppressed names. A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for
7728-492: The total is changed monthly, thanks to the 10 filters that keep the water clean with 22 different modules. This means that all the water in the shark tank (3375 m) can be completely filtered and pumped around in 160 minutes. Blijdorp also receives water from a Maersk container ship that loads seawater into its ballast tanks near Newfoundland . In the Port of Rotterdam , the balance of the ship changes because containers are unloaded on
7820-454: The trigger ( Cnidocil ). A flap ( operculum ) opens and its stinging apparatus fires the barb into the prey. The venom is injected through the hollow filament to immobilise the prey; the tentacles then manoeuvre the prey into the stomach. Once the prey is digested the stomach reopens allowing the elimination of waste products and the beginning of the next hunting cycle. Many corals, as well as other cnidarian groups such as sea anemones form
7912-566: The values quoted are the mean of "accepted" names alone (all "uncertain" names treated as unaccepted) and "accepted + uncertain" names (all "uncertain" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes. Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda , with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up
8004-466: The various forms often being linked to different types of habitat, with variations in light level and water movement being significant. The body of the polyp may be roughly compared in a structure to a sac , the wall of which is composed of two layers of cells . The outer layer is known technically as the ectoderm , the inner layer as the endoderm . Between ectoderm and endoderm is a supporting layer of gelatinous substance termed mesoglea , secreted by
8096-429: The virus species " Salmonid herpesvirus 1 ", " Salmonid herpesvirus 2 " and " Salmonid herpesvirus 3 " are all within the genus Salmonivirus ; however, the genus to which the species with the formal names " Everglades virus " and " Ross River virus " are assigned is Alphavirus . As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in
8188-427: The water where they meet and fertilize to spread offspring. Corals often synchronize their time of spawning. This reproductive synchrony is essential so that male and female gametes can meet. Spawning frequently takes place in the evening or at night, and can occur as infrequently as once a year, and within a window of 10–30 minutes. Synchronous spawning is very typical on the coral reef, and often, all corals spawn on
8280-537: The water's surface and form a microscopic larva called a planula , typically pink and elliptical in shape. A typical coral colony needs to release several thousand larvae per year to overcome the odds against formation of a new colony. Studies suggest that light pollution desynchronizes spawning in some coral species. In areas such as the Red Sea , as many as 10 out of 50 species may be showing spawning asynchrony, compared to 30 years ago. The establishment of new corals in
8372-559: The water's surface before descending to seek a hard surface on the benthos to which they can attach and begin a new colony. The larvae often need a biological cue to induce settlement such as specific crustose coralline algae species or microbial biofilms. High failure rates afflict many stages of this process, and even though thousands of eggs are released by each colony, few new colonies form. During settlement, larvae are inhibited by physical barriers such as sediment, as well as chemical (allelopathic) barriers. The larvae metamorphose into
8464-410: The zooxanthellae is their ability to photosynthesize which supplies corals with the products of photosynthesis, including glucose, glycerol, also amino acids, which the corals can use for energy. Zooxanthellae also benefit corals by aiding in calcification , for the coral skeleton, and waste removal. In addition to the soft tissue, microbiomes are also found in the coral's mucus and (in stony corals)
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