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87-695: OSSOS observed eight blocks of the sky over a period of five years from 2013–2017 using the MegaPrime camera of the 3.6-meter Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope . Images of these blocks were taken near opposition (when the block is near opposite the sun), two months before, and two months after. This extended period of observation was designed to remove ephemeris bias which can cause the loss of some objects due to inaccurate predictions of their future positions. Pointing directions, detection efficiencies, and tracking frequencies were determined to allow other observational biases to be identified. These identified biases are used by

174-465: A circular ring of till and gravel along the volcano's upper flanks. Subglacial eruptions built cinder cones during the Mākanaka glaciation, most of which were heavily gouged by glacial action. The most recent cones were built between 9,000 and 4,500 years ago, atop the glacial deposits, although one study indicates that the last eruption may have been around 3,600 years ago. At their maximum extent,

261-487: A depth of 3 m (10 ft) when fullest. Radiocarbon dating of samples at the base of the lake indicates that it was clear of ice 12,600 years ago. Hawaiian lava types are typically permeable , preventing lake formation due to infiltration . Either sulfur-bearing steam altered the volcanic ash to low-permeability clays, or explosive interactions between rising magma and groundwater or surface water during phreatic eruptions formed exceptionally fine ash that reduced

348-452: A drop of a degree in temperature allowed snow to remain at the volcano's summit through summer, triggering the formation of an ice cap . There are three episodes of glaciation that have been recorded from the last 180,000 years: the Pōhakuloa (180–130  ka ), Wāihu (80–60 ka) and Mākanaka (40–13 ka) series. These have extensively sculpted the summit, depositing moraines and

435-641: A dry prominence second in the world , after only Mount Everest . It is the highest peak on its island, so its wet prominence matches its height above sea level, at 4,207.3 m (13,803 ft). Because the Hawaiian Islands slope deep into the ocean, Mauna Kea has a dry prominence of 9,330 m (30,610 ft). This dry prominence is taller than Mount Everest's height above sea level of 8,848.86 m (29,032 ft), so Everest would have to include whole continents in its foothills to exceed Mauna Kea's dry prominence. Given how much Mauna Kea protrudes from

522-463: A highly endangered endemic plant species that thrives in Mauna Kea's high elevation cinder deserts. At one stage reduced to a population of just 50 plants, Mauna Kea silversword was thought to be restricted to the alpine zone, but in fact has been driven there by pressure from livestock, and can grow at lower elevations as well. The Mauna Kea Ice Age Reserve on the southern summit flank of Mauna Kea

609-607: A model of the early Solar System that included a slow, long range migration of Neptune. 65 of the smaller objects discovered by OSSOS were later observed using the Subaru telescope to determine the variability of their brightness. Operating in conjunction with OSSOS is the Colours of the Outer Solar System Origins Survey (Col-OSSOS). Col-OSSOS observes OSSOS objects with red magnitudes brighter than 23.5 simultaneously using

696-851: A new 11-m telescope to produce the Maunakea Spectroscopic Explorer , retaining the same base building and infrastructure. First light is expected no earlier than 2029. The corporation is bound by a tripartite agreement between the University of Hawaii at Manoa , in the United States , the National Research Council (NRC) in Canada and the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) in France . CFHT also has partnerships with

783-467: A plan to support the continued development of scientific facilities at the site. In 1998, 2,033 acres (823 ha) were transferred from the observatory lease to supplement the Mauna Kea Ice Age Reserve. The 1982 plan was replaced in 2000 by an extension designed to serve until 2020: it instituted an Office of Mauna Kea Management, designated 525 acres (212 ha) for astronomy, and shifted

870-451: A staple food source. Early settlement of the Hawaiian islands led to major changes to local ecosystems and many extinctions, particularly amongst bird species. Ancient Hawaiians brought foreign plants and animals, and their arrival was associated with increased rates of erosion. The prevailing lowland forest ecosystem was transformed from forest to grassland; some of this change was caused by

957-475: A yearly calendar. Mauna Kea Mauna Kea ( / ˌ m ɔː n ə ˈ k eɪ ə , ˌ m aʊ n ə -/ , Hawaiian: [ˈmɐwnə ˈkɛjə] ; abbreviation for Mauna a Wākea ) is a dormant shield volcano on the island of Hawaiʻi . Its peak is 4,207.3 m (13,803 ft) above sea level, making it the highest point in Hawaii and the island with the second highest high point , behind New Guinea,

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1044-495: Is a highly unusual food source for a species in the genus Nysius , which consists of predominantly seed-eating insects. They can survive at extreme elevations of up to 4,200 m (13,780 ft) because of natural antifreeze in their blood. They also stay under heated surfaces most of the time. Their conservation status is unclear, but the species is no longer a candidate for the Endangered Species List ; studies on

1131-415: Is above the inversion layer , keeping most cloud cover below the summit and ensuring the air on the summit is dry, and free of atmospheric pollution . The summit atmosphere is exceptionally stable, lacking turbulence for some of the world's best astronomical seeing . The very dark skies resulting from Mauna Kea's distance from city lights are preserved by legislation that minimizes light pollution from

1218-424: Is currently active, having last erupted between 4,500 and 6,000 years ago. Mauna Kea does not have a visible summit caldera , but contains a number of small cinder and pumice cones near its summit. A former summit caldera may have been filled and buried by later summit eruption deposits. Mauna Kea is over 32,000 km (7,680 cu mi) in volume, so massive that it and its neighbor, Mauna Loa , depress

1305-505: Is expected to erupt again. Based on earlier eruptions, such an event could occur anywhere on the volcano's upper flanks and would likely produce long lava flows, mostly of ʻaʻā , 15–25 km (9–16 mi) long. Long periods of activity could build a cinder cone at the source. Although not likely in the next few centuries, such an eruption would probably result in little loss of life but significant damage to infrastructure. The first Ancient Hawaiians to arrive on Hawaiʻi island lived along

1392-415: Is greater than Everest's height above sea level of 8,848.86 m (29,032 ft), and some authorities have labeled Mauna Kea the tallest mountain in the world, from its underwater base. Mauna Kea is ranked 8th by topographic isolation . It is about one million years old and thus passed the most active shield stage of life hundreds of thousands of years ago. In its current post-shield state, its lava

1479-488: Is located near the summit of Mauna Kea mountain on Hawaii 's Big Island at an altitude of 4,204 meters (13,793 feet), part of the Mauna Kea Observatory . Operational since 1979, the telescope is a Prime Focus/ Cassegrain configuration with a usable aperture diameter of 3.58 metres (11.7 ft). CFHT is currently considering a refurbishment to the facility in the 2020s. The facility would be reconstructed with

1566-403: Is more viscous , resulting in a steeper profile. Late volcanism has also given it a much rougher appearance than its neighboring volcanoes due to construction of cinder cones , decentralization of its rift zones , glaciation on its peak, and weathering by the prevailing trade winds . Mauna Kea last erupted 6,000 to 4,000 years ago and is now thought to be dormant . In Hawaiian religion ,

1653-416: Is now confined to the slopes of Mauna Kea—only 10% of its former range—and has been declared critically endangered . The largest threat to the ecosystem is grazing by feral sheep, cattle ( Bos primigenius ), and goats ( Capra hircus ) introduced to the island in the late 18th century. Feral animal competition with commercial grazing was severe enough that a program to eradicate them existed as far back as

1740-604: Is one of five volcanoes that form the island of Hawaiʻi , the largest and youngest island of the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain . Of these five hotspot volcanoes , Mauna Kea is the fourth oldest and fourth most active. It began as a preshield volcano driven by the Hawaiʻi hotspot around one million years ago, and became exceptionally active during its shield stage until 500,000 years ago. Mauna Kea entered its quieter post-shield stage 250,000 to 200,000 years ago, and

1827-626: The Gemini-North and Canada-France-Hawaii telescopes . The simultaneous observation allows the colors of these object to be measured more accurately by removing variations in their brightness due to the rotation of the objects and changes in atmospheric conditions. These observations have revealed three surface types among the TNOs, and have identified numerous binaries including loosely bound neutrally colored 'blue binaries' that could have been pushed out into their current orbits during Neptune's migration. Among

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1914-721: The Hawaiian Trough , some authorities have called it the tallest (as opposed to highest ) mountain in the world, as measured from base to peak. Unlike prominence, base is loosely defined, which has resulted in numbers ranging from 9,966 m (32,696 ft) (roughly to the deepest point in the Hawaiian Trough) to 17,205 m (56,447 ft) (to the root of the mountain deep underground). Those calculations have produced rivaling claims for other mountains, such as higher climb from base for Mount Lamlam (11,528 m (37,820 ft), starting from nearby Challenger Deep ), and

2001-829: The National Astronomical Observatory of China (NAOC), the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics (ASIAA) in Taiwan , the National Laboratory of Astrophysics (LNA) in Brazil and the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI) in Korea . The contributions from these associate partners help fund CFHT's future instrumentation. Currently, CFHT observing time is offered to scientists from all

2088-552: The Pacific tectonic plate has moved over the Hawaiian hotspot in the Earth's underlying mantle . The Hawaii island volcanoes are the most recent evidence of this process that, over 70 million years, has created the 6,000 km (3,700 mi)-long Hawaiian Ridge–Emperor seamount chain. The prevailing, though not completely settled, view is that the hotspot has been largely stationary within

2175-575: The US Air Force and Lowell Observatory . In 1973, Canada and France agreed to build the 3.6 m CFHT on Mauna Kea. However, local organisations started to raise concerns about the environmental impact of the observatory. This led the Department of Land and Natural Resources to prepare an initial management plan, drafted in 1977 and supplemented in 1980. In January 1982, the UH Board of Regents approved

2262-472: The ocean crust beneath it by 6 km (4 mi). The volcano continues to slip and flatten under its own weight at a rate of less than 0.2 mm (0.01 in) per year. Much of its mass lies east of its present summit. It stands 4,207.3 m (13,803 ft) above sea level, about 38 m (125 ft) higher than its neighbor Mauna Loa, and is the highest point in the state of Hawaii . Like all Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Kea has been created as

2349-503: The 2:1 resonance with Neptune have been identified. OSSOS detected 3 potential members of the Haumea family , but none of these were faint, indicating that the family has a shallow size distribution. Analysis of the size distribution of the scattering population revealed a break in its slope. The inclination distribution of these scattering objects had more with inclinations greater than 45 degrees than predicted using simulations that included only

2436-454: The Hawaiian crow in particular is extinct in the wild , but there are plans to reintroduce the species into the Hakalau reserve. Mauna Kea's summit is one of the best sites in the world for astronomical observation due to favorable observing conditions. The arid conditions are important for submillimeter and infrared astronomy for this region of the electromagnetic spectrum . The summit

2523-508: The Hawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resources gave it a 65-year lease for all land within a 4 km (2.5 mi) radius of its telescope, essentially that above 11,500 ft (3,505 m). On its completion in 1970, the UH 88 in (2.2 m) was the seventh largest optical/infrared telescope in the world. By 1970, two 24 in (0.6 m) telescopes had been constructed by

2610-626: The University of Hawaiʻi's Center for the Study of Active Volcanoes believes one reason to continue study of the aquifers is due to use and occupancy of the higher elevation areas, stating: "Nearly all of these activities depend on the availability of potable water that, in most cases, must be trucked to the Saddle from Waimea or Hilo — an inefficient and expensive process that consumes a substantial quantity of our scarce liquid fuels." The last eruption of Mauna Kea

2697-454: The ahupuaʻa of Kaʻohe, with part of its eastern slope reaching into the nearby Humuʻula. Principal sources of nutrition for Hawaiians living on the slopes of the volcano came from the māmane– naio forest of its upper slopes, which provided them with vegetation and bird life. Bird species hunted included the ʻuaʻu ( Pterodroma sandwichensis ), nēnē ( Branta sandvicensis ), and palila ( Loxioides bailleui ). The lower koa – ʻōhiʻa forest gave

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2784-492: The area. Mauna Kea has been the site of extensive archaeological research since the 1980s. Approximately 27 percent of the Science Reserve had been surveyed by 2000, identifying 76 shrines, 4 adze manufacturing workshops, 3 other markers, 1 positively identified burial site, and 4 possible burial sites. By 2009, the total number of identified sites had risen to 223, and archaeological research on

2871-402: The back-and-forth between the ranchers and hunters eventually gave way to a rise in public environmental concern. With the development of astronomical facilities on Mauna Kea commencing, conservationists demanded protection of Mauna Kea's ecosystem. A plan was proposed to fence 25% of the forests for protection, and manage the remaining 75% for game hunting. Despite opposition from conservationists

2958-466: The cultivation of eucalyptus for wood pulp . The Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge is a major koa forest reserve on Mauna Kea's windward slope. It was established in 1985, covering 32,733 acres (13,247 ha) of ecosystem remnant. Eight endangered bird species, twelve endangered plants, and the endangered Hawaiian hoary bat ( Lasiurus cinereus semotus ) have been observed in the area, in addition to many other rare biota. The reserve has been

3045-595: The dynamically excited populations the ratio of neutral to red objects has been estimated to be between 4:1 and 11:1. The inclination distributions were found to vary with color, with the red objects having lower inclinations. The Col-OSSOS team has also measured the color and light curve of ʻOumuamua . The core members of the Outer Solar System Origin Survey are: Collaborators of the Outer Solar System Origin Survey are: Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope The Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope ( CFHT )

3132-409: The early 19th century brought more settlers to the island, and had a lasting negative ecological effect. On lower slopes, vast tracts of koa–ʻōhiʻa forest were converted to farmland. Higher up, feral animals that escaped from ranches found refuge in, and damaged extensively, Mauna Kea's native māmane–naio forest. Non-native plants are the other serious threat; there are over 4,600 introduced species on

3219-663: The effects of invasive species . In addition the ecosystems of Hawaiʻi are under threat from human development including the clearing of land for agriculture; an estimated third of the island's endemic species have already been wiped out. Because of its elevation, Mauna Kea has the greatest diversity of biotic ecosystems anywhere in the Hawaiian archipelago. Ecosystems on the mountain form concentric rings along its slopes due to changes in temperature and precipitation with elevation. These ecosystems can be roughly divided into three sections by elevation: alpine – subalpine , montane , and basal forest . Contact with Americans and Europeans in

3306-482: The enormous main mass of the volcano are tholeiitic basalts , like those of Mauna Loa, created through the mixing of primary magma and subducted oceanic crust. They are covered by the oldest exposed rock strata on Mauna Kea, the post-shield alkali basalts of the Hāmākua Volcanics , which erupted between 250,000 and 70–65,000 years ago. The most recent volcanic flows are hawaiites and mugearites : they are

3393-442: The establishment of trade; and the adze quarries on Mauna Kea were abandoned after the introduction of metal tools. In 1793, cattle were brought by George Vancouver as a tribute to King Kamehameha I . By the early 19th century, they had escaped confinement and roamed the island freely, greatly damaging its ecosystem. In 1809 John Palmer Parker arrived and befriended Kamehameha I, who put him in charge of cattle management on

3480-610: The exposed Mauna Kea surface and had subsequently been subsided below sea level. Isotopic composition shows the water present to have been derived from rain coming off Mauna Kea at higher than 2,000 m (6,600 ft) above mean sea level. The aquifer's presence is attributed to a freshwater head within Mauna Kea's basal lens. Scientists believe there may be more water in Mauna Kea's freshwater lens than current models may indicate. Two more boreholes were drilled on Mauna Kea in 2012, with water being found at much higher elevations and shallower depths than expected. Donald Thomas, director of

3567-424: The finished product. Lake Waiau provided drinking water for the workers. Native chiefs would also dip the umbilical cords of newborn babies in its water, to give them the strength of the mountain. Use of the quarry declined between this period and contact with Americans and Europeans. As part of the ritual associated with quarrying, the workers erected shrines to their gods; these and other quarry artifacts remain at

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3654-412: The glaciers extended from the summit down to between 3,200 and 3,800 m (10,500 and 12,500 ft) of elevation. A small body of permafrost , less than 25 m (80 ft) across, was found at the summit of Mauna Kea before 1974, and may still be present. Small gullies etch the summit, formed by rain- and snow-fed streams that flow only during winter melt and rain showers. On the windward side of

3741-438: The governing body in charge of conservation and land use management, changed its policy to a sustained-control program designed to facilitate the sport. Mouflon ( Ovis aries orientalis ) was introduced from 1962 to 1964, and a plan to release axis deer ( Axis axis ) in 1964 was prevented only by protests from the ranching industry, who said that they would damage crops and spread disease. The hunting industry fought back, and

3828-440: The ground, and gives the area a very low water retention capacity . Plant species found at this elevation include Styphelia tameiameiae , Taraxacum officinale , Tetramolopium humile , Agrostis sandwicensis , Anthoxanthum odoratum , Trisetum glomeratum , Poa annua , Sonchus oleraceus , and Coprosma ernodiodes . One notable species is Mauna Kea silversword ( Argyroxiphium sandwicense var. sandwicense ),

3915-466: The houses on the island were built of koa, and those parts of the forest that survived became a source for firewood to power boilers on the sugarcane plantations and to heat homes. The once vast forest had almost disappeared by 1880, and by 1900, logging interests had shifted to Kona and the island of Maui . With the collapse of the sugar industry in the 1990s, much of this land lies fallow but portions are used for cattle grazing, small-scale farming and

4002-515: The island, whereas the number of native species is estimated at just 1,000. The summit of Mauna Kea lies above the tree line , and consists of mostly lava rock and alpine tundra . An area of heavy snowfall, it is inhospitable to vegetation, and is known as the Hawaiian tropical high shrublands . Growth is restricted here by extremely cold temperatures, a short growing season, low rainfall, and snow during winter months. A lack of soil also retards root growth, makes it difficult to absorb nutrients from

4089-402: The island. With an additional land grant in 1845, Parker established Parker Ranch on the northern slope of Mauna Kea, a large cattle ranch that is still in operation today. Settlers to the island burned and cut down much of the lower native forest for sugarcane plantations and houses. The Saddle Road , named for its crossing of the saddle-shaped plateau between Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa,

4176-454: The known planets and the influence of the galaxy, but also fewer with inclinations between 15 and 30 degrees than predicted when Planet Nine was added to the simulations. Extreme trans-Neptunian objects ( eTNOs ) have been found including one with a semi-major axis of 730  AU , 2013 SY 99 , and seven other objects with semi-major axes greater than 150 AU and perihelia greater than 30 AU. After accounting for OSSOS's known biases

4263-514: The late 1920s, and continued through to 1949. One of the results of this grazing was the increased prevalence of herbaceous and woody plants, both endemic and introduced, that were resistant to browsing. The feral animals were almost eradicated, and numbered a few hundred in the 1950s. However, an influx of local hunters led to the feral species being valued as game animals , and in 1959 the Hawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resources ,

4350-408: The mountain exist to this day. However, very few natives reached the summit, because of the strict kapu placed on it. In the early 19th century, the earliest notable recorded ascents of Mauna Kea included the following: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries trails were formed, often by the movement of game herds, that could be traveled on horseback. However, vehicular access to the summit

4437-459: The māmane-naio ecosystem. There are many other species and ecosystems on the island, and on Mauna Kea, that remain threatened by human development and invasive species. The Mauna Kea Forest Reserve protects 52,500 acres (212 km ) of māmane-naio forest under the jurisdiction of the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources. Ungulate hunting is allowed year-round. A small part of

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4524-540: The māmane–naio forest is encompassed by the Mauna Kea State Recreation Area . A band of ranch land on Mauna Kea's lower slopes was formerly Acacia koa – Metrosideros polymorpha (koa-ʻōhiʻa) forest. Its destruction was driven by an influx of European and American settlers in the early 19th century, as extensive logging during the 1830s provided lumber for new homes. Vast swathes of the forest were burned and cleared for sugarcane plantations. Most of

4611-444: The native species has led to court cases that have forced the Hawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resources to work towards eradicating all feral species on the volcano. With its high elevation, dry environment, and stable airflow, Mauna Kea's summit is one of the best sites in the world for astronomical observation. Since the creation of an access road in 1964, thirteen telescopes funded by eleven countries have been constructed at

4698-520: The natives wood for canoes and ornate bird feathers for decoration. There are three accounts of foreigners visiting Hawaiʻi before the arrival of James Cook , in 1778. However, the earliest Western depictions of the isle, including Mauna Kea, were created by explorers in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Contact with Europe and America had major consequences for island residents. Native Hawaiians were devastated by introduced diseases; port cities including Hilo , Kealakekua , and Kailua grew with

4785-450: The northwest, and intersects the base of Mauna Loa to the south. The original eruptive fissures ( rift zones ) in the flanks of Mauna Kea were buried by its post-shield volcanism. Hilo Ridge, a prominent underwater rift zone structure east of Mauna Kea, was once believed to be a part of the volcano; however, it is now understood to be a rift zone of Kohala that has been affected by younger Mauna Kea flows. The shield-stage lavas that built

4872-491: The orbital elements of these objects are consist with a uniformly distributed population. Four scattered disk objects with high perihelia have been detected with semi-major axes smaller than nearby resonances, consistent with their escape during a slow grainy migration of Neptune. Closer to the Sun, 20 centaurs were found, none of which were active. The number of centaurs detected and their inclinantion distribution were consistent with

4959-447: The peaks of the island of Hawaiʻi are sacred. An ancient law allowed only high-ranking aliʻi to visit its peak. Ancient Hawaiians living on the slopes of Mauna Kea relied on its extensive forests for food, and quarried the dense volcano-glacial basalts on its flanks for tool production . When Europeans arrived in the late 18th century, settlers introduced cattle, sheep, and game animals, many of which became feral and began to damage

5046-425: The permeability of the lake bed. No artesian water was known on the island of Hawaiʻi until 1993 when drilling by the University of Hawaiʻi tapped an artesian aquifer more than 300 m (980 ft) below sea level, that extended more than 100 m (330 ft) of the borehole 's total depth. The borehole had drilled through a compacted layer of soil and lava where the flows of Mauna Loa had encroached upon

5133-662: The plan was put into action. While the land was partitioned no money was allocated for the building of the fence. In the midst of this wrangling the Endangered Species Act was passed; the National Audubon Society and Sierra Club Legal Defense Fund filed a lawsuit against the Hawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resources , claiming that they were violating federal law, in the landmark case Palila v. Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources (1978). The court ruled in favor of conservationists and upheld

5220-460: The planet's mantle for much, if not all of the Cenozoic Era. However, while Hawaiian volcanism is well understood and extensively studied, there remains no definite explanation of the mechanism that causes the hotspot effect. Lava flows from Mauna Kea overlapped in complex layers with those of its neighbors during its growth. Most prominently, Mauna Kea is built upon older flows from Kohala to

5307-529: The post-shield Laupāhoehoe Volcanics , erupted between 65,000 and 4,000 years ago. These changes in lava composition accompanied the slow reduction of the supply of magma to the summit, which led to weaker eruptions that then gave way to isolated episodes associated with volcanic dormancy. The Laupāhoehoe lavas are more viscous and contain more volatiles than the earlier tholeiitic basalts; their thicker flows significantly steepened Mauna Kea's flanks. In addition, explosive eruptions have built cinder cones near

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5394-517: The precedence of federal laws before state control of wildlife. Having violated the Endangered Species Act, Hawaiʻi state was required to remove all feral animals from the mountainside. This decision was followed by a second court order in 1981. A public hunting program removed many of the feral animals, at least temporarily. An active control program is in place, though it is not conducted with sufficient rigor to allow significant recovery of

5481-406: The quick cooling of lava flows meeting glacial ice during subglacial eruptions ) to make tools. Volcanic glass and gabbro were collected for blades and fishing gear, and māmane wood was preferred for the handles. At peak quarry activity after AD 1400, there were separate facilities for rough and fine cutting; shelters with food, water, and wood to sustain the workers; and workshops creating

5568-578: The seven countries in the partnership. Astronomers from the European Union can also submit proposals through the Optical Infrared Coordination Network for Astronomy (OPTICON) access program. CFHT currently operates five instruments: CFHT, in collaboration with Coelum Astronomia , maintains a public-outreach website called "Hawaiian Starlight" which offers extremely high-quality versions of CFHT images in various formats including

5655-552: The shores, where food and water were plentiful. Settlement expanded inland to the Mauna Loa – Mauna Kea region in the 12th and early 13th centuries. Archaeological evidence suggests that these regions were used for hunting, collecting stone material, and possibly for spiritual reasons or for astronomical or navigational observations. The mountain's plentiful forest provided plants and animals for food and raw materials for shelter. Flightless birds that had previously known no predators became

5742-533: The site of an extensive replanting campaign since 1989. Parts of the reserve show the effect of agriculture on the native ecosystem, as much of the land in the upper part of the reserve is abandoned farmland. Bird species native to the acacia koa–ʻōhiʻa forest include the Hawaiian crow ( Corvus hawaiiensis ), the ʻakepa ( Loxops coccineus ), Hawaii creeper ( Oreomystis mana ), ʻakiapōlāʻau ( Hemignathus munroi ), and Hawaiian hawk ( Buteo solitarius ), all of which are endangered, threatened, or near threatened;

5829-473: The sites, most of which lie within what is now the Mauna Kea Ice Age Reserve . This early era was followed by cultural expansion between the 12th and late 18th century. Land was divided into regions designed for the immediate needs of the populace. These ahupuaʻa generally took the form of long strips of land oriented from the mountain summits to the coast. Mauna Kea's summit was encompassed in

5916-417: The summit of Mauna Kea was seen as the "region of the gods", a place where benevolent spirits reside. Poliʻahu , deity of snow, also resides there. "Mauna Kea" is an abbreviation for Mauna a Wākea and means "white mountain," in reference to its seasonally snow-capped summit. Around AD 1100, natives established adze quarries high up on Mauna Kea to extract the uniquely dense basalt (generated by

6003-408: The summit's outstanding suitability. An intense three-way competition for NASA funds to construct a large telescope began between Kuiper, Harvard University , and the University of Hawaiʻi (UH), which only had experience in solar astronomy. This culminated in funds being awarded to the "upstart" UH proposal. UH rebuilt its small astronomy department into a new Institute for Astronomy , and in 1968

6090-454: The summit. These cones are the most recent eruptive centers of Mauna Kea. Its present summit is dominated by lava domes and cinder cones up to 1.5 km (0.9 mi) in diameter and hundreds of meters tall. Mauna Kea is the only Hawaiian volcano with distinct evidence of glaciation . Similar deposits probably existed on Mauna Loa, but have been covered by later lava flows. Despite Hawaii's tropical location, during several past ice ages

6177-423: The summit. The Mauna Kea Observatories are used for scientific research across the electromagnetic spectrum and comprise the largest such facility in the world. Their construction on a landscape considered sacred by Native Hawaiians continues to be a topic of debate to this day . Mauna Kea is unusually topographically prominent for its height, with a wet prominence fifteenth in the world among mountains, and

6264-584: The surrounding area; the darkness level allows the observation of faint astronomical objects . These factors historically made Mauna Kea an excellent spot for stargazing. In the early 1960s, the Hawaiʻi Island Chamber of Commerce encouraged astronomical development of Mauna Kea, as economic stimulus; this coincided with University of Arizona astronomer Gerard Kuiper 's search for sites to use newly improved detectors of infrared light . Site testing by Kuiper's assistant Alika Herring in 1964 confirmed

6351-508: The survey simulator developed by the OSSOS group. This survey simulator can estimate the populations of detected objects, for example those in resonances, and set upper limits for the classes of objects not detected. The survey simulator can also predict the number of object that would be detected by OSSOS given the output of dynamical models of the early Solar System, allowing the models to be statistically tested. OSSOS has detected 838 objects, bring

6438-414: The total objects detected by well characterized surveys to more than 1100. Among these objects are a possible dwarf planet in a 9:2 resonance with Neptune , and two objects in a 9:1 resonance with Neptune. Other resonant objects have been detected and their populations estimated. A previously identified 'kernel' in the cold classical Kuiper belt has been confirmed and other cold classical objects beyond

6525-660: The tremendously deep roots of the Himalayan Mountains . Greater rises could be measured from the Atacama Trench to the Andes Mountains , for example, the bottom of Richard's Deep (8,065 m (26,460 ft) deep ) to the peak of the nearby Llullaillaco (6,739 m (22,110 ft) high ) is 14,804 m (48,570 ft). Neither Mount Lamlam nor Llullaillaco have the dry prominence of Mauna Kea, because they do not extend into trenches in every direction. Mauna Kea

6612-567: The use of fire, but the prevailing cause of forest ecosystem collapse and avian extinction on Hawaiʻi appears to have been the introduction of the Polynesian (or Pacific) rat . The five volcanoes of Hawaiʻi are revered as sacred mountains ; and Mauna Kea's summit, the highest, is the most sacred. For this reason, a kapu (ancient Hawaiian law) restricted visitor rights to high-ranking aliʻi. Hawaiians associated elements of their natural environment with particular deities. In Hawaiian mythology ,

6699-434: The volcano may be because they were reserved for burial. In pre-contact times, natives traveling up Mauna Kea were probably guided more by landscape than by existing trails, as no evidence of trails has been found. It is possible that natural ridges and water sources were followed instead. Individuals likely took trips up Mauna Kea's slopes to visit family-maintained shrines near its summit, and traditions related to ascending

6786-407: The volcano's ecological balance. Mauna Kea can be ecologically divided into three sections: an alpine climate at its summit, a Sophora chrysophylla – Myoporum sandwicense (or māmane–naio) forest on its flanks, and an Acacia koa – Metrosideros polymorpha (or koa–ʻōhiʻa) forest, now mostly cleared by the former sugar industry , at its base. In recent years, concern over the vulnerability of

6873-412: The volcano's upper flanks is ongoing. It has been suggested that the shrines, which are arranged around the volcano's summit along what may be an ancient snow line , are markers for the transition to the sacred part of Mauna Kea. Despite many references to burial around Mauna Kea in Hawaiian oral history, few sites have been confirmed. The lack of shrines or other artifacts on the many cinder cones dotting

6960-531: The volcano, stream erosion driven by trade winds has accelerated erosion in a manner similar to that on older Kohala. Mauna Kea is home to Lake Waiau , the highest lake in the Pacific Basin . At an altitude of 3,969 m (13,022 ft), it lies within the Puʻu Waiau cinder cone and is the only alpine lake in Hawaii. The lake is very small and shallow, with a surface area of 0.73 ha (1.80 acres) and

7047-440: The volcano, at an elevation of 2,000–3,000 m (6,600–9,800 ft), is dominated by māmane ( Sophora chrysophylla ) and naio ( Myoporum sandwicense ), both endemic tree species, and is thus known as māmane–naio forest. Māmane seeds and naio fruit are the chief foods of the birds in this zone, especially the palila ( Loxioides bailleui ). The palila was formerly found on the slopes of Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, and Hualālai , but

7134-473: The welfare of the species began in 1980. The closely related Nysius aa lives on Mauna Loa. Wolf spiders (Lycosidae) and forest tent caterpillar moths have also been observed in the same Mauna Kea ecosystem; the former survive by hiding under heat-absorbing rocks, and the latter through cold-resistant chemicals in their bodies. Several native moths are also present near the summit including Agrotis helela and Agrotis kuamauna . The forested zone on

7221-468: The world's largest tropical island with multiple peaks that are higher. The peak is about 38 m (125 ft) higher than Mauna Loa , its more massive neighbor. Mauna Kea is unusually topographically prominent for its height: its prominence from sea level is fifteenth in the world among mountains, at 4,207.3 m (13,803 ft); its prominence from under the ocean is 9,330 m (30,610 ft), rivaled only by Mount Everest . This dry prominence

7308-430: Was about 4,600 years ago (about 2600 BC); because of this inactivity, Mauna Kea is assigned a United States Geological Survey hazard listing of 7 for its summit and 8 for its lower flanks, out of the lowest possible hazard rating of 9 (which is given to the extinct volcano Kohala ). Since 8000 BC lava flows have covered 20% of the volcano's summit and virtually none of its flanks. Despite its dormancy, Mauna Kea

7395-546: Was completed in 1943, and eased travel to Mauna Kea considerably. The Pohakuloa Training Area on the plateau is the largest military training ground in Hawaiʻi. The 108,863-acre (44,055 ha) base extends from the volcano's lower flanks to 2,070 m (6,790 ft) elevation, on state land leased to the US Army since 1956. There are 15 threatened and endangered plants, three endangered birds, and one endangered bat species in

7482-426: Was established in 1981. The reserve is a region of sparsely vegetated cinder deposits and lava rock, including areas of aeolian desert and Lake Waiau. This ecosystem is a likely haven for the threatened ʻuaʻu ( Pterodroma sandwichensis ) and also the center of a study on wēkiu bugs ( Nysius wekiuicola ). Wēkiu bugs feed on dead insect carcasses that drift up Mauna Kea on the wind and settle on snow banks. This

7569-641: Was practically impossible until the construction of a road in 1964, and it continues to be restricted. Today, multiple trails to the summit exist, in various states of use. Hawaiʻi's geographical isolation strongly influences its ecology. Remote islands like Hawaiʻi have a large number of species that are found nowhere else (see Endemism in the Hawaiian Islands ). The remoteness resulted in evolutionary lines distinct from those elsewhere and isolated these endemic species from external biotic influence, and also makes them especially vulnerable to extinction and

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