The Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers Union ( OCAW ) was a trade union in the United States which existed between 1917 and 1999. At the time of its dissolution and merger, the International represented 80,000 workers and was affiliated with the AFL–CIO .
130-622: The union was first originally established as the International Association of Oil Field, Gas Well, and Refinery Workers of America in 1918 after a major workers' strike in the Texas oil fields in late 1917. It affiliated with the American Federation of Labor (AFL) when they granted the occurrence of local unions of oil workers at a convention held in El Paso, Texas , and officially set up
260-593: A Juris Doctor degree from Harvard Law School . At Harvard, he was a member of Phi Beta Kappa and was in the same class as Alger Hiss . With future defending lawyer Edward Cochrane McLean , they served on the Harvard Law Review : Mr. Hiss: ... Lee Pressman was in my class at the Harvard Law School, and we were both on the Harvard Law Review at the same time. After graduation, he joined
390-550: A National Lawyers Guild convention in Cleveland, he attacked the "fallacious notion that increased wages in the interests of adequate purchasing power necessarily bring higher prices." He also attacked future Progressive Party vice presidential candidate, US Senator Glen H. Taylor , for the latter's prediction of economic uncertainty due to monopolies. He asked that an "aroused and enlightened public" make itself heard in Congress and in
520-598: A branch of UMW and its main purpose was to cover “gas, coke and chemical products” made from coal. Eventually, the president, John L Lewis , of UMW and of CIO resigned as president of the CIO and therefore removing UMW out of the CIO as well. After they were no longer part of AFL and CIO, Lewis strengthened District 50. He made it transform into a sort of all of the above branch of the Mine Workers, in such that all miscellaneous groups related to that of gas, coke, and chemicals were now
650-405: A central state apparatus designed to manage state institutions more efficiently. These changes helped Texas universities receive federal research funds. Beginning around the mid-20th century, Texas began to transform from a rural and agricultural state to one urban and industrialized. The state's population grew quickly during this period, with large levels of migration from outside the state. As
780-453: A determined advance in adapting social legislation to the needs of the whole American people. On January 14, 1940, John L. Lewis retired from the CIO presidency, and Philip Murray succeeded him. On May 18, 1940, Pressman again spoke on CBS Radio, this time on the "Wagner Act." In 1941, FDR appointed CIO vice president Sidney Hill to the Office of Production Management . Hillman lobbied for
910-628: A few months the union grew in size when numerous other groups left District 50 and joined the UGCCWA. In 1948, Lee Pressman of New York and Joseph Forer of Washington, DC, represented Charles A. Doyle of the Gas, Coke and Chemical Workers Union along with Gerhard Eisler (public thought to be the top Soviet spy in America); Irving Potash, vice president of the Fur and Leather Workers Union ; Ferdinand C. Smith , secretary of
1040-564: A final victory as an independent union seven months after the merger, when the federal government acknowledged for the first time that nuclear weapons production during the Cold War likely caused the illness and even deaths of thousands of atomic mining, refining, and production workers. The government agreed to seek legislation to compensate workers and their survivors for their medical care and lost wages. The admission of complicity and legislative relief had long been sought by OCAW. PACE merged with
1170-568: A frontier territory. The state became notorious as a haven for people from other parts of the country who wanted to escape debt, war tensions, or other problems. "Gone to Texas" was a common expression for those fleeing the law in other states. Nevertheless, the state also attracted many businessmen and other settlers with more legitimate interests. The cattle industry continued to thrive, though it gradually became less profitable. Cotton and lumber became major industries creating new economic booms in various regions. Railroad networks grew rapidly as did
1300-514: A major destination for migration during the early 21st century and was named the most popular state to move for three consecutive years. Another study in 2019 determined Texas's growth rate at 1,000 people per day. During the COVID-19 pandemic in Texas , the first confirmed case of the virus in Texas was announced on March 4, 2020. On April 27, 2020, Governor Greg Abbott announced phase one of re-opening
1430-941: A mediating entity to OPM, and FDR created the National Defense Mediation Board (NDMB). In June 1941, NMDB and the United Auto Workers took over a North American Aviation factory during a strike. Later in June 1941, at a convention of the National Lawyers Guild in Chicago, Pressman criticized the Vinson and Ball bills before the US Congress, both of which he accused of a "long-range" plan whose aims included "destruction of workers' rights to organize, bargain collectively, and strike"; "destruction of labor organizations as
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#17328727689481560-527: A meeting with Soviet counterparts about the WFTU. In October 1945, he traveled to Moscow with a CIO delegation in the company of John Abt among others. On June 6, 1946, he contributed to a broadcast entitled "Should There Be Stricter Regulation of Labor Unions?" on America's Town Meeting of the Air show on NBC Radio with Sen. Allen J. Ellender , Henry J. Taylor , and Rep. Andrew J. Biemiller . In July 1946, at
1690-469: A part of District 50 making gas, coke, and chemical workers simply a small division of District 50. Due to the impact that this action had on the workers of these companies, several of the division leaders from District 50 met with the CIO executive board in June 1942. They wanted to break away from District 20 and unite back into CIO so they wanted to discuss the chance of creating an international union for their industry alone. The UGCCWU had broken away from
1820-529: A part of the Sun Belt , Texas experienced strong economic growth, particularly during the 1970s and early 1980s. Texas's economy diversified, lessening its reliance on the petroleum industry . By 1990, Hispanics and Latino Americans overtook Blacks to become the largest minority group. Texas has the largest Black population with over 3.9 million. During the late 20th century, the Republican Party replaced
1950-404: A result of its purge of Communist Party members and fellow travelers . From 1936 to 1948, he represented the CIO and member unions in landmark collective bargaining deals with major corporations including General Motors and U.S. Steel . According to journalist Murray Kempton , anti-communists referred to him as "Comrade Big." Pressman was born Leon Pressman on July 1, 1906, on
2080-709: A small firm called Liebman, Blumenthal & Levy, to handle Jerome's clients. In 1933, Pressman joined the Ware Group at the invitation of Harold Ware , a Communist agricultural journalist in Washington, DC : "I was asked to join by a man named Harold Ware" (See "Ware Group" sub-section, below) In July 1933, Pressman received appointment as assistant general counsel of the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) by Secretary of Agriculture Henry A. Wallace . He reported to Jerome Frank, who
2210-541: A speech before the University of Cincinnati Lawyers Institute. He said: Where parties agree to union security, what objection can there be? Nine million workers are now covered by such contracts. The status of the union under the Wagner Act established the obligation not to discriminate against non-members. Why should not all employees, therefore, have an obligation to become members? ... The anti-trust law stating that
2340-613: A supply state was marginalized in mid-1863 after the Union capture of the Mississippi River . The final battle of the Civil War was fought at Palmito Ranch , near Brownsville, Texas, and saw a Confederate victory. Texas descended into anarchy for two months between the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia and the assumption of authority by Union General Gordon Granger . Violence marked
2470-435: A third of Colorado , and small portions of Kansas , Oklahoma , and Wyoming to the federal government, in return for the assumption of $ 10 million of the old republic's debt. Post-war Texas grew rapidly as migrants poured into the cotton lands of the state. They also brought or purchased enslaved African Americans, whose numbers tripled in the state from 1850 to 1860, from 58,000 to 182,566. Texas re-entered war following
2600-530: Is adequate protection in State courts for breach of collective bargaining agreements. Federal legislation will limit the protection labor unions now have under the anti-injunction statute. Litigation for alleged breach of contract is negation of collective bargaining and would merely clutter up the courts. He also asserted that labor unions do not constitute monopolies, compared with industrial combines. In June 1947, Pressman also wrote an influential critique of
2730-582: Is not going to tell me what to ask. I won't take this from Pressman. Remember that. Pressman: I'll remember all I say. Hoffman: You keep a civil tongue in your head. In September 1941, Pressman received a pin from pro- Communist Mike Quill , leader of the Transport Workers Union (TWU), a CIO member, during a TWU strike. Pressman then urged TWU strikers to stand up to the New York City government, as he had four years earlier in 1937 when
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#17328727689482860-461: Is the second-largest U.S. state by area, after Alaska , and the largest state within the contiguous United States , at 268,820 square miles (696,200 km ). If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 39th-largest . It ranks 26th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size . Texas is in the south central part of the United States. The Rio Grande forms a natural border with
2990-713: Is the most populous state in the South Central region of the United States . It borders Louisiana to the east, Arkansas to the northeast, Oklahoma to the north, New Mexico to the west, and an international border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua , Coahuila , Nuevo León , and Tamaulipas to the south and southwest. Texas has a coastline on the Gulf of Mexico to the southeast. Covering 268,596 square miles (695,660 km ), and with over 30 million residents as of 2023, it
3120-515: Is the second-largest state by both area and population . Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State for its former status as an independent republic . Spain was the first European country to claim and control Texas. Following a short-lived colony controlled by France, Mexico controlled the land until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming the Republic of Texas . In 1845, Texas joined
3250-509: Is unetymological, contrary to the historical value of the letter x ( / ʃ / ) in Spanish orthography . Alternative etymologies of the name advanced in the late 19th century connected the name Texas with the Spanish word teja , meaning 'roof tile', the plural tejas being used to designate Indigenous Pueblo settlements. A 1760s map by Jacques-Nicolas Bellin shows a village named Teijas on
3380-659: The Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America under Sidney Hillman , claimed the leaders of the Communist Party of the USA had inspired the idea of the CIO-PAC: In 1943, Gene Dennis came to me and Lee Pressman to first raise the idea of a political action committee to organize labor support for Roosevelt in the approaching 1944 election. Pressman approached Murray with the idea, as I did with Hillman. Both men seized upon
3510-632: The Aranama , lived in southern Texas. This entire culture group, primarily centered in northeastern Mexico , is now extinct. No culture was dominant across all of present-day Texas, and many peoples inhabited the area. Native American tribes who have lived inside the boundaries of present-day Texas include the Alabama , Apache , Atakapan , Bidai , Caddo , Aranama , Comanche , Choctaw , Coushatta , Hasinai , Jumano , Karankawa , Kickapoo , Kiowa , Tonkawa , and Wichita . Many of these peoples migrated from
3640-577: The Battle of Gonzales . This launched the Texas Revolution . Texians elected delegates to the Consultation , which created a provisional government. The provisional government soon collapsed from infighting, and Texas was without clear governance for the first two months of 1836. Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna personally led an army to end the revolt. General José de Urrea defeated all
3770-637: The Democratic Party as the dominant party in the state. Beginning in the early 21st century, metropolitan areas including Dallas–Fort Worth and Greater Austin became centers for the Texas Democratic Party in statewide and national elections as liberal policies became more accepted in urban areas. From the mid-2000s to 2019, Texas gained an influx of business relocations and regional headquarters from companies in California . Texas became
3900-508: The Gulf of Mexico . The resulting " oil boom " transformed Texas. Oil production averaged three million barrels per day at its peak in 1972. In 1901, the Democratic-dominated state legislature passed a bill requiring payment of a poll tax for voting, which effectively disenfranchised most Black and many poor White and Latino people. In addition, the legislature established white primaries , ensuring minorities were excluded from
4030-865: The Lower East Side of in New York City, first of two sons of immigrants Harry and Clara Pressman of Minsk . His father was a milliner on the Lower East Side of New York City . As a child, Leon survived polio. In his teens, the family moved out to the Bensonhurst section of Brooklyn. In 1922, he entered Washington Square College of New York University , where classmates included Nathan Witt and possibly Charles Kramer (later, fellow AAA and Ware Group members), then transferred to Cornell University, where he studied under labor economist Sumner Slichter . In 1926, Pressman received his bachelor's degree from Cornell University in Ithaca, New York . In 1929, he received
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4160-715: The Mississippian culture , also known as Mound Builders , which extended along the Mississippi River Valley east of Texas; and the civilizations of Mesoamerica , which were centered south of Texas. Influence of Teotihuacan in northern Mexico peaked around AD 500 and declined between the 8th and 10th centuries. When Europeans arrived in the Texas region, the language families present in the state were Caddoan, Atakapan , Athabaskan, Coahuiltecan , and Uto-Aztecan, in addition to several language isolates such as Tonkawa . Uto-Aztecan Puebloan and Jumano peoples lived neared
4290-702: The National Maritime Union ; and John Williamson, labor secretary of the CPUSA ). On May 5, 1946, Pressman and Forer received a preliminary injunction so their defendants might have hearings with examiners unconnected with the investigations and prosecutions by examiners of the Immigration and Naturalization Service . Over the next several years, members slowly but steadily increased but finally hit their peak in 1950 when members quickly grew. Finally, when UGCCWA merged with OWIU almost 100,000 workers represented those in
4420-533: The New Deal , guaranteed the right of workers to organize. At the end of 1933, and even through the depression, several thousands of oil workers joined and rejoined the union and dispersed into several dozen locals. At this point being a part of the union became really important for the oil industry. In 1937, the union changed its name to the Oil Workers International Union (OWIU). The union was one of
4550-611: The Old Three Hundred , made places along the Brazos River in 1822. The population of Texas grew rapidly. In 1825, Texas had about 3,500 people, with most of Mexican descent. By 1834, the population had grown to about 37,800 people, with only 7,800 of Mexican descent. Many immigrants openly flouted Mexican law, especially the prohibition against slavery . Combined with United States' attempts to purchase Texas, Mexican authorities decided in 1830 to prohibit continued immigration from
4680-553: The Pacific Ocean . Their opponents, led by Sam Houston, advocated the annexation of Texas to the United States and peaceful co-existence with Native Americans. The conflict between the factions was typified by an incident known as the Texas Archive War . With wide popular support, Texas first applied for annexation to the United States in 1836, but its status as a slaveholding country caused its admission to be controversial and it
4810-534: The Saint Malo settlement assisting Jean Lafitte in the Battle of New Orleans . In 1821, the Mexican War of Independence included the Texas territory, which became part of Mexico. Due to its low population, the territory was assigned to other states and territories of Mexico ; the core territory was part of the state of Coahuila y Tejas , but other parts of today's Texas were part of Tamaulipas , Chihuahua , or
4940-665: The Taft-Hartley Act , used by President Harry S. Truman as background material to justify his "bristling" veto of the measure. Co-sponsor, US Senator Robert A. Taft belittled Truman's veto: "The veto message covers the Pressman memorandum which the Senator from Montana ( James E. Murray ) put in the record and to which I replied. The veto message substantially in detail follows the Pressman memorandum ... point by point." Taft's accusation drew considerable attention for days. On July 4,
5070-425: The Taft-Hartley Act . In January 1947, he appeared on "New York Times radio" station WQXR-FM with US Senator Carl A. Hatch , former National War Labor Board chairman William Hammatt Davis , and General Precision Equipment Corporation general counsel Robert T. Rinear, to debate the topic "Do we need new labor laws?" While endorsing a Truman commission plan, he attacked any labor legislation passed hastily ahead of
5200-665: The Trinity River , close to the site of modern Crockett . Texas lies between two major cultural spheres of Pre-Columbian North America : the Southwestern and the Plains areas. Archaeologists have found that three major Indigenous cultures lived in this territory, and reached their developmental peak before the first European contact. These were: the Ancestral Puebloans from the upper Rio Grande region, centered west of Texas;
5330-635: The United Rubber Workers ; and Reid Robinson , president of the International Union of Mine, Mill and Smelter Workers . "Left forces" failed to have Joseph Curran , president of the National Maritime Union, elected vice president. Further, Lewis demoted Harry Bridges from West Coast CIO director to California state CIO director. In 1939, New York Times reported on further internal conflict. On January 3, 1940, Pressman discussed
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5460-639: The United Steelworkers in 2005 to form the United Steel, Paper and Forestry, Rubber, Manufacturing, Energy, Allied-Industrial and Service Workers International Union (although the merged union is still more commonly known as the United Steelworkers). OCAW members are scattered throughout several "bargaining conferences", the industry divisions internal to the United Steelworkers. These include
5590-550: The Washington Post' s Drew Pearson noted "There've been considerable charges and counter-charges that CIO Counsel Lee Pressman ghost-wrote the hot White House veto message on the Taft-Hartley labor bill. Truth is that he had no direct hand in writing the message, though some of his words did creep in." Pearson explained that White House Assistant Clark Clifford had penned the veto with help from William S. Tyson , solicitor of
5720-814: The Works Progress Administration by Harry L. Hopkins . A joint resolution dated January 21, 1935, called the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935 , passed in the United States Congress and became law on April 8, 1935. As a result, on May 6, 1935, FDR issued Executive Order 7034, that essentially transformed the Federal Emergency Relief Administration into the Works Progress Administration. "Pressman set to work analyzing
5850-504: The election of 1860 . During this time, Black people comprised 30 percent of the state's population, and they were overwhelmingly enslaved. When Abraham Lincoln was elected, South Carolina seceded from the Union; five other Deep South states quickly followed. A state convention considering secession opened in Austin on January 28, 1861. On February 1, by a vote of 166–8, the convention adopted an Ordinance of Secession . Texas voters approved this Ordinance on February 23, 1861. Texas joined
5980-571: The federalists against the government and drove all Mexican soldiers out of East Texas. They took advantage of the lack of oversight to agitate for more political freedom. Texians met at the Convention of 1832 to discuss requesting independent statehood, among other issues. The following year, Texians reiterated their demands at the Convention of 1833 . Within Mexico, tensions continued between federalists and centralists. In early 1835, wary Texians formed Committees of Correspondence and Safety. The unrest erupted into armed conflict in late 1835 at
6110-409: The "1940 Legislative Program of the CIO" on CBS Radio. orIn his speech, Pressman said: On pretexts of economy, more money for war purposes and similar catch cries, the reactionary financial interests and their political henchmen hope to reduce appropriations for the unemployed and for publish works, to emasculate labor and social legislation, and to restrict our civil liberties. The CIO ... calls for
6240-475: The "National Health Bill" (part of the Reorganization Act of 1939 ), sponsored by US Senator Robert F. Wagner . He attacked the American Medical Society 's position against the bill as "reactionary," which he felt had kept the bill from going "far enough." From May through August 1939, Pressman attacked support for the " Walsh amendments" to the 1935 National Labor Relations Act (AKA the "Wagner Act"). In May 1939, when AFL president William Green supported
6370-503: The "economic mercy" of employers. Further, he urged Congress to use the US Supreme Court's definition of "work" as activities of an employe which required physical or mental exertion for an employer's benefit and under an employer's control. Any legislation that ended portal-to-portal claims, he said, would "most seriously undermine" and in fact threatened "the entire future, operation" of the 1938 Fair Labor Standards Act . Again at month's end, he attacked labor curb bills in Congress during
6500-518: The 1946 fall elections: This Congress has sought to stifle labor organization and at the same time has fought vigorously to assure expanded profit levels through tax and price policies. It has resisted any effort to lighten the tax burden on the lower income groups, but has acted swiftly to remove the excess-profits tax on corporations while continuing the carry-back provisions permitting gigantic tax rebates out of excess-profits tax payments of prior years. In 1947, Pressman became involved in passage of
6630-412: The 1970s, OCAW's Canadian locals broke off to form their own union. OCAW tried to absorb the United Rubber Workers several times in the 1970s and 1980s, but the talks collapsed due to internal union politics within the Rubber Workers and no merger ever occurred. OCAW lost approximately 50 percent of its membership between 1980 and 1995, primarily because oil companies closed nearly half the refineries in
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#17328727689486760-435: The Atlantic and Gulf Coasts and Bridges remained president of the International Longshore and Warehouse Union . In June 1936, he was named a counsel of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO—later AFL-CIO ) for the Steel Workers Organizing Committee (SWOC—later, the United Steelworkers of America ), appointed by union chief John L. Lewis as part of a conscious attempt to mobilize left-wing activists on behalf of
6890-439: The CIO and the SWOC. He remained in this position for the next decade. (According to his obituary in the New York Times, he was general counsel from 1936 to 1948. ) In August 1938, Pressman criticized the American Bar Association in The CIO News in his own "bill of particulars," which included the following: In May 1939, Pressman spoke on behalf of the CIO before the US Senate's Education and Labor sub-committee to support
7020-428: The CIO's two vice presidents, that pre-dated the Hitler-Stalin Pact (announced the previous month). Instead, Lewis would empower eight member of the CIO's 42 executive committee members. Further, Lewis increased the number of CIO vice presidents from two to six with: R. J. Thomas , president of the United Automobile Workers ; Emil Rieve , president of the Textile Workers of America ; Sherman Dalrymple , president of
7150-523: The Caddo meant that few were converted. Positioned between French Louisiana and Spanish Texas, the Caddo maintained relations with both, but were closer with the French. After Spain took control of Louisiana, most of the missions in eastern Texas were closed and abandoned. The United States obtained Louisiana following the 1803 Louisiana Purchase and began convincing tribes to self-segregate from whites by moving west; facing an overflow of native peoples in Missouri and Arkansas, they were able to negotiate with
7280-403: The Caddo of Louisiana and Arkansas. Following the Texas Revolution, the Texans chose to make peace with the Indigenous people, but did not honor former land claims or agreements. The first president of Texas, Sam Houston , aimed to cooperate and make peace with Native tribes, but his successor, Mirabeau B. Lamar , took a much more hostile stance. Hostility towards Natives by white Texans prompted
7410-457: The Caddo to allow several displaced peoples to settle on unused lands in eastern Texas. These included the Muscogee , Houma Choctaw , Lenape and Mingo Seneca , among others, who came to view the Caddoans as saviors. The temperament of Native American tribes affected the fates of European explorers and settlers in that land. Friendly tribes taught newcomers how to grow local crops, prepare foods, and hunt wild game . Warlike tribes resisted
7540-411: The Caddo, with the U.S. government trying to keep them in check. The Caddo never turned to violence because of the situation, except in cases of self-defense. By the 1830s, the U.S. had drafted the Indian Removal Act, which was used to facilitate the Trail of Tears. Fearing retribution, Indian Agents all over the eastern U.S. tried to convince all Indigenous peoples to uproot and move west. This included
7670-413: The Caddo. After Caddo resistance, the Spanish missionaries returned to Mexico. When France began settling Louisiana , in 1716 Spanish authorities responded by founding a new series of missions in East Texas. Two years later, they created San Antonio as the first Spanish civilian settlement in the area. Hostile native tribes and distance from nearby Spanish colonies discouraged settlers from moving to
7800-498: The Chemical Industry, Energy and Utilities, Manufacturing, Mining, and Pharmacies and Pharmaceuticals conferences. Robert Wages, president of OCAW from 1991 to 1999, is currently retired. Kip Phillips a former Vice President is now a Vice President at large with the USW. Texas Texas ( / ˈ t ɛ k s ə s / TEK -səss , locally also / ˈ t ɛ k s ɪ z / TEK -siz ; Spanish : Texas or Tejas , pronounced [ˈtexas] )
7930-411: The Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. Historically, five major industries shaped the Texas economy prior to World War II : cattle, bison, cotton, timber, and oil. Before and after the Civil War, the cattle industry—which Texas came to dominate—was a major economic driver and created the traditional image of
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#17328727689488060-453: The Civil War might grant the federal government authority to intervene in strikes in terms of Free Speech, like strikes in Harlan County, Kentucky . In February 1939, when President Roosevelt made Murphy United States Attorney General , Murphy created a Civil Liberties Unit within the criminal division of the United States Department of Justice . In June 1938, Pressman moved back to Washington, D.C., to become full-time general counsel for
8190-471: The Confederacy, Houston was deposed. While far from the major battlefields of the American Civil War , Texas contributed large numbers of soldiers and equipment. Union troops briefly occupied the state's primary port, Galveston. Texas's border with Mexico was known as the "backdoor of the Confederacy" because trade occurred at the border, bypassing the Union blockade. The Confederacy repulsed all Union attempts to shut down this route, but Texas's role as
8320-429: The Convention disbanded. The new government joined the other settlers in Texas in the Runaway Scrape , fleeing from the approaching Mexican army. After several weeks of retreat, the Texian Army commanded by Sam Houston attacked and defeated López de Santa Anna's forces at the Battle of San Jacinto . López de Santa Anna was captured and forced to sign the Treaties of Velasco , ending the war. The Constitution of
8450-515: The Hatch Act made it illegal for the federal government to employ anyone who advocated the overthrow of the federal government. The left-leaning United Public Workers of America (UFWA) immediately hired Pressman to challenge the constitutionality of the Hatch Act. In October 1939, during a closed-door session during a CIO convention, president John L. Lewis declared his intent to rid the CIO of "Communist influence." This decision came in response particularly from Philip Murray and Sidney Hillman ,
8580-404: The Mexican Territory of Santa Fe de Nuevo México . Hoping more settlers would reduce the near-constant Comanche raids, Mexican Texas liberalized its immigration policies to permit immigrants from outside Mexico and Spain. Large swathes of land were allotted to empresarios , who recruited settlers from the United States, Europe, and the Mexican interior, primarily the U.S. Austin's settlers,
8710-426: The Mexican states of Chihuahua , Coahuila , Nuevo León , and Tamaulipas to the south. The Red River forms a natural border with Oklahoma and Arkansas to the north. The Sabine River forms a natural border with Louisiana to the east. The Texas Panhandle has an eastern border with Oklahoma at 100° W , a northern border with Oklahoma at 36°30' N and a western border with New Mexico at 103° W . El Paso lies on
8840-543: The New York City law firm of " Hays , St. John, Abramson, and Schulman" and "Is this Lee Pressman's firm?"; Koch confirmed "yes." ( Osmond K. Fraenkel , a fellow member of the National Lawyers Guild, was also a member of Hays, St. John, Abramson, and Schulman. ) In his role as the CIO's general counsel, Pressman was influential in helping to stop the attempt to deport Communist Longshoreman's Union official Harry Bridges . He continued to interact with Bridges well into June 1948, as longshoremen continued to threaten strikes on
8970-411: The Northern United States or California and to escape segregation. In 1940, Texas was 74% White , 14.4% Black, and 11.5% Hispanic. World War II had a dramatic impact on Texas, as federal money poured in to build military bases, munitions factories, detention camps and Army hospitals; 750,000 Texans left for service; the cities exploded with new industry; and hundreds of thousands of poor farmers left
9100-415: The OWIU, the UGCCWA began as the United Mine Workers of America . The main purpose of the UMA was to unite workers in industries related to coke and artificial gas production, which used coke as a fuel. Due to being unhappy with the service AFL was providing them, UMW eventually broke away from the AFL and they decided to create its own union separate from that of AFL called “District 50”. District 50 became
9230-446: The Philippines'), or as provincia de los Tejas ('province of the Tejas '), later also provincia de Texas (or de Tejas ), ('province of Texas'). It was incorporated as provincia de Texas into the Mexican Empire in 1821, and declared a republic in 1836. The Royal Spanish Academy recognizes both spellings, Tejas and Texas , as Spanish-language forms of the name. The English pronunciation with /ks/
9360-514: The Republic of Texas prohibited the government from restricting slavery or freeing slaves, and required free people of African descent to leave the country. Political battles raged between two factions of the new Republic. The nationalist faction, led by Mirabeau B. Lamar , advocated the continued independence of Texas, the expulsion of the Native Americans , and the expansion of the Republic to
9490-719: The Rio Grande in the western portion of the state and the Athabaskan-speaking Apache tribes lived throughout the interior. The agricultural, mound-building Caddo controlled much of the northeastern part of the state, along the Red , Sabine , and Neches River basins. Atakapan peoples such as the Akokisa and Bidai lived along the northeastern Gulf Coast; the Karankawa lived along the central coast. At least one tribe of Coahuiltecans ,
9620-620: The Rio Grande on January 13, 1846. A few months later Mexican troops routed an American cavalry patrol in the disputed area in the Thornton Affair starting the Mexican–American War . The first battles of the war were fought in Texas: the Siege of Fort Texas , Battle of Palo Alto and Battle of Resaca de la Palma . After these decisive victories, the United States invaded Mexican territory, ending
9750-683: The TWU first left the AFL for the CIO. In July 1942, the National War Labor Board sought advice on FDR's wage stabilization policy by increasing wages in the four " Little Steel " companies with a combined 157,000 employees by one dollar. CIO president Philip Murray and Pressman both supported the increase. In July 1943, the CIO formed a political action committee , the " CIO-PAC ," chaired by Sidney Hillman, and supported by Pressman and John Abt as co-counsels. In his 1999 memoir, Abt, general counsel for
9880-399: The Texas cowboy. In the later 19th century, cotton and lumber grew to be major industries as the cattle industry became less lucrative. Ultimately, the discovery of major petroleum deposits ( Spindletop in particular) initiated an economic boom that became the driving force behind the economy for much of the 20th century. Texas developed a diversified economy and high tech industry during
10010-639: The Texian resistance along the coast culminating in the Goliad massacre . López de Santa Anna's forces, after a thirteen-day siege , overwhelmed Texian defenders at the Battle of the Alamo . News of the defeats sparked panic among Texas settlers. The newly elected Texian delegates to the Convention of 1836 quickly signed a declaration of independence on March 2, forming the Republic of Texas . After electing interim officers,
10140-597: The U.S. After Texas's annexation, Mexico broke diplomatic relations with the United States. While the United States claimed Texas's border stretched to the Rio Grande, Mexico claimed it was the Nueces River leaving the Rio Grande Valley under contested Texan sovereignty. While the former Republic of Texas could not enforce its border claims, the United States had the military strength and the political will to do so. President Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor south to
10270-592: The US Labor Department, and Paul Herzog , chairman of the National Labor Relations Board – and their "analyses" of the bill bore striking resemblance to Pressman's analysis." Later on June 24, 1947, Pressman appeared again on CBS Radio with Raymond Smethurst, general counsel of NAM to discuss the effect of the new labor law. In August 1947, he gave a strong speech to the International Union of Mine, Mill and Smelter Workers (IUMMSW) against
10400-611: The US. OCAW sought a merger with larger unions in an attempt to survive. A planned merger with the United Mine Workers of America was rejected on February 24, 1988, just two hours before the unions planned to announce the merger agreement. OCAW finally merged with the 250,000-member United Paperworkers International Union on January 4, 1999, to form the Paper, Allied-Industrial, Chemical and Energy Workers International Union (PACE). OCAW gained
10530-519: The United Mine Workers of America in September 1942, and won a charter from the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). At the time they were finally granted charter, their union officially changed their name to United Gas Coke and Chemical Workers of America. The international under the CIO got off to a slow beginning and the first meeting only represented around 5,000 workers. However, in just
10660-519: The United States of America as the 28th state. The state's annexation set off a chain of events that led to the Mexican–American War in 1846. Following victory by the United States, Texas remained a slave state until the American Civil War , when it declared its secession from the Union in early 1861 before officially joining the Confederate States of America on March 2. After
10790-493: The United States. However, illegal immigration from the United States into Mexico continued to increase the population of Texas. New laws also called for the enforcement of customs duties angering native Mexican citizens ( Tejanos ) and recent immigrants alike. The Anahuac Disturbances in 1832 were the first open revolt against Mexican rule, coinciding with a revolt in Mexico against the nation's president. Texians sided with
10920-561: The WFTU and in working with pro-Soviet American unions, "the active role played by" Pressman "in writing and rewriting convention resolutions helped to smooth possible conflicts." In April 1945, Pressman represented Harry Bridges before the U.S. Supreme Court in Bridges v. Wixon with the help of Carol Weiss King and her recruit, Nathan Greene who penned the brief. Later that month, Pressman joined Murray, Abt, and other CIO officials in Paris for
11050-514: The agreement. Several filibusters raised armies to invade the area west of the Sabine River. Marked by the War of 1812 , some men who had escaped from the Spanish, held (Old) Philippines had immigrated to and also passed through Texas (New Philippines) and reached Louisiana where Philippine exiles aided the United States in the defense of New Orleans against a British invasion, with Filipinos in
11180-720: The amendments on CBS Radio , the CIO's response, penned by Pressman, accused Green of colluding with the National Association of Manufacturers against not just the CIO but also the AFL, i.e., workers. In August 1939, Pressman appeared before the Senate Labor Committee to state that Green's support did not represent AFL rank and file . Also in August 1939, Congress passed the Hatch Act of 1939 , which restricted political campaign activities by federal employees. A provision of
11310-561: The area. It was one of New Spain's least populated provinces. In 1749, the Spanish peace treaty with the Lipan Apache angered many tribes, including the Comanche, Tonkawa, and Hasinai. The Comanche signed a treaty with Spain in 1785 and later helped to defeat the Lipan Apache and Karankawa tribes. With numerous missions being established, priests led a peaceful conversion of most tribes. By
11440-498: The attitude, "There were too many Ivy League men, too many intellectuals, too many radicals, too many Jews." By December 1933, Frank had hired John Abt and Arthur (or Howard) Bachrach (brother of Abt's sister Marion Abt Bachrach ) to develop litigation strategies for agricultural reform policies. In February 1935, Chester Davis fired many of Frank's cadre, including Pressman, Frank, Gardner Jackson, and two others. By April 1935, Pressman had been appointed general counsel in
11570-618: The barrier to unchecked monopoly profits"; and "complete control of the national economy and the government by big business." Pressman continued to give as good as he got. In February 1940, he held a "heated exchange" with US Representative Clare Hatch during a hearing of the US House Labor Committee, again on the issue of amendments to the NRLA (Wagner Act): Pressman: I'll answer the question all right, Mr. Hoffman. Representative Thomas can take care of himself. Hoffman: This boy
11700-597: The budget request that would transform FERA into the WPA." By mid-summer 1935, Rexford G. Tugwell appointed him general counsel of the Resettlement Administration . Pressman split his time between the two agencies. However, by year's end (he recollected in a letter to Tugwell in 1937), he came to believe that New Deals changes occurred only when "major controlling financial interests" concurred or when "financial interests had been able to seize effective control of
11830-668: The code and manipulate it to enhance their power." Pressman left government service in the winter of 1935-36 and went into private law practice in New York City with David Scribner as Pressman & Scribner. Clients included the Marine Engineers Beneficial Association (MEBA), the United Public Workers CIO , and other unions. In 1943, during hearings by a Dies Committee "Special Committee on Un-American Activities," director of research J.B. Matthews asked whether witness Lucien Koch had retained
11960-556: The colony of Fort Saint Louis at Matagorda Bay rather than along the Mississippi River . The colony lasted only four years before succumbing to harsh conditions and hostile natives. A small band of survivors traveled eastward into the lands of the Caddo, but La Salle was killed by disgruntled expedition members. In 1690 Spanish authorities, concerned that France posed a competitive threat, constructed several missions in East Texas among
12090-409: The commission's results, saying, "Judging from the bills now before Congress, their purpose is merely to penalize labor organizations." Senator Hatch agreed with him that severe wage cuts in terms of real wages and increased cost of living would not find resolutions in terms of legislation that addresses only jurisdictional disputes or secondary boycotts. "We need additional and new laws on all phases of
12220-600: The desert and mountains of the Big Bend . The name Texas , based on the Caddo word táy:shaʼ ( /tə́jːʃaʔ/ ) 'friend', was applied, in the spelling Tejas or Texas , by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, specifically the Hasinai Confederacy. During Spanish colonial rule , in the 18th century, the area was known as Nuevas Filipinas (' New Philippines ') and Nuevo Reino de Filipinas ('New Kingdom of
12350-529: The early months of Reconstruction . Juneteenth commemorates the announcement of the Emancipation Proclamation in Galveston by General Gordon Granger, almost two and a half years after the original announcement. President Johnson, in 1866, declared the civilian government restored in Texas. Despite not meeting Reconstruction requirements, Congress resumed allowing elected Texas representatives into
12480-583: The east, seeking a route to Mexico. They passed through the Caddo lands but turned back after reaching the River of Daycao (possibly the Brazos or Colorado), beyond which point the Native peoples were nomadic and did not have the agricultural stores to feed the expedition. European powers ignored the area until accidentally settling there in 1685. Miscalculations by René-Robert Cavelier de La Salle resulted in his establishing
12610-474: The economy. Amid a rise in COVID-19 cases in autumn 2020, Abbott refused to enact further lockdowns. In November 2020, Texas was selected as one of four states to test Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine distribution. As of February 2, 2021, there had been over 2.4 million confirmed cases in Texas, with at least 37,417 deaths. During February 13–17, 2021, the state faced a major weather emergency as Winter Storm Uri hit
12740-470: The end of the 18th century only a few nomadic tribes had not converted. When the United States purchased Louisiana from France in 1803, American authorities insisted the agreement also included Texas. The boundary between New Spain and the United States was finally set in 1819 at the Sabine River , the modern border between Texas and Louisiana. Eager for new land, many U.S. settlers refused to recognize
12870-612: The federal government for their opposition to U.S. involvement in World War I . The Great Depression and the Dust Bowl dealt a double blow to the state's economy, which had significantly improved since the Civil War. Migrants abandoned the worst-hit sections of Texas during the Dust Bowl years. Especially from this period on, Black people left Texas in the Great Migration to get work in
13000-498: The federal government in 1870. Social volatility continued as the state struggled with agricultural depression and labor issues. Like most of the South, the Texas economy was devastated by the War. However, since the state had not been as dependent on slaves as other parts of the South, it was able to recover more quickly. The culture in Texas during the later 19th century exhibited many facets of
13130-406: The fields for much better-paying war jobs, never to return to agriculture. Texas manufactured 3.1 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking eleventh among the 48 states. Texas modernized and expanded its system of higher education through the 1960s. The state created a comprehensive plan for higher education, funded in large part by oil revenues, and
13260-589: The fighting in Texas. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the two-year war. In return for US$ 18,250,000, Mexico gave the U.S. undisputed control of Texas, ceded the Mexican Cession in 1848, most of which today is called the American Southwest, and Texas's borders were established at the Rio Grande. The Compromise of 1850 set Texas's boundaries at their present position: Texas ceded its claims to land which later became half of present-day New Mexico ,
13390-493: The first Europeans in what is now Texas. Cabeza de Vaca reported that in 1528, when the Spanish landed in the area, "half the natives died from a disease of the bowels and blamed us." Cabeza de Vaca also made observations about the way of life of the Ignaces Natives of Texas. Francisco Vázquez de Coronado described another encounter with native people in 1541. The expedition of Hernando de Soto entered into Texas from
13520-466: The first that affiliated with the Committee for Industrial Organization in early 1938, and AFL President William Green revoked the union's AFL charter. CIO helped the union grow significantly between the years of 1940–1946. Memberships grew due to large strategic groups that were brought into the union, but soon after growth began to slowly decrease after 1946. Due to the expanding in memberships and in
13650-569: The formal political process. The number of voters dropped dramatically, and the Democrats crushed competition from the Republican and Populist parties. The Socialist Party became the second-largest party in Texas after 1912, coinciding with a large socialist upsurge in the United States during fierce battles in the labor movement and the popularity of national heroes like Eugene V. Debs . The socialists' popularity soon waned after their vilification by
13780-564: The gas, coke, and chemical industry. Oil Workers International Union (OWIU) and the United Gas, Coke, and Chemical Workers of America (UGCCWA) merged on March 4, 1955, to form the Oil, Chemical, and Atomic Workers Union (OCAW). When the AFL and CIO merged in 1955, so did the two oil workers' unions. In 1956, after only one year of the merge, OCAW represented approximately 210,000 workers. During this time, it represented more workers than any other union in
13910-539: The general problem of labor-management," Hatch said. Again in January 1947, on the topic of the related Portal to Portal Act of 1947 , publicly before the US Senate Judiciary Committee , he urged Congress to make that act a simple authorization to employers and unions to settle portal claims through collective bargaining, while prohibiting management from attempting such settlements with individual workers at
14040-536: The government, Philip Murry of the CIO with Pressman as counsel for unions, John Stevens with Chester McLain of U.S. Steel for industry. During 1945–1947, Pressman worked with John Abt for the CIO to help create the World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU) as successor to the International Federation of Trade Unions , itself seen as dominated by communist and socialist parties. During formation of
14170-401: The international union for oil workers in 1918. Beginning with only 25 members, the newly established union underwent much success in the first few years of establishment. In just a few years they were already organizing and negotiating well thought out contacts that would affect thousands of oil workers in only three states California , Texas , and Oklahoma . Its membership grew to 30,000 as
14300-616: The law firm of Chadbourne, Stanchfield & Levy (currently Chadbourne & Parke ) in New York City. (During the Great Depression , founder Thomas Chadbourne asserted that the capitalist system itself was "on trial" and became an early champion of both collective bargaining rights and profit sharing for workers. ) There, he worked for Jerome Frank (future chair of the SEC ). When Jerome left in 1933 to work in FDR 's New Deal , Pressman joined
14430-500: The mid-20th century. As of 2022 , it has the most Fortune 500 company headquarters (53) in the United States. With a growing base of industry, the state leads in many industries, including tourism , agriculture , petrochemicals , energy , computers and electronics , aerospace , and biomedical sciences . Texas has led the U.S. in state export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product . The Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex and Greater Houston areas are
14560-683: The movement of most Native populations north into what would become Indian Territory (modern Oklahoma). Only the Alabama-Coushatta would remain in the parts of Texas subject to white settlement, though the Comanche would continue to control most of the western half of the state until their defeat in the 1870s and 1880s. The first historical document related to Texas was a map of the Gulf Coast , created in 1519 by Spanish explorer Alonso Álvarez de Pineda . Nine years later, shipwrecked Spanish explorer Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and his cohort became
14690-558: The nation's fourth and fifth-most populous urban regions respectively. Its capital city is Austin . Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault , Texas contains diverse landscapes common to both the U.S. Southern and the Southwestern regions . Most population centers are in areas of former prairies , grasslands , forests, and the coastline . Traveling from east to west, terrain ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods , to rolling plains and rugged hills, to
14820-601: The new labor federation. According to scholars, "One of Pressman's unofficial roles in the CIO was liaison between the CIO's Communist faction and its predominantly non-Communist leadership." In 1936-1937, he supported the Great Flint Sit-Down Strike . In 1937, Michigan Governor William Francis Murphy supported workers rights and the nascent United Auto Workers in a sit-down strike at General Motors plants. He listened to advice Pressman that civil rights statues passed to protect African-American voters during
14950-537: The newly created Confederate States of America on March 4, 1861, ratifying the permanent C.S. Constitution on March 23. Not all Texans favored secession initially, although many of the same would later support the Southern cause. Texas's most notable Unionist was the state governor, Sam Houston . Not wanting to aggravate the situation, Houston refused two offers from President Lincoln for Union troops to keep him in office. After refusing to swear an oath of allegiance to
15080-562: The north or east during the colonial period, such as the Choctaw , Alabama-Coushatta, and Delaware . The region was primarily controlled by the Spanish until the Texas Revolution . They were most interested in relationships with the Caddo, who were—like the Spanish—a settled, agricultural people. Several Spanish missions were opened in Caddo territory, but a lack of interest in Christianity among
15210-424: The oil and chemical field. The OCAW had one important objective and main focus of their union, the improvement of living conditions of those who work in oil, chemical and related industries. OCAW went about achieving this by collective bargaining and participating in community activities, political action, and educational work. Collective bargaining was focused on seeking better wages and better working conditions for
15340-472: The oil industry grew rapidly in the United States in 1921, which was considered their first high peak but the Great Depression reduced its ranks to just 350 in the beginning of 1933. With the several local unions that had been established, only one local – LB local 128 – managed to not miss a single meeting. The union began to increase in size and activity again once the NRA was passed in 1933. The NRA, under
15470-485: The port at Galveston as commerce expanded. The lumber industry quickly expanded and was Texas' largest industry prior to the 20th century. In 1900, Texas suffered the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history during the Galveston hurricane . On January 10, 1901, the first major oil well in Texas, Spindletop , was found south of Beaumont . Other fields were later discovered nearby in East Texas , West Texas , and under
15600-517: The proposal with great enthusiasm. Thus, in 1943, as American spy Elizabeth Bentley resurrected the Ware Group (of which Abt had been a member), could not risk involvement with her or the group. Instead, the group reformed under Victor Perlo as the Perlo Group . In September 1943 at a conference of the National Lawyers Guild, Pressman praised labor for reducing strikes and promoting
15730-666: The service of the human being is a commodity is a negation of the Constitution, of the 1918 Clayton Act and the [1932] Norris-La Guardia Act ... The employer's right of free speech is fully protected ... The act has not created inequality between employers and employees for collective bargaining. The fairness of the Labor Board has been established by decisions of the Supreme Court ... [A compulsory] "cooling-off period" [would] actually discourage collective bargaining ... There
15860-488: The settlers. Prior treaties with the Spanish forbade either side from militarizing its native population in any potential conflict between the two nations. Several outbreaks of violence between Native Americans and Texans started to spread in the prelude to the Texas Revolution. Texans accused tribes of stealing livestock. While no proof was found, those in charge of Texas at the time attempted to publicly blame and punish
15990-403: The state's western tip at 32° N and the Rio Grande. Lee Pressman Lee Pressman (July 1, 1906 – November 20, 1969) was a labor attorney and earlier a US government functionary, publicly alleged in 1948 to have been a spy for Soviet intelligence during the mid-1930s (as a member of the Ware Group ), following his recent departure from Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) as
16120-568: The state, as well as most of the Southeastern and Midwestern United States. Historically high power usage across the state caused the state's power grid to become overworked and ERCOT (the main operator of the Texas Interconnection grid) declared an emergency and began to implement rolling blackouts across Texas, causing a power crisis . Over 3 million Texans were without power and over 4 million were under boil-water notices. Texas
16250-566: The union itself, the OWIU extended its membership into Canada in 1948. They expanded into Canada so that they could improve wages and working conditions. After 1948, due to wages and working conditions being outrageous, Canadian workers reaped the benefits of these changes from the union and soon after started to receive wages close behind those in the US. The impressive movement even far surpassed wages of other industries in Canada as well. Similar to that of
16380-423: The wage earned. The union, in a specific rule followed way, bargained with employers on how to improve these conditions. Also, by participating in community activities, political action, and educational work, the union intended on gaining experience first hand and developing ways to better government, schools, housing, recreational facilities, amongst other things that will help improve the community in entirety. In
16510-465: The war effort. He praised the National War Labor Board's policy for recognizing labor unions as institutions within the basic framework of our democratic society. He criticized "selfish blocs" in Congress that had opposed FDR's program. In 1944, Pressman participated in resolution of a labor dispute of a national case in basic steel, involving some six hundreds unions on strike. The six-person board consisted of David L. Cole and Nathan P. Feisinger for
16640-408: Was captured twice and Texans were defeated in battle in the Dawson massacre . Despite these successes, Mexico did not keep an occupying force in Texas, and the republic survived. The cotton price crash of the 1840s depressed the country's economy. Texas was finally annexed when the expansionist James K. Polk won the election of 1844 . On December 29, 1845, the U.S. Congress admitted Texas to
16770-464: Was general counsel. The New Dealers saw the AAA as complementing the National Recovery Act (NRA – where fellow Ware Group member and lifelong Hiss friend Henry Collins worked). As they arrived at AAA, two camps quickly arose: previously existing officials who favored agribusiness interests and New Deal appointees who sought to protect small farmers (and farm laborers) and consumers as much as agribusiness. Or, as Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. summarized
16900-410: Was initially rebuffed. This status, and Mexican diplomacy in support of its claims to the territory, also complicated Texas's ability to form foreign alliances and trade relationships. The Comanche Indians furnished the main Native American opposition to the Texas Republic, manifested in multiple raids on settlements . Mexico launched two small expeditions into Texas in 1842. The town of San Antonio
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