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78-496: The first "Ocean Pacific" trademark brand was started by John Smith in the 1960s as a surfboard brand, which he sold out of his shop, North County Ding Repair. Later, Fred Ryan purchased North County Ding Repair from John Smith along with the Ocean Pacific surfboard label. The Ocean Pacific label was later sold to Don Hansen of Hansen Surf Shop. In 1972, Jim Jenks of San Diego wanted to create clothing and sportswear that met

156-537: A propulsive efficiency greater than 90%. Fish can accelerate and maneuver much more effectively than boats or submarine , and produce less water disturbance and noise. This has led to biomimetic studies of underwater robots which attempt to emulate the locomotion of aquatic animals. An example is the Robot Tuna built by the Institute of Field Robotics , to analyze and mathematically model thunniform motion . In 2005,

234-399: A swimmer or underwater diver Surfboard fins provide surfers with means to maneuver and control their boards. Contemporary surfboards often have a centre fin and two cambered side fins. The bodies of reef fishes are often shaped differently from open water fishes . Open water fishes are usually built for speed, streamlined like torpedoes to minimise friction as they move through

312-406: A Thruster, the symmetrically-foiled center fin is flanked by twin asymmetric, cambered fins. The camber is angled front in and top in, directing energy from the incoming wave to lift the board and straighten it, not dissimilar from the force vectoring provided by the geometry of a rocket's nozzle. A "Quad" four fins, typically arranged as two pairs of thrusters in wing formation, which are quick down

390-551: A convex rather than concave design on the bottom of the surfboard. These boards displace more water and sit lower in the wave than a surfboard with a concave bottom. The deck is the surface of the board that the surfer stands on. Contours such as concaves (similar to the deck of a skateboard) or rail channels (to add structural rigidity) can also be shaped into the deck. Surfwax is applied to this surface. Wax comes in different degrees of hardness allowing its application in differing water temperatures. The ideal choice of wax hardness

468-430: A different reason. Unlike dolphins, these fish do not feel the bubbles, because they have bony fins without nerve endings. Nevertheless, they cannot swim faster because the cavitation bubbles create a vapor film around their fins that limits their speed. Lesions have been found on tuna that are consistent with cavitation damage. Scombrid fishes (tuna, mackerel and bonito) are particularly high-performance swimmers. Along

546-752: A durable, inexpensive, entry-level board. The Ochroma pyramidale wood's surfboard history originates in the Hawaiians, and the wood lead surfing's landfall on the US west coast in the 1940s. Being light and strong, balsa wood was long considered a perfect material for surfboards. Shapers could not use this fragile wood to make entire surfboards until after WWII, when fiberglass skins were invented. Balsa wood boards are lighter, more buoyant and easier to handle than other boards. These boards have some disadvantages, however: they are not as sturdy as solid redwood boards. Hollow wooden surfboards are made of wood and epoxy or oil (as

624-402: A fast hollow board with good flex properties. The parallel profile system was developed from cold molded (double diagonal) boat building, and uses at least four layers of material laminated over a male mold into a curved blank, including enough wood for rails, which are then shaped. The chambering method follows a system in which planks of paulownia wood are selected and the rocker of the board

702-444: A fin to a surfboard, fastening the keel from an old speedboat to a surfboard in 1935. About one or two years later, Woody "Spider" Brown independently developed a similar design, but Brown himself gave Blake precedence: "(I made my first surfboard keel) about '36 or '37, somewhere in there; about the same time. But, I didn't know anything about (Blake) and his experiments with adding fins to surfboards. See, we were all separated out. I

780-530: A gloss coated foam, is stretched and adhered while vacuumed over the surface of the entire epoxy surfboard. The purpose of the cush is for dampening of chatter, absorption of impact landings, airs, grip, and overall added protection for a light epoxy board. Jim Richardson, 25-year veteran shaper on the North Shore of Oahu, first pioneered this technology in the mid 1990s. And recently a few company's including Spacestick, Radiowake and CUSH (brand) have begun to market

858-413: A greater volume of foam giving the board increased buoyancy along the edge, while sharper, narrower rails have less volume, making the board easier to "sink" and "lean on edge". While riding down the line, one rail is always in the water while the other is suspended freely in the air. Turns are largely a matter of transitioning from rail to tail and over to the contralateral (opposing) rail. This refers to

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936-407: A hollow wood surfboard is 30% to 300% heavier than a standard foam and resin surfboard. The main inspiration, apart from beauty, is that this is a more environmentally friendly method of construction (compared to epoxy and polyurethane methods) which uses fast-growing plantation wood such as paulownia , cedar , spruce , redwood , and, of course, balsa. The current construction methods descend from

1014-520: A liquid, which then promptly and violently collapse. It can cause significant damage and wear. Cavitation damage can also occur to the tail fins of powerful swimming marine animals, such as dolphins and tuna. Cavitation is more likely to occur near the surface of the ocean, where the ambient water pressure is relatively low. Even if they have the power to swim faster, dolphins may have to restrict their speed because collapsing cavitation bubbles on their tail are too painful. Cavitation also slows tuna, but for

1092-517: A means of locomotion. Fish fins are used to generate thrust and control the subsequent motion. Fish and other aquatic animals, such as cetaceans , actively propel and steer themselves with pectoral and tail fins . As they swim, they use other fins, such as dorsal and anal fins , to achieve stability and refine their maneuvering. The fins on the tails of cetaceans, ichthyosaurs , metriorhynchids , mosasaurs and plesiosaurs are called flukes . Foil shaped fins generate thrust when moved,

1170-588: A more dense layer of foam, wood, or carbon onto the bottom and deck of the EPS foam core, usually separating the two layers with lightweight fiberglass cloth (2 oz pr. sq.yd, or 70 g/m ) or other composites cloths. This can also be accompanied with parabolic rails made of balsa or other buoyant woods, carbon, or other high-density materials. This blank construction is then laminated with epoxy resin and fiberglass or other composite cloth as any other surfboard would be, by hand or via vacuum bag. The construction

1248-515: A number of rotating fins, also called foils, wings, arms or blades. Propellers use the fins to translate torquing force to lateral thrust, thus propelling an aircraft or ship. Turbines work in reverse, using the lift of the blades to generate torque and power from moving gases or water. Cavitation can be a problem with high power applications, resulting in damage to propellers or turbines, as well as noise and loss of power. Cavitation occurs when negative pressure causes bubbles (cavities) to form in

1326-409: A pancake, and will fit into fissures in rocks. Their pelvic and pectoral fins are designed differently, so they act together with the flattened body to optimise maneuverability. Some fishes, such as puffer fish , filefish and trunkfish , rely on pectoral fins for swimming and hardly use tail fins at all. Aristotle recognised the distinction between analogous and homologous structures , and made

1404-468: A polystyrene core are becoming more popular. Even solid balsa surfboards are available. Although foam boards are usually shaped by hand, the use of machines to shape them has become increasingly popular. Vacuum forming and modern sandwich construction techniques borrowed from other industries have also become common. Many surfers have switched to riding sandwich-construction epoxy boards which have become especially popular with beginner surfers as they provide

1482-404: A smaller turning radius. The board's rails and deck may also be referred to as having rocker. A board with a v-shaped tail, for example, has had the lower/ outer portion of its rear rails reduced, increasing its tail rail rocker. Having a flat, even deck rocker will increase a board's flexibility, while a convex deck rocker creates a board that is thicker along the board's stringer and stiffer in

1560-470: A stiff deck, shapers have always reached for a foam, often hardened with a tensile skin, using toucan beak engineering concepts. Delamination is a problem where the skin of the board (i.e. fiberglass) separates from the foam core. All surfboards made of foam and resin can face the problem of delamination. A common reason for delamination is excessive heat. Delamination often first appears around dents. Modern surfboards are usually made of foam using one of

1638-559: A surf leash accident as the surgical tubing used in the early designs allowed the leash to overstretch , causing the surfboard to fly back towards the surfer. Subsequent cords were made with less elastic materials. The front tip of the board. This can be pointed or rounded and can be made with a steep incline ("rocker", see below) or a gentle one. The shape of the tail affects how a board responds. Tail shapes vary from square, pin, squash, swallow, diamond, and so on—each one in turn having its own family of smaller variants. A pin tail causes

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1716-410: A sustainable alternative to epoxy), and are a reversion to using wood after the foam became dominant in the 1950s. Hollow wooden surfboards specifically have no foam in their construction. (Boards made with foam and wood are commonly known as compsands or veneer boards .) Various construction methods are used to hollow the inside of the surfboard and lighten the weight of the completed board. Generally,

1794-547: A twin fin surfboard with a "trigger point" fin Simon Anderson had the idea for a new, equal size, version of the existing three fin prototypes which was later dubbed the "thruster". He created a prototype and 30 years later his "thruster" design is still the most popular fin design for surfboards. In the early 90s removable fin systems were developed and embraced. This provides a standardized system that allows fins to be easily removed or replaced, utilizing set screws to hold

1872-482: Is a narrow plank used in surfing . Surfboards are relatively light, but are strong enough to support an individual standing on them while riding an ocean wave. They were invented in ancient Hawaii, where they were known as papa heʻe nalu in the Hawaiian language, and were usually made of wood from local trees, such as koa . They were often over 460 cm (15 ft) in length and extremely heavy. Major advances over

1950-456: Is buoyant and maneuverable. Recent developments in surfboard technology have included the use of carbon fiber and kevlar composites, as well as experimentation in biodegradable and ecologically friendly resins made from organic sources. Each year, approximately 400,000 surfboards are manufactured. Choice of surf board type and size can be complex. Depending, amongst other things, on: Traditionally board lengths have been sized according to

2028-459: Is cut into each. The planks are then chambered to reduce weight, and then bonded together to form a hollow or "chambered" blank. One of the most recent modern advancements in surfboard technology is the creation of high performance boards which are wrapped in a stretchable soft skin which does not absorb water. The internal structure of Cush (cushion) boards is an epoxy surfboard with an EPS (extruded polystyrene) shaped foam core. The "skin", made of

2106-401: Is determined by the water temperature. The surfboard fin is a stabilizing rudder fixed to the rear of the surfboard to prevent it from sliding sideways. In the early days, surfers would stabilize the board by hanging the toes of their back foot over the edge of the board and would steer by putting their foot in the water. The American surfer Tom Blake was the first to experiment with adding

2184-448: Is referred to as a sandwich as it consists of the top skin, fiberglass or other composite cloth, the EPS core, fiberglass or other composite cloth, and the bottom skin, the cross section of which appears as a sandwich with the different layers. Firewire Surfboards pioneered this technology for the mass-produced surfboard market beginning in 2006. Soft skin construction, such as Cush or Spacestick boards, adds an additional soft shell skin to

2262-595: Is required on one down-wind course direction. As the camber is fixed to one side, performance when sailing in one direction is improved but performance in the other way is deteriorated. Fins with self-adjusting camber offer the improved qualities in both port side and starboard side sailing directions. Spitfire fins are based on the wing configuration used by Spitfire aeroplanes. The elliptical wing shapes work very well as surfboard fins and several manufacturers make fins with this more upright stance, as it increases drive and maneuverability. In 2004 Frank Fish introduced

2340-485: Is that between the tail and the middle/ flattest portion. An increase in flip helps keep the board from "pearling"; larger boards often require a greater flip. A larger kick adds maneuverability and lift to the tail at speed and provides tail sensitivity in critical turns. More relaxed rockers help the board to handle better on flatter sections of water, while heavy rockers increase the board's overall form drag but also give true lift when reaching planing speed and have

2418-433: Is the cord that attaches a surfboard to the surfer. It prevents the surfboard from being swept away by waves and stops runaway surfboards from hitting other surfers and swimmers . Modern leashes comprise a urethane cord where one end has a band with a velcro strap attached to the surfer's trailing foot, and the opposite has a velcro strap attached to the tail end of the surfboard. Jack O'Neill lost his left eye in

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2496-483: Is the most common skin for all the mentioned foam types. Secondly, PU foam boards can also be constructed using epoxy resin. Surfboards have traditionally been constructed using polyurethane foam and it remains a popular choice. They are made stronger with one or more stringers going down the middle of the board. The foam is molded into a "blank", in the rough shape of a surfboard. Once the blanks have been made they are given to shapers. Shapers then cut, plane, and sand

2574-411: Is to increase lift (horizontal turning force in the case of surfboard fins) while reducing drag, by reducing the fin-tip vortex. Fins with a camber have an asymmetrical profile. In windsurfing camber is used to increase the lift to drag ratio of the fin and to minimise cavitation and the risk of spin-out. In particular windsurfers trying to improve speed records use camber fins, as the maximum performance

2652-544: The Sea Life London Aquarium displayed three robotic fish created by the computer science department at the University of Essex . The fish were designed to be autonomous, swimming around and avoiding obstacles like real fish. Their creator claimed that he was trying to combine "the speed of tuna, acceleration of a pike, and the navigating skills of an eel". The AquaPenguin , developed by Festo of Germany, copies

2730-401: The 1930s Tom Blake paddleboarding method, which favors a central stringer with individually shaped transverse ribs covered with a skin and rails. A modern interpretation of Tom Blake's work is the perimeter stringer method used by some manufacturers, utilizing laminated rails as stringers connected with a series of plywood ribs. This skeleton is then sheathed with 5mm-thick wood strips, creating

2808-575: The 1960s by Richard Deese, and were found on longboards by multiple manufacturers of that era, including Dewey Weber. Bob Bolen, A.K.A. 'the Greek', patented the "Turbo Tunnel" in the late 1990s. Since the mid 1990s, half tunnel fins have mainly been used on very long hollow wooden surfboards mainly surfed by Roy Stuart. Bullet Fins were invented in the 2005 by Ron Pettibone to increase surfboard hull planing and rail-to-rail transition speed. The patent-pending fins are based on 50 years of hydrodynamic research on

2886-472: The 1970s to the bright neon and geometric shapes of the 1980s. Regarding the marketing strategies, unlike other surfing firms like Quiksilver or Billabong , OP established as a more general sportswear brand, commercializing its products in national store chains while other similar companies were restricted to independent surf shops. Moreover, OP also designed clothing for both adults and young people. The Ocean Pacific brand experienced financial trouble through

2964-831: The 1990s. Richard Baker 's investment group Doyle & Boissiere bought Ocean Pacific in 1998. Baker stayed on as Warnaco acquired Ocean Pacific in 2003 and sold it to current owner Iconix Brand Group in 2006. In the summer of 2008, an ad campaign to celebrate their 35-year anniversary was launched, featuring celebrities such as actress Rumer Willis , reality show star Kristin Cavallari , singer Christina Milian , musician and fashion designer Pete Wentz of Fall Out Boy and Clandestine Industries, actor Wilmer Valderrama , actress and supermodel Josie Maran , and actor and singer Corbin Bleu . The Summer 2009 campaign ads featured Sophia Bush , Solange Knowles , and AnnaLynne McCord . Joining those in

3042-685: The Fall 2009 ads were actor Cody Linley , reality star Brody Jenner , and musician Joel Madden . OP also presented tours in 2009 which featured Boys Like Girls , The Maine , and Cobra Starship . The 2010 spring team was announced with a special puzzle on OP's website. The puzzle featured a hidden picture of the team and everyday a few more pieces were revealed until the entire team was revealed. Members of Team OP for Spring 2010 were actor Cory Monteith , actress Jessica Szohr , actor and model Trevor Donovan , actress and singer Dianna Agron , singer Cassie , and actor Alex Meraz . The theme for Spring/Summer 2010

3120-474: The University of Chicago found bottom-walking lungfishes had already evolved characteristics of the walking gaits of terrestrial tetrapods. In a classic example of convergent evolution , the pectoral limbs of pterosaurs , birds and bats further evolved along independent paths into flying wings. Even with flying wings there are many similarities with walking legs, and core aspects of the genetic blueprint of

3198-413: The advancements to the surfing community. Spacestick and CUSH surfboards are the current manufacturer for the various brands as of 2018. The Composite Sandwich type of board construction became popular among garage shapers and later, major manufacturers, during the 1990s and 2000s. This construction method entails hand- or machine-shaping a foam blank from EPS foam and then vacuum-bagging or hand-laminating

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3276-414: The board to its specifications. Finally, the board is covered in one or more layers of fiberglass cloth and resin. It is during this stage that the fins or boxes for removable fins are attached and the leash plug installed. Another method of making boards is using epoxy resin and prolapse polystyrene foam, instead of polyester resin and polyurethane foam. In recent years, surfboards made out of balsa and

3354-416: The board to move faster in the water, whereas the hip tail is created to help balance more than speed. Surfboard traction pads, deck grips, tailpads. There are several names for this piece of foam applied to the top of a surfboard to increase the grip and allow surfers to have more control and perform more high performance maneuvers. Traction pads are used on both shortboards and longboards, usually applied to

3432-452: The bulbous bow hull design. Just as with the bow of a ship, the traditional surfboard fin creates a wave as it displaces the water in its path. The resulting turbulence places drag on the surfboard. The bulb of the Bullet Fin reduces this drag by creating a new (primary) fin wave in front of the original (secondary) wave. This new bulb wave is designed to be nearly 180 degrees out of phase with

3510-482: The case of humans) and the pelvic fins developed into hind legs. Much of the genetic machinery that builds a walking limb in a tetrapod is already present in the swimming fin of a fish. In 2011, researchers at Monash University in Australia used primitive but still living lungfish "to trace the evolution of pelvic fin muscles to find out how the load-bearing hind limbs of the tetrapods evolved." Further research at

3588-402: The demands of surfers in and out of the surf. He received the name from his then employer, Don Hansen, and the Ocean Pacific apparel line was created. Jenks' idea for clothing under the Ocean Pacific label quickly became popular with the surf culture with its instantly recognizable "OP" logo. OP's designs showed the visual aesthetic of each era through the years, from the primary color stripes of

3666-408: The female cichlid , Pelvicachromis taeniatus , displays a large and visually arresting purple pelvic fin . "The researchers found that males clearly preferred females with a larger pelvic fin and that pelvic fins grew in a more disproportionate way than other fins on female fish." Reshaping human feet with swim fins , rather like the tail fin of a fish, add thrust and efficiency to the kicks of

3744-443: The fins in place. These systems provided surfers with the ability to alter the riding characteristics of a surfboard, by changing the size and shape of fins used. This innovation opened the market to a range of fin designs, including single foiled fins, concave inside surfaces, and curved fins. Another variation of fin was later designed in the time frame known as the soul fin, a sleek bendable attachment. Tunnel fins were invented in

3822-403: The first polycarbonate , 3d printed, whale bumped surfboard fins in 2013. The tri-fin's design attempts to incorporate the glide of a longboard and the performance of a shortboard into a single layout. The additional fins ensure that even what riding down the line, two, or at least one, vertical control surface is in black water (not unstable foam) allows riders better turning capabilities. In

3900-399: The following construction materials: Fiberglass is the most common skin regardless of foam type. Other skin materials used are bamboo , carbon fiber , hemp kevlar and innegra . EPS and XPS boards are sometimes erroneously referred to as "epoxy boards", while PU boards sometimes are erroneously referred to as "fiberglass boards". These designations are not correct. Firstly, fiberglass

3978-480: The following prophetic comparison: "Birds in a way resemble fishes. For birds have their wings in the upper part of their bodies and fishes have two fins in the front part of their bodies. Birds have feet on their underpart and most fishes have a second pair of fins in their under-part and near their front fins." There is an old theory, proposed by anatomist Carl Gegenbaur , which has been often disregarded in science textbooks, "that fins and (later) limbs evolved from

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4056-469: The formation of a linked chain of vortex rings" and that "the dorsal and anal fin wakes are rapidly entrained by the caudal fin wake, approximately within the timeframe of a subsequent tail beat". Once motion has been established, the motion itself can be controlled with the use of other fins. Boats control direction (yaw) with fin-like rudders, and roll with stabilizer and keel fins. Airplanes achieve similar results with small specialised fins that change

4134-450: The gills of an extinct vertebrate". Gaps in the fossil record had not allowed a definitive conclusion. In 2009, researchers from the University of Chicago found evidence that the "genetic architecture of gills, fins and limbs is the same", and that "the skeleton of any appendage off the body of an animal is probably patterned by the developmental genetic program that we have traced back to formation of gills in sharks". Recent studies support

4212-421: The height of the surfer, meaning in general that longer boards would be recommended for taller surfers. Standard dimensions for board size has for long been the board's length, width and thickness. More recently however, the weight of the surfer has also started to be taken into account, meaning in general that a heavier surfer would be recommended a board with more volume . The surface of the board that rests on

4290-444: The idea that gill arches and paired fins are serially homologous and thus that fins may have evolved from gill tissues. Fish are the ancestors of all mammals, reptiles, birds and amphibians. In particular, terrestrial tetrapods (four-legged animals) evolved from fish and made their first forays onto land 400 million years ago. They used paired pectoral and pelvic fins for locomotion. The pectoral fins developed into forelegs (arms in

4368-402: The lift of the fin sets water or air in motion and pushes the fin in the opposite direction. Aquatic animals get significant thrust by moving fins back and forth in water. Often the tail fin is used, but some aquatic animals generate thrust from pectoral fins . Fins can also generate thrust if they are rotated in air or water. Turbines and propellers (and sometimes fans and pumps ) use

4446-548: The line but tend to lose energy through turns. The energy is lost as the board goes up the wave because the fins are now vectoring energy from the oncoming water toward the back of the board, bleeding speed. Created by professional surfer Sean Mattison as a rear stabilization fin. Dubbed a "guitar pick" the nubster was designed to be used as a fifth fin. The Nubster helped professional surfer Kelly Slater win contests in New York and Portugal in 2011. A surfboard leash or leg rope

4524-458: The margin at the rear of their bodies is a line of small rayless, non-retractable fins, known as finlets . There has been much speculation about the function of these finlets. Research done in 2000 and 2001 by Nauen and Lauder indicated that "the finlets have a hydrodynamic effect on local flow during steady swimming" and that "the most posterior finlet is oriented to redirect flow into the developing tail vortex, which may increase thrust produced by

4602-515: The modern shortboard begin about 30 cm (12 in) back from the nose of the board on the bottom and then carry out through the middle to the tail of the surfboard. The purpose of concave is to direct water through the fins of the surfboard. Surfboard shapers sometimes experiment with concaves to create different drive and response characteristics on each individual surfboard. Some older and more traditional surfboards along with many modern boards that take inspiration from these older boards utilize

4680-407: The more remarkable because they evolved from nothing — the ancestral terrestrial reptile had no hump on its back or blade on its tail to serve as a precursor." The biologist Stephen Jay Gould said the ichthyosaur was his favorite example of convergent evolution . The use of fins for the propulsion of aquatic animals can be remarkably effective. It has been calculated that some fish can achieve

4758-416: The muscle fibers with electricity. Robotic fish offer some research advantages, such as the ability to examine part of a fish design in isolation from the rest, and variance of a single parameter, such as flexibility or direction. Researchers can directly measure forces more easily than in live fish. "Robotic devices also facilitate three-dimensional kinematic studies and correlated hydrodynamic analyses, as

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4836-616: The original fin wave to subtract its turbulence thus reducing fin drag. Winged fins are another type of surfboard fin, the genesis of which was America's Cup sailboat design. The Starfin was designed in the 1980s by the America's Cup yacht designer, Ben Lexcen , who had designed the winged keel for the America's Cup boat, Australia II. The small thruster-sized fin, the RedTip 3D is manufactured by FCS. Fins with winglets—tiny wings—were invented in 2005. The purpose of winglets , as in airplane design,

4914-625: The outside of a sandwich construction board. The soft skin is vacuumed to the cloth and epoxy so that the soft shell is exposed--- meaning the hard glass and resin are protected inside, and under, the soft cush skin. Fins A fin is a thin component or appendage attached to a larger body or structure. Fins typically function as foils that produce lift or thrust , or provide the ability to steer or stabilize motion while traveling in water, air, or other fluids . Fins are also used to increase surface areas for heat transfer purposes , or simply as ornamentation. Fins first evolved on fish as

4992-508: The pectoral fin have been retained. About 200 million years ago the first mammals appeared. A group of these mammals started returning to the sea about 52 million years ago, thus completing a circle. These are the cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises). Recent DNA analysis suggests that cetaceans evolved from within the even-toed ungulates , and that they share a common ancestor with the hippopotamus . About 23 million years ago another group of bearlike land mammals started returning to

5070-419: The same way as in other mammals. Ichthyosaurs are ancient reptiles that resembled dolphins. They first appeared about 245 million years ago and disappeared about 90 million years ago. "This sea-going reptile with terrestrial ancestors converged so strongly on fishes that it actually evolved a dorsal fin and tail in just the right place and with just the right hydrological design. These structures are all

5148-518: The sea. These were the pinnipeds (seals). What had become walking limbs in cetaceans and seals evolved further, independently in a reverse form of convergent evolution, back to new forms of swimming fins. The forelimbs became flippers and, in pinnipeds, the hind limbs became a tail terminating in two fins (the cetacean fluke , conversely, is an entirely new organ). Fish tails are usually vertical and move from side to side. Cetacean flukes are horizontal and move up and down, because cetacean spines bend

5226-574: The shape of their wings and tail fins. Stabilising fins are used as fletching on arrows and some darts , and at the rear of some bombs , missiles , rockets and self-propelled torpedoes . These are typically planar and shaped like small wings, although grid fins are sometimes used. Static fins have also been used for one satellite, GOCE . Engineering fins are also used as heat transfer fins to regulate temperature in heat sinks or fin radiators . In biology, fins can have an adaptive significance as sexual ornaments. During courtship,

5304-416: The streamlined shape and propulsion by front flippers of penguins . Festo also developed AquaRay , AquaJelly and AiraCuda , respectively emulating the locomotion of manta rays, jellyfish and barracuda. In 2004, Hugh Herr at MIT prototyped a biomechatronic robotic fish with a living actuator by surgically transplanting muscles from frog legs to the robot and then making the robot swim by pulsing

5382-448: The tail area of a surfboard. Traction pads for the middle section of the deck, known as the "Mid Traction Pads" are mainly used on performance shortboards for increased grip. Unlike a tail pad - mid-deck traction pads need wax for added grip. The edges of the board. A rounded rail is called "soft", while a more squared-off rail is called "hard", and rails that are in between are termed "50/50" ("fifty-fifty"). Larger, fuller rails contain

5460-552: The tail of swimming mackerel". Fish use multiple fins, so it is possible that a given fin can have a hydrodynamic interaction with another fin. In particular, the fins immediately upstream of the caudal (tail) fin may be proximate fins that can directly affect the flow dynamics at the caudal fin. In 2011, researchers using volumetric imaging techniques were able to generate "the first instantaneous three-dimensional views of wake structures as they are produced by freely swimming fishes". They found that "continuous tail beats resulted in

5538-425: The vertical curve of the board between nose and tail. Rockers may be described as either heavy (steeply curved) or relaxed (less curved) and may be either continuous (a single curve between tip of nose and end of tail) or staged (distinct flat section in middle portion of board). The nose rocker or flip is the curve between the front tip and the middle or flattest portion of the board, and the tail rocker or kick

5616-440: The water is usually flat or concave but sometimes convex. The bottom can also feature channels, chines, steps and other planing features shaped into the board in order to maximize, direct or alter water flow across the board's bottom surface. Modern surfboards often contain multiple contours on the bottom of the board, termed concaves . These concaves have different uses and vary among different types of surfboards. Most concaves on

5694-466: The water. In board design, the "stringer" is a board's central plane of reflection, down the middle of its deck and its keel. In construction, the stringer can have no special parts, or can embed a stiff, thin, vertical slat, usually of wood but sometimes of carbon fiber , running from nose to tail. The stringer serves to increase the board's overall strength and reduce its flexibility. Some boards have multiple stringers. To achieve positive buoyancy and

5772-698: The water. Reef fish operate in the relatively confined spaces and complex underwater landscapes of coral reefs . For this manoeuvrability is more important than straight line speed, so coral reef fish have developed bodies which optimize their ability to dart and change direction. They outwit predators by dodging into fissures in the reef or playing hide and seek around coral heads. The pectoral and pelvic fins of many reef fish, such as butterflyfish , damselfish and angelfish , have evolved so they can act as brakes and allow complex maneuvers. Many reef fish, such as butterflyfish , damselfish and angelfish , have evolved bodies which are deep and laterally compressed like

5850-408: The world to Whale Bumps with their Tubercle effect . Several fin manufacturers tried making some fins at that time, after the article was discussed on Swaylock's design Forum. The process of grinding bumps, which are properly foiled, into an existing fin is an arduous, time consuming task. Hand foiling tubercles can take up to 40 hours+. Roy Stuart worked on wooden prototypes for years before creating

5928-426: The years include the addition of one or more fins (skegs) on the bottom rear of the board to improve directional stability , and numerous improvements in materials and shape. Modern surfboards are made of polyurethane or polystyrene foam. Unlike soft top surfboards, hard top surfboards are also covered with layers of fiberglass cloth, polyester or epoxy resin . The result is a light and strong surfboard that

6006-489: Was "Rock Your Shine". Members of Team OP for Spring/Summer 2011 are Mark Salling , Chord Overstreet , Aly Michalka , Brenda Song , Katerina Graham , and Rob Kardashian . Iconix Brand Group signed an exclusive direct-to-retail license agreement with Walmart in August 2007. As of 2018, Iconix Brand Group has taken back control of the brand's distribution and will be re-launching Spring 2019. Surfboard A surfboard

6084-482: Was in San Diego and he was in L.A., way up there.". This innovation revolutionized surfing, allowing surfers to direct the board's momentum and providing more balance when turning. The template of the modern surfboard fin was developed by George Greenough in the 1960s. The single fin changed little until the late 70s, when a second was added and popularised by Australian Mark Richards . In October 1980, after seeing

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