136-588: Nyoma is a principal village of southern Ladakh in India, the headquarters of an eponymous subdivision , tehsil , community development block and Indian Air Force Base in the Leh district . It is located on the bank of the Indus river after its 90-degree bend near Dungti east of Nyoma and before the valley narrows to a gorge near Mahe northwest of Nyoma. The Nyoma tehsil and subdivision cover all of southern Ladakh, including
272-570: A Peace Pagoda was erected in Leh by Nipponzan Myohoji . There was a heavy presence of Indian Army and Indo-Tibetan Border Police forces in Ladakh. These forces and People's Liberation Army forces from China have, since the 1962 Sino-Indian War, had frequent stand-offs along the Ladakh portion of the Line of Actual Control . Out of the 857-kilometre-long (533 mi) border in Ladakh, only 368 km (229 mi)
408-516: A referendum , in which the Sikkemese voted overwhelmingly in favour of joining India. At the time China protested and rejected it as illegal. The Sino-Indian Memorandum of 2003 was hailed as a de facto Chinese acceptance of the annexation. China published a map showing Sikkim as a part of India and the Foreign Ministry deleted it from the list of China's "border countries and regions". However,
544-548: A reorganisation act was passed by the Parliament of India which contained provisions to reconstitute Ladakh as a union territory, separate from the rest of Jammu and Kashmir on 31 October 2019. Under the terms of the act, the union territory is administered by a Lieutenant Governor acting on behalf of the Central Government of India and does not have an elected legislative assembly or chief minister. Each district within
680-549: A 6.5 km (4.0 mi) tunnel across Zoji La pass is under consideration to make the route functional throughout the year. The Kargil War of 1999, codenamed "Operation Vijay" by the Indian Army , saw infiltration by Pakistani troops into parts of Western Ladakh, namely Kargil, Dras, Mushkoh , Batalik and Chorbatla, overlooking key locations on the Srinagar-Leh highway . Extensive operations were launched in high altitudes by
816-559: A Tibetan Communist leader. At the time of the partition of India in 1947, the Dogra ruler Maharaja Hari Singh chose to remain independent of India or Pakistan. Pakistani soldiers from Gilgit invaded in October and had reached Ladakh. To get defence assistance from India, Singh was told by Nehru to sign the Instrument of Accession to India, and military operations were initiated to counter
952-595: A boundary line along the crest of the Kun Lun Mountains north of the Yarkand River . At the time Britain was concerned at the danger of Russian expansion as China weakened, and Ardagh argued that his line was more defensible. The Ardagh line was effectively a modification of the Johnson line, and became known as the "Johnson-Ardagh Line". In 1893, Hung Ta-chen, a senior Chinese official at St. Petersburg , gave maps of
1088-472: A conference in Simla , India and drew up an agreement concerning Tibet's status and borders. The McMahon Line, a proposed boundary between Tibet and India for the eastern sector, was drawn by British negotiator Henry McMahon on a map attached to the agreement. All three representatives initialled the agreement, but Beijing soon objected to the proposed Sino-Tibet boundary and repudiated the agreement, refusing to sign
1224-414: A fort at Shahidulla (modern-day Xaidulla ), and had troops stationed there for some years to protect caravans. Eventually, most sources placed Shahidulla and the upper Karakash River firmly within the territory of Xinjiang (see accompanying map). According to Francis Younghusband , who explored the region in the late 1880s, there was only an abandoned fort and not one inhabited house at Shahidulla when he
1360-528: A further three sessions of talks, the "Official's" talks, between— 15 June-6 July 1960; 15 August-24 September 1960; and 7 November-12 December 1960. These discussions produced the ' Report of the Officials on the boundary question '. Boundary discussions have covered micro and macro issues of the dispute. At a local level, localised disputes and related events such as de-engagement and de-escalation are tackled. Wider overarching issues include discussion related to
1496-734: A great trough, enclosed by the Himalayas and the Zanskar Range . Rangdum is the highest inhabited region in the Suru valley, after which the valley rises to 4,400 m (14,400 ft) at Pensi-la , the gateway to Zanskar. Kargil , the only town in the Suru Valley, is the second-most important town in Ladakh. It was an important staging post on the routes of trade caravans prior to 1947, being more-or-less equidistant (at about 230 kilometres) from Srinagar , Leh, Skardu and Padum . The Zanskar Valley lies in
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#17328836373231632-483: A kilometre at the northern tip of Sikkim . In 2009, India announced it would deploy additional military forces along the border. In 2014, India proposed China should acknowledge a "One India" policy to resolve the border dispute. The reactions of Indian officials to these successive incursions have also been to a pattern: Who is misled when information is suppressed? […] Not the Chinese— […] Not other countries, be they
1768-521: A major trade route was established between Leh and Yarkand . Ladakh is a high-altitude desert; the Himalayas create a rain shadow which generally denies passage of any monsoon clouds. The main source of water is the winter snowfall on the mountains. Recent flooding in the region (e.g., the 2010 floods ) has been attributed to abnormal rain patterns and retreating glaciers, both of which have been found to be linked to global climate change. The Leh Nutrition Project, headed by Chewang Norphel —also known as
1904-560: A military standoff occurred between India and China in the disputed territory of Doklam , near the Doka La pass. On 16 June 2017, the Chinese brought heavy road building equipment to the Doklam region and began constructing a road in the disputed area. Previously, China had built a dirt road terminating at Doka La where Indian troops were stationed. They would conduct foot patrol from this point up till
2040-560: A natural fibre of some of the finest quality. The wool of the Tibetan antelope is prized for its lightweight feel and as a status symbol . The wool must be pulled out by hand, a process done after the animal is killed. The fibre is smuggled into Kashmir and woven into exquisite shawls by Kashmiri workers. Ladakh is also home to the Tibetan gazelle , which inhabits the vast rangelands in eastern Ladakh bordering Tibet. The kiang , or Tibetan wild ass,
2176-429: A new West Tibetan kingdom at the heart of the old Zhangzhung , now called Ngari in the Tibetan language. Nyimagon's eldest son, Lhachen Palgyigon , is believed to have conquered the regions to the north, including Ladakh and Rutog . After the death of Nyimagon, his kingdom was divided among his three sons, Palgyigon receiving Ladakh, Rutog, Thok Jalung and an area referred to as Demchok Karpo (a holy mountain near
2312-537: A package settlement versus sector-wise, clarification of the LAC and border and accordingly the exchange of maps, and delinking or linking the boundary dispute to other bilateral ties. China made the so-called "package" offer in 1960, which again came to the table in 1980–85. As explained by former foreign secretary Shyam Saran , China "would be prepared to accept an alignment in the Eastern Sector, in general conforming to
2448-502: A separate territory since 1930s, because of perceived unfair treatment by Kashmir and Ladakh's cultural differences with predominantly Muslim Kashmir valley , while some people in Kargil opposed union territory status for Ladakh. The first organised agitation was launched against Kashmir's "dominance" in the year 1964. In late 1980s, a much larger mass agitation was launched to press their demand for union territory status. In August 2019,
2584-559: A series of military clashes in 1967, between India and China alongside the border of the Himalayan Kingdom of Sikkim, then an Indian protectorate. The Nathu La clashes started on 11 September 1967, when the People's Liberation Army (PLA) launched an attack on Indian posts at Nathu La, and lasted till 15 September 1967. In October 1967, another military duel took place at Cho La and ended on the same day. According to independent sources ,
2720-547: A total home range of 2.5 million km (0.97 million sq mi); however, there is only a small population, of about 400 animals, in Ladakh. Unlike other mountain sheep and goat species, the argali prefers open, grassy fields and rolling hills as it prefers to run, rather than climb into steep terrain, to flee from danger. The endangered Tibetan antelope , or chiru in Indian English (or Ladakhi tsos ), has traditionally been hunted for its wool ( shahtoosh ),
2856-566: A traditional border was recognised and defined by natural elements, and the border was not demarcated. The boundaries at the two extremities, Pangong Lake and Karakoram Pass , were reasonably well-defined, but the Aksai Chin area in between lay largely undefined. W. H. Johnson , a civil servant with the Survey of India proposed the "Johnson Line" in 1865, which put Aksai Chin in Jammu and Kashmir. This
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#17328836373232992-695: A treaty with Ladakh then they retreated back to Lhasa in December 1684. The Treaty of Tingmosgang in 1684 settled the dispute between Tibet and Ladakh but severely restricted Ladakh's independence. In 1834, the Sikh Zorawar Singh , a general of Raja Gulab Singh of Jammu , invaded and annexed Ladakh to Jammu under the suzerainty of the Sikh Empire . After the defeat of the Sikhs in the First Anglo-Sikh War ,
3128-476: Is an ongoing territorial dispute over the sovereignty of two relatively large, and several smaller, separated pieces of territory between China and India . The territorial disputes between the two countries result from the historical consequences of colonialism in Asia and the lack of clear historical boundary demarcations. The first of the territories, Aksai Chin , is administered by China and claimed by India; it
3264-501: Is another rare cat that preys on smaller herbivores in Ladakh. It is mostly found in Nubra, Changthang and Zangskar. The Pallas's cat , which looks somewhat like a house cat, is very rare in Ladakh and not much is known about the species. The Tibetan wolf , which sometimes preys on the livestock of the Ladakhis, is the most persecuted amongst the predators. There are also a few brown bears in
3400-478: Is another unique mountain sheep that inhabits the mountains of Ladakh. The population is declining, however, and there are not more than 3,000 individuals left in Ladakh. The urial is endemic to Ladakh, where it is distributed only along two major river valleys, namely the Indus and Shayok. The animal is often persecuted by farmers, whose crops are allegedly damaged by flocks of urial. Its population declined dramatically in
3536-493: Is common in the grasslands of Changthang, numbering about 2,500 individuals. These animals are in conflict with the nomadic people of Changthang who hold the Kiang responsible for pasture degradation. There are about 200 snow leopards in Ladakh of an estimated 7,000 worldwide. The Hemis High Altitude National Park in central Ladakh is an especially good habitat for this predator as it has abundant prey populations. The Eurasian lynx ,
3672-660: Is dry and pleasant. Peak temperatures range from 3 to 35 °C (37 to 95 °F) in the summer and minimums range from −20 to −35 °C (−4 to −31 °F) in winter. The Zanskar (along with its tributaries) is the primary waterway of the region. The Zanskar freezes solid during the winter, and the famous Chadar trek takes place on the magnificent frozen river. Vegetation is extremely sparse in Ladakh except along streambeds and wetlands, on high slopes, and irrigated places. About 1250 plant species, including crops, were reported from Ladakh. The plant Ladakiella klimesii , growing up to 6,150 metres (20,180 ft) above sea level,
3808-579: Is mostly uninhabited high-altitude wasteland but with some significant pasture lands at the margins. It lies at the intersection of Kashmir , Tibet and Xinjiang , and is crossed by China's Xinjiang-Tibet Highway ; the other disputed territory is south of the McMahon Line , in the area formerly known as the North-East Frontier Agency and now a state called Arunachal Pradesh . It is administered by India and claimed by China. The McMahon Line
3944-552: Is one of the most sparsely populated regions in India. Its culture and history are closely related to those of Tibet . Ladakh was established as a union territory of India on 31 October 2019, following the passage of the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act . Prior to that, it was part of the Jammu and Kashmir state. Ladakh is both the largest and the second least populous union territory of India. The classical name in Tibetan : ལ་དྭགས , Wylie : La dwags , THL : la dak means
4080-678: Is sometimes called the "Third Pole." The glacier lies between the Saltoro Ridge immediately to the west and the main Karakoram Range to the east. At 76 km (47 mi) long, it is the longest glacier in the Karakoram and second-longest in the world's non-polar areas. It falls from an altitude of 5,753 m (18,875 ft) above sea level at its source at Indira Col on the China border down to 3,620 m (11,880 ft) at its snout. Saser Kangri
4216-602: Is the International Border, and the remaining 489 km (304 mi) is the Line of Actual Control. The stand-off involving the most troops was in September 2014 in the disputed Chumar region when 800 to 1,000 Indian troops and 1,500 Chinese troops came into close proximity to each other. On 8 February 2019, Ladakh became a separate Revenue and Administrative Division within Jammu and Kashmir, having previously been part of
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4352-578: Is the highest peak in the Saser Muztagh, the easternmost subrange of the Karakoram Range in India, Saser Kangri I having an altitude of 7,672 m (25,171 ft). The Ladakh Range has no major peaks; its average height is a little less than 6,000 m (20,000 ft), and few of its passes are less than 5,000 m (16,000 ft). The Pangong range runs parallel to the Ladakh Range for about 100 km (62 mi) northwest from Chushul along
4488-409: The 1913-1914 Simla Convention . The Republic of China rejected the proposed boundary. The unresolved dispute over the boundary became contentious after India gained its independence and the People's Republic of China was established. The disputed borders are complicated by the lack of administrative presence in the disputed areas, which are remote. Disagreements also result from the fact that
4624-436: The 2011 census of India , Nyoma has 202 households. The effective literacy rate (i.e. the literacy rate of population excluding children aged 6 and below) is 49.94%. [REDACTED] Media related to Nyoma at Wikimedia Commons Ladakh Ladakh ( / l ə ˈ d ɑː k / ) is a region administered by India as a union territory and constitutes an eastern portion of the larger Kashmir region that has been
4760-641: The Aksai Chin area. The Indian effort to gain control of Aksai Chin led to the Sino-Indian War of 1962, which India lost. China also built the Karakoram highway jointly with Pakistan. India built the Srinagar-Leh Highway during this period, cutting the journey time between Srinagar and Leh from 16 days to two. The route, however, remains closed during the winter months due to heavy snowfall. Construction of
4896-718: The Balti people rapidly converted to Islam. Noorbakshia Islam is named after him and his followers are only found in Baltistan and Ladakh. During his youth, Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin expelled the mystic Sheikh Zain Shahwalli for showing disrespect to him. The sheikh then went to Ladakh and proselytised many people to Islam. In 1505, Shamsuddin Iraqi, a noted Shia scholar, visited Kashmir and Baltistan. He helped in spreading Shia Islam in Kashmir and converted
5032-447: The Bon religion . Sandwiched between Kashmir and Zhangzhung, Ladakh is believed to have been alternatively under the control of one or other of these powers. Academics find strong influences of Zhangzhung language and culture in "upper Ladakh" (from the middle section of the Indus valley to the southeast). The penultimate king of Zhangzhung is said to have been from Ladakh. From around 660 CE,
5168-574: The Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary and Karakoram Wildlife Sanctuary for the internet and telephony connectivity. Since 2010, foreign tourists with Inner Line Permits are permitted to visit Nyoma and its monastery. The permanent civilian habitations under the administration of the Nyoma community development block ( district subdivision ) include villages like Nyoma, Hanle , Koyul , Demchok , Tsaga, Mudh, Rongo, Nyedar, etc. According to
5304-688: The Himalayan to the Kunlun Ranges and includes the upper Indus River valley. Historically, the region included the Baltistan ( Baltiyul ) valleys (now mostly in Pakistani-administered Kashmir ), the entire upper Indus Valley , the remote Zanskar , Lahaul and Spiti districts to the south, much of Ngari (including the Rudok region and Guge in the east), Aksai Chin in the northeast, and
5440-486: The Indus , Shyok and Nubra river valleys. The Kargil district contains the Suru , Dras and Zanskar river valleys. The main populated regions are the river valleys, but the mountain slopes also support pastoral Changpa nomads. The main religious groups in the region are Muslims (mainly Shia ) (46%), Buddhists (mainly Tibetan Buddhists ) (40%), and Hindus (12%) with the remaining 2% made of other religions. Ladakh
5576-688: The Karakoram Mountains as the Johnson Line. China and India still have disputes on these borders. British India annexed Assam in northeastern India in 1826, by Treaty of Yandabo at the conclusion of the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826). After subsequent Anglo-Burmese Wars , the whole of Burma was annexed giving the British a border with China's Yunnan province. In 1913–14, representatives of Great Britain, China, and Tibet attended
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5712-653: The Karakoram Mountains , was proposed and supported by British officials for a number of reasons. The Karakoram Mountains formed a natural boundary, which would set the British borders up to the Indus River watershed while leaving the Tarim River watershed in Chinese control, and Chinese control of this tract would present a further obstacle to Russian advance in Central Asia . The British presented this line, known as
5848-675: The Kashmir Division . As a division, Ladakh was granted its own Divisional Commissioner and Inspector General of Police . Leh was initially chosen to be the headquarters of the new division however, following protests, it was announced that Leh and Kargil will jointly serve as the divisional headquarters, each hosting an Additional Divisional Commissioner to assist the Divisional Commissioner and Inspector General of Police who will spend half their time in each town. The people of Ladakh had been demanding Ladakh to be constituted as
5984-531: The Namgyal dynasty ( Namgyal means "victorious" in several Tibetan languages). The Namgyals repelled most Central Asian raiders and temporarily extended the kingdom as far as Nepal. During the Balti invasion led by Raja Ali Sher Khan Anchan , many Buddhist temples and artefacts were damaged. Ali Sher Khan took the king and his soldiers as captives. Jamyang Namgyal was later restored to the throne by Ali Sher Khan and given
6120-667: The Nubra Valley to the north, over Khardong La in the Ladakh Range. Contemporary Ladakh borders Tibet to the east, the Lahaul and Spiti regions to the south, the Vale of Kashmir , Jammu and Baltiyul regions to the west, and the southwest corner of Xinjiang , China across the Karakoram Pass in the far north. The historically vague divide between Ladakh and the Tibetan Plateau commences to
6256-607: The Rimo Muztagh (highest point at 7,385 m or 24,229 ft) and the Teram Kangri Group (highest point at 7,464 m or 24,488 ft) together with Mamostong Kangri (7,526 m or 24,692 ft) and Singhi Kangri (7,202 m or 23,629 ft). North of the Karakoram lies the Kunlun. Thus, between Leh and eastern Central Asia there is a triple barrier – the Ladakh Range, Karakoram Range, and Kunlun. Nevertheless,
6392-590: The Rupshu plains south of Nyoma, the Indus valley of Skakjung north of Nyoma, and the Hanle valley. Nyoma gompa , a Buddhist monastery, is located on the hill slope north of the village. The Indus river after its entry into Ladakh flows in a southwesterly direction through a wide valley. Afterwards, it takes a 90-degree bend at Dungti blocked by the higher ground of the Chushul valley. The village of Nyoma lies 33 km west of
6528-837: The Suru Valley and the area around Dras. The Tibetan sand fox has been discovered in this region. Among smaller animals, marmots , hares , and several types of pika and vole are common. Scant precipitation makes Ladakh a high-altitude desert with extremely scarce vegetation over most of its area. Natural vegetation mainly occurs along water courses and on high altitude areas that receive more snow and cooler summer temperatures. Human settlements, however, are richly vegetated due to irrigation. Natural vegetation commonly seen along watercourses includes seabuckthorn ( Hippophae spp.), wild roses of pink or yellow varieties, tamarisk ( Myricaria spp.), caraway , stinging nettles , mint, Physochlaina praealta , and various grasses. Sino-Indian border dispute The Sino–Indian border dispute
6664-433: The Tang dynasty and the Tibetan Empire started contesting the "four garrisons" of the Tarim Basin (present day Xinjiang ), a struggle that lasted three centuries. Zhangzhung fell victim to Tibet's ambitions in c. 634 and disappeared. Karkota Empire and the Umayyad Caliphate too joined the contest for Xinjiang soon afterwards. Baltistan and Ladakh were at the centre of these struggles. Academics infer from
6800-412: The Xinhai Revolution resulted in the collapse of central power in China, and by the end of World War I , the British officially used the Johnson Line. However they took no steps to establish outposts or assert actual control on the ground. In 1927, the line was adjusted again as the government of British India abandoned the Johnson line in favour of a line along the Karakoram range further south. However,
6936-439: The intent of the treaty was to follow the main watershed ridge divide of the Himalayas based on memos from McMahon and the fact that over 90% of the McMahon Line does in fact follow the main watershed ridge divide of the Himalayas. They claimed that territory south of the high ridges here near Bhutan (as elsewhere along most of the McMahon Line) should be Indian territory and north of the high ridges should be Chinese territory. In
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#17328836373237072-454: The "Glacier Man"—creates artificial glaciers as one solution for retreating glaciers. The regions on the north flank of the Himalayas – Dras, the Suru valley and Zangskar – experience heavy snowfall and remain cut-off from the rest of the region for several months during the year, just as the entire region remains isolated by road from the rest of the country. Summers are short, though they are long enough to grow crops; summer weather
7208-527: The "land of high passes". Ladak is its pronunciation in several Tibetan dialects. The English spelling Ladakh is derived from Persian : ladāx . The region was previously known as Maryul (see page for etymology). Medieval Islamic scholars called Ladakh the "Great Tibet" (derived from Turko-Arabic Ti-bat , meaning "highland"); Baltistan and other trans-Himalayan states in Kashmir's vicinity were referred to as "Little Tibets". It has also been called Ma-Lo-Pho (by Hiuen Tsang) or Lal Bhumi. Names in
7344-441: The Aksai Chin for Sheng Shicai , warlord of Xinjiang in 1940–1941, they again advocated the Johnson Line. At this point the British had still made no attempts to establish outposts or control over the Aksai Chin, nor was the issue ever discussed with the governments of China or Tibet, and the boundary remained undemarcated at India's independence. Upon independence in 1947, the government of India fixed its official boundary in
7480-475: The Aksai Chin, to set a boundary at the Kunlun Mountains , and incorporating part of the Karakash River and Yarkand River watersheds. From there, it runs east along the Kunlun Mountains, before turning southwest through the Aksai Chin salt flats, through the Karakoram Mountains, and then to Pangong Lake . On 1 July 1954 Prime Minister Nehru wrote a memo directing that the maps of India be revised to show definite boundaries on all frontiers. Up to this point,
7616-409: The British government "not to annex Tibetan territory." Because of doubts concerning the legal status of the accord, the British did not put the McMahon Line on their maps until 1937, nor did they publish the Simla Convention in the treaty record until 1938. Rejecting Tibet's 1913 declaration of independence, China argued that the Simla Convention and McMahon Line were illegal and that Tibetan government
7752-420: The Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary. Firing range is 40 to 50 km from the disputed India-China Line of Actual Control . This is the one of its type firing range in the entire Indian-held Ladakh region where all types of weapons can be fired. Roads infrastructure this area is being enhanced under the India-China Border Roads projects. Wildlife clearance was granted in 2022 for laying optical fiber cables in
7888-415: The Chinese military had set up a camp 3 km (1.9 mi) inside territory claimed by India. According to scholar Harsh V. Pant, China gains territory with every incursion. In September 2015, Chinese and Indian troops faced off in the Burtse region of northern Ladakh after Indian troops dismantled a disputed watchtower the Chinese were building close to the mutually agreed patrolling line. In June,
8024-421: The Indian Army with considerable artillery and air force support. Pakistani troops were evicted from the Indian side of the Line of Control which the Indian government ordered was to be respected and which was not crossed by Indian troops. The Indian government was criticised by the Indian public because India respected geographical co-ordinates more than India's opponents: Pakistan and China. The Ladakh region
8160-552: The Indian claim, the two armies would be separated from each other by the highest mountains in the world. During and after the 1950s, when India began patrolling this area and mapping in greater detail, they confirmed what the 1914 Simla agreement map depicted: six river crossings that interrupted the main Himalayan watershed ridge. At the westernmost location near Bhutan north of Tawang, they modified their maps to extend their claim line northwards to include features such as Thag La ridge, Longju, and Khinzemane as Indian territory. Thus,
8296-421: The Indian forces achieved "decisive tactical advantage" and defeated the Chinese forces in these clashes. Many PLA fortifications at Nathu La were said to be destroyed, where the Indian troops drove back the attacking Chinese forces. The 1987 Sino-Indian skirmish was the third military conflict between the Chinese People's Liberation Army Ground Force and Indian Army that occurred at the Sumdorong Chu Valley, with
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#17328836373238432-402: The Indian version of the McMahon Line moves the Bhutan-China-India trijunction north to 27°51’30"N from 27°45’40"N. India would claim that the treaty map ran along features such as Thag La ridge, though the actual treaty map itself is topographically vague (as the treaty was not accompanied with demarcation) in places, shows a straight line (not a watershed ridge) near Bhutan and near Thag La, and
8568-438: The Indus river till the village of Dumchele and narrows to the right bank of the Indus river up to Demchok . The road from Leh runs till the village of Koyul , crossing the Indus river at Loma. From Koyul to Demchok, there is only a rough track. An alternative border road runs between the Koyul Lungpa valley and Demchok via the Umling La pass. Nyoma is home to an Advanced Landing Ground (ALG) of Indian Air Force that
8704-463: The Johnson Line through the Aksai Chin region claimed by India. Aksai Chin was easily accessible from China, but for the Indians on the south side of the Karakoram, the mountain range proved to be a complication in their access to Aksai Chin. The Indians did not learn of the existence of the road until 1957, which was confirmed when the road was shown in Chinese maps published in 1958. The Indian position, as argued by prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru ,
8840-457: The LAC. In June 2020, Indian and Chinese troops engaged in a brawl in the Galwan River valley which reportedly led to the deaths of 20 Indian soldiers. International media claimed 40+ Chinese soldiers had been killed, but this number has not been confirmed by Chinese authorities. One of the first set of formal talks between China and India on the border were following Zhou Enlai's visit to India in 19–25 April 1960. Following this there were
8976-479: The Ladakh region, although it is not found in some parts of Zangskar and Sham areas. The bharal is one of the preferred choices of prey of the rare snow leopard . The Asiatic ibex is a mountain goat that is distributed in the western part of Ladakh. It is the second-most abundant mountain ungulate in the region, with a population of about 6,000 individuals. It is adapted to rugged areas where it easily climbs near-vertical rock faces when threatened. The Ladakhi urial
9112-508: The Ladakhi people. Sayyid Ali Hamadani , Sayyid Muhammad Nur Baksh and Mir Shamsuddin Iraqi were three important Sufi missionaries who propagated Islam to the locals. Mir Sayyid Ali was the first one to make Muslim converts in Ladakh and is often described as the founder of Islam in Ladakh. Several mosques were built in Ladakh during this period, including in Mulbhe, Padum and Shey , the capital of Ladakh. His principal disciple, Sayyid Muhammad Nur Baksh also propagated Islam to Ladakhis and
9248-519: The Line of Actual Control (LAC) location, that Chinese troops had established a camp in the Daulat Beg Oldi sector, 10 km (6.2 mi) on their side of the Line of Actual Control. This figure was later revised to a 19 km (12 mi) claim. According to Indian media, the incursion included Chinese military helicopters entering Indian airspace to drop supplies to the troops. However, Chinese officials denied any trespassing having taken place. Soldiers from both countries briefly set up camps on
9384-643: The Line of Actual Control has never been distinctly demarcated, with China and India often disagreeing over its precise location. From the area's lowest point on the Karakash River at about 14,000 feet (4,300 m) to the glaciated peaks up to 22,500 feet (6,900 m) above sea level, Aksai Chin is a desolate, largely uninhabited area. It covers an area of about 37,244 square kilometres (14,380 sq mi). The desolation of this area meant that it had no significant human importance other than ancient trade routes crossing it, providing brief passage during summer for caravans of yaks from Xinjiang and Tibet. One of
9520-418: The Macartney-MacDonald Line, to the Chinese in 1899 in a note by Sir Claude MacDonald . The Qing government did not respond to the note. According to some commentators, China believed that this had been the accepted boundary. Both the Johnson-Ardagh and the Macartney-MacDonald lines were used on British maps of India. Until at least 1908, the British took the Macdonald line to be the boundary, but in 1911,
9656-509: The Macartney-MacDonald Line, which left the Trans Karakoram Tract approximately 5,180 km (2,000 sq mi) to 5,300 km (2,000 sq mi) in China, although the agreement provided for renegotiation in the event of a settlement of the Kashmir conflict. India does not recognise that Pakistan and China have a common border, and claims the tract as part of the domains of the pre-1947 state of Kashmir and Jammu. However, India's claim line in that area does not extend as far north of
9792-789: The McMahon Line (albeit still South of the Line). He then went to Rima, met with Tibetan officials, and saw no Chinese influence in the area. By signing the Simla Convention with Tibet, the British had violated the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 , in which both parties were not to negotiate with Tibet, "except through the intermediary of the Chinese Government", as well as the Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1906 , which bound
9928-531: The Royal Bhutanese Army (RBA) post at Jampheri Ridge. The dispute that ensued post 16 June stemmed from the fact that the Chinese had begun building a road below Doka La, in what India and Bhutan claim to be disputed territory. This resulted in Indian intervention of China's road construction on 18 June, two days after construction began. Bhutan claims that the Chinese have violated the written agreements between
10064-458: The Sikhs signed the Treaty of Chushul in September 1842, which stipulated no transgressions or interference in the other country's frontiers. The British defeat of the Sikhs in 1846 resulted in transfer of sovereignty over Ladakh to the British, and British commissioners attempted to meet with Chinese officials to discuss the border they now shared. However, both sides were sufficiently satisfied that
10200-484: The Sikkim-China border's northernmost point, "The Finger", continues to be the subject of dispute and military activity. Chinese Prime Minister Wen Jiabao said in 2005 that "Sikkim is no longer the problem between China and India." During the 1950s, the People's Republic of China built a 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) road connecting Xinjiang and western Tibet , of which 179 kilometres (111 mi) ran south of
10336-493: The US or Vietnam [….] The people who are lulled are the people of India. And the object of lulling them is straightforward—not just that they should not come to think that their government has been negligent, but that they should not pressurize the government into doing anything more than what it is doing. Arun Shourie , Self-Deception: India's China Policies, 2013 In April 2013 India claimed, referencing their own perception of
10472-564: The ambiguity of earlier rounds of border talks beginning from the 1890 Anglo-Chinese Convention that was signed in Kolkata on 17 March 1890, each country refers to different agreements drawn when trying to defend its position on the border dispute. Following the incursion, on 28 June, the Chinese military claimed that India had blocked the construction of a road that was taking place in China's sovereign territory. On 30 June, India's Foreign Ministry claimed that China's road construction in violation of
10608-403: The bend on the right bank (northern bank), where it is also coupled with another neighbouring village Mood (or Mud or Mad ). The Indus river here is said to be wide and shallow. It could be easily forded. Nyoma is located 41 km southeast of Chumathang , and 87 km south of Chushul . Nearby villages are Mahe and Loma. Hanle , the largest village in southern Ladakh, is 80 km to
10744-517: The borders between Tibet Autonomous Region and Ladakh in the 1960s, international trade dwindled. Since 1974, the Government of India has successfully encouraged tourism in Ladakh . As Ladakh is strategically important, the Indian military maintains a strong presence in the region. The largest town in Ladakh is Leh , followed by Kargil , each of which headquarters a district. The Leh district contains
10880-460: The boundaries China proposed in Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh have no written basis and no documentation of acceptance by anyone apart from China. The Indian government has argued that China claims the territory on the basis that it was under Chinese imperial control in the past, while the Chinese government argues that India claims the territory on the basis that it was under British imperial control in
11016-466: The boundary in the Aksai Chin sector, based on the Johnson Line, had been described as "undemarcated." The Johnson Line is not used west of the Karakoram Pass , where China adjoins Pakistan-administered Gilgit–Baltistan . On 13 October 1962, China and Pakistan began negotiations over the boundary west of the Karakoram Pass. In 1963, the two countries settled their boundaries largely on the basis of
11152-454: The declaration secret. V. K. Singh argues that the basis of these boundaries, accepted by British India and Tibet, was that the historical boundaries of India were the Himalayas and the areas south of the Himalayas were traditionally Indian and associated with India. The high watershed of the Himalayas was proposed as the border between India and its northern neighbours. India's government held
11288-672: The destroyed artefacts and gonpas by Sengge Namgyal , the son of Jamyang and Gyal. He expanded the kingdom into Zangskar and Spiti . Despite a defeat of Ladakh by the Mughals , who had already annexed Kashmir and Baltistan, Ladakh retained its independence. Islam begins to take root in the Leh area in the beginning of the 17th century after the Balti invasion and the marriage of Gyal to Jamyang. A large group of Muslim servants and musicians were sent along with Gyal to Ladakh and private mosques were built where they could pray. The Muslim musicians later settled in Leh. Several hundred Baltis migrated to
11424-556: The earliest treaties regarding the boundaries in the western sector was issued in 1842 following the Dogra–Tibetan War . The Sikh Empire of the Punjab region had annexed Ladakh into the state of Jammu in 1834. In 1841, they invaded Tibet with an army. Tibetan forces defeated the Sikh army and in turn entered Ladakh and besieged Leh . After being checked by the Sikh forces, the Tibetan and
11560-629: The east. There was a brief border clash in 1967 in the region of Sikkim , despite there being an agreed border in that region. In 1987 and in 2013, potential conflicts over the Lines of Actual Control were successfully de-escalated. A conflict involving a Bhutanese-controlled area on the border between Bhutan and China was successfully de-escalated in 2017 following injuries to both Indian and Chinese troops. Multiple skirmishes broke out in 2020, escalating to dozens of deaths in June 2020. Agreements signed pending
11696-444: The end of 2024 at a cost of ₹ 218 crore (US$ 26 million) to a 1,235 acre full fighter jet airbase at 13,700 feet (4,200 m) elevation with an expanded 2.7 km paved runway with ability to recover airplanes and minor repair facilities. Aeroplanes can land from both directions on this airstrip. Chushul , Fukche & Leh are other nearby airbases & ALG airstrips. The construction of an airbase at Mudh, Nyoma
11832-456: The fact that the large geographical area of the Ladakh (comprising 65% of total area), but Ladakh was allocated only 2% of the state budget based on its relative population. Within the first year of the formation of Ladakh as separate union territory, its annual budget allocation has increased 4 times from ₹ 57 crore to ₹ 232 crore. Ladakh is the highest plateau in India with most of it being over 3,000 m (9,800 ft). It extends from
11968-622: The far north. It extends from the Siachen Glacier in the Karakoram range to the north to the main Great Himalayas to the south. The eastern end, consisting of the uninhabited Aksai Chin plains, is claimed by the Indian Government as part of Ladakh, but has been under Chinese control. In the past, Ladakh gained importance from its strategic location at the crossroads of important trade routes, but as Chinese authorities closed
12104-496: The final, more detailed map. After approving a note which stated that China could not enjoy rights under the agreement unless she ratified it, the British and Tibetan negotiators signed the Simla Convention and more detailed map as a bilateral accord. Neville Maxwell states that McMahon had been instructed not to sign bilaterally with Tibetans if China refused, but he did so without the Chinese representative present and then kept
12240-580: The folding of the Indian Plate into the more stationary Eurasian Plate . The drift continues, causing frequent earthquakes in the Himalayan region. The peaks in the Ladakh Range are at a medium altitude close to the Zoji-la (5,000–5,500 m or 16,400–18,000 ft) and increase toward southeast, culminating in the twin summits of Nun-Kun (7,000 m or 23,000 ft). The Suru and Zanskar Valleys form
12376-399: The hand of a Muslim princess in marriage. Her name was Gyal Khatun or Argyal Khatoom. She was to be the first queen and her son was to become the next ruler. Historical accounts differ upon who her father was. Some identify Ali's ally and Raja of Khaplu Yabgo Shey Gilazi as her father, while others identify Ali himself as the father. In the early 17th century efforts were made to restore
12512-440: The ill-defined frontier facing each other, but the tension was defused when both sides pulled back soldiers in early May. In September 2014, India and China had a standoff at the LAC, when Indian workers began constructing a canal in the border village of Demchok, Ladakh , and Chinese civilians protested with the army's support. It ended after about three weeks, when both sides agreed to withdraw troops. The Indian army claimed that
12648-541: The inhabitants using black bows; ru-thogs [Rutog] of the east and the Gold-mine of Hgog [possibly Thok Jalung]; nearer this way Lde-mchog-dkar-po [Demchok Karpo]; ... The first West Tibetan dynasty of Maryul founded by Palgyigon lasted five centuries, being weakened towards its end by the conquests of the Mongol/Mughal noble Mirza Haidar Dughlat . Throughout this period the region was called "Maryul", possibly from
12784-432: The invasion. The wartime conversion of the pony trail from Sonamarg to Zoji La by army engineers permitted tanks to move up and successfully capture the pass. The advance continued. Dras , Kargil and Leh were liberated and Ladakh cleared of the infiltrators. In 1949, China closed the border between Nubra and Xinjiang , blocking old trade routes. In 1955 China began to build roads connecting Xinjiang and Tibet through
12920-444: The issue. India's claim line in the eastern sector follows its interpretation of the McMahon Line. The line drawn by McMahon on the detailed 24–25 March 1914 Simla Treaty maps clearly starts at 27°45’40"N, a trijunction between Bhutan, China, and India, and from there, extends eastwards. Most of the fighting in the eastern sector before the start of the war would take place immediately north of this line. However, India claimed that
13056-633: The king converted to Islam in return for the assistance by Mughal Empire after this, however, Ladakhi chronicles do not mention such a thing. The king agreed to pay tribute to the Mughals in return for defending the kingdom. The Mughals, however, withdrew after being paid off by the 5th Dalai Lama . With the help of reinforcements from Galdan Boshugtu Khan , Khan of the Zungar Empire , the Tibetans attacked again in 1684. The Tibetans were victorious and concluded
13192-572: The kingdom and according to oral tradition many Muslim traders were granted land to settle. Many other Muslims were invited over the following years for various purposes. In the late 17th century, Ladakh sided with Bhutan in its dispute with Tibet which, among other reasons, resulted in its invasion by the Tibetan Central Government . This event is known as the Tibet–Ladakh–Mughal war of 1679–1684. Kashmiri historians assert that
13328-528: The late twentieth century, due to indiscriminate shooting by hunters along the Leh-Srinagar Highway. The Tibetan argali (or nyan ) is the largest wild sheep species in the world, standing 1.1 to 1.2 metres (3.5 to 4 ft) at the shoulder, possessing very large, curled horns measuring 900–1,000 mm (35–39 in). It is distributed on the Tibetan Plateau and its marginal ranges, encompassing
13464-401: The local language include Kanchapa ( Land of snow ) and Ripul ( Country of mountains ). Rock carvings found in many parts of Ladakh indicate that the area has been inhabited from Neolithic times. Ladakh's earliest inhabitants consisted of nomads known as Kampa. Later settlements were established by Mons from Kullu and Brokpas who originated from Gilgit . Around the 1st century, Ladakh
13600-570: The maps were not updated and still showed the Johnson Line. From 1917 to 1933, the "Postal Atlas of China", published by the Government of China in Peking had shown the boundary in Aksai Chin as per the Johnson line, which runs along the Kunlun Mountains . The "Peking University Atlas", published in 1925, also put the Aksai Chin in India. When British officials learned of Soviet officials surveying
13736-399: The north in an intricate maze of ridges to the east of Rudok , including Aling Kangri and Mavang Kangri, continuing southeastward toward northwestern Nepal . Before partition, Baltistan, now part of Pakistan, had been a district of Ladakh; Skardu was the winter capital of Ladakh, with Leh being the summer capital. The mountain ranges in this region were formed over 45 million years by
13872-405: The original proper name *Mrasa (Xuangzhang's, Mo-lo-so ), but in the Tibetan language it was interpreted to mean "lowland" (the lowland of Ngari). Maryul remained staunchly Buddhist during this period, having participated in the second diffusion of Buddhism from India to Tibet via Kashmir and Zanskar. Between the 1380s and early 1510s, many Islamic missionaries propagated Islam and proselytised
14008-493: The overwhelming majority of Muslims in Baltistan to his school of thought. It is unclear what happened to Islam after this period and it seems to have received a setback. Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat who invaded and briefly conquered Ladakh in 1532, 1545 and 1548, does not record any presence of Islam in Leh during his invasion although Shia Islam and Noorbakshia Islam continued to flourish in other regions of Ladakh. King Bhagan reunited and strengthened Ladakh and founded
14144-547: The past. The last Qing emperor's 1912 edict of abdication authorised its succeeding republican government to form a union of "five peoples, namely, Manchus , Han Chinese , Mongols , Muslims , and Tibetans together with their territory in its integrity ." However, the practice that India does not place a claim to the regions which previously had the presence of the Mauryan Empire and Chola Dynasty , but which were heavily influenced by Indian culture, further complicates
14280-428: The patrol unit were initially listed as missing before confirmation via diplomatic channels they had been killed by the Chinese troops; their bodies were later returned. The Indian government registered a strong protest with the Chinese. In 2006, the Chinese ambassador to India claimed that all of Arunachal Pradesh is Chinese territory amidst a military buildup. At the time, both countries claimed incursions as much as
14416-442: The present-day Demchok village). The second son received Guge–Purang (called "Ngari Korsum") and the third son received Zanskar and Spiti (to the southwest of Ladakh). This three-way division of Nyimagon's empire was recognised as historic and remembered in the chronicles of all the three regions as a founding narrative. He gave to each of his sons a separate kingdom, viz., to the eldest Dpal-gyi-gon , Maryul of Mngah-ris ,
14552-586: The previous one taking place 20 years earlier. On 20 October 1975, 4 Indian soldiers were killed at Tulung La in Arunachal Pradesh . According to the official statement by the Indian government, a patrol of the Assam Rifles comprising a non-commissioned officer (NCO) and four other soldiers was ambushed by about 40 Chinese soldiers while in an area well within Indian territory, and which had been regularly patrolled for years without incident. Four members of
14688-595: The region to George Macartney , the British consul general at Kashgar, which coincided in broad details. In 1899, Britain proposed a revised boundary, initially suggested by Macartney and developed by the Governor General of India Lord Elgin . This boundary placed the Lingzi Tang plains, which are south of the Laktsang range, in India, and Aksai Chin proper, which is north of the Laktsang range, in China. This border, along
14824-405: The slant of Ladakhi chronicles that Ladakh may have owed its primary allegiance to Tibet during this time, but that it was more political than cultural. Ladakh remained Buddhist and its culture was not yet Tibetan. In the 9th century, Tibet's ruler Langdarma was assassinated and Tibet fragmented . Kyide Nyimagon , Langdarma's great-grandson, fled to West Tibet c. 900 CE , and founded
14960-729: The southeast. Mount Sajum on the border with China is 43 km to the east. Nyoma tehsil borders the Tibet Autonomous Region of China on the south and the east. The southern border runs along the Chumar village in Rupshu and the Imis Pass at the end of the Hanle valley. The eastern border, a Line of Actual Control resulting from the 1962 war with China, runs along the Kailash Range watershed of
15096-648: The southern shore of the Pangong Lake . Its highest point is about 6,700 m (22,000 ft) and the northern slopes are heavily glaciated. The region comprising the valley of the Shayok and Nubra rivers is known as Nubra. The Karakoram Range in Ladakh is not as mighty as in Baltistan. The massifs to the north and east of the Nubra–Siachen line include the Apsarasas Group (highest point at 7,245 m or 23,770 ft)
15232-466: The state of Jammu and Kashmir was established as a separate princely state under British suzerainty . The Namgyal family was given the jagir of Stok , which it nominally retains to this day. European influence began in Ladakh in the 1850s and increased. Geologists, sportsmen, and tourists began exploring Ladakh. In 1885, Leh became the headquarters of a mission of the Moravian Church . Ladakh
15368-459: The status quo had security implications for India. Following this, on 5 July, Bhutan issued a demarche asking China to restore the status quo as of before 16 June. Throughout July and August, the Doklam issue remained unresolved. On 28 August, India issued a statement saying that both countries have agreed to "expeditious disengagement" in the Doklam region. In 2019, India and China decided to coordinate border patrolling at one disputed point along
15504-446: The status quo. In 1960, Nehru and Zhou Enlai agreed to hold discussions between officials from India and China for examining the historical, political and administrative basis of the boundary dispute. The two sides disagreed on the major watershed that defined the boundary in the western sector. The Chinese statements with respect to their border claims often misrepresented the cited sources. The Nathu La and Cho La clashes were
15640-510: The stretch of the Indus flowing through Ladakh became the only part of this river, which is greatly venerated in the Hindu religion and culture, that still flows through India. The Siachen Glacier is in the eastern Karakoram Range in the Himalaya Mountains along the disputed India-Pakistan border. The Karakoram Range forms a great watershed that separates China from the Indian subcontinent and
15776-562: The subject of a dispute between India and Pakistan since 1947 and India and China since 1959. Ladakh is bordered by the Tibet Autonomous Region to the east, the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh to the south, both the Indian-administered union territory of Jammu and Kashmir and the Pakistan-administered Gilgit-Baltistan to the west, and the southwest corner of Xinjiang across the Karakoram Pass in
15912-520: The treaty includes no verbal description of geographic features nor description of the highest ridges. The Nathu La and Cho La clashes were a series of military clashes in 1967 between India and China alongside the border of the Himalayan Kingdom of Sikkim , then an Indian protectorate . The end of the conflicts saw a Chinese military withdrawal from Sikkim. In 1975, the Sikkimese monarchy held
16048-646: The troughs of the rivers Stod and Lungnak . The region experiences heavy snowfall; the Pensi-la is open only between June and mid-October. Dras and the Mushkoh Valley form the western extremity of Ladakh. The Indus River is the backbone of Ladakh. Most major historical and current towns – Shey , Leh, Basgo and Tingmosgang (but not Kargil), are close to the Indus River. After the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947,
16184-416: The two countries that were drawn up in 1988 and 1998 after extensive rounds of talks. The agreements drawn state that status quo must be maintained in the Doklam area as of before March 1959. It is these agreements that China has violated by constructing a road below Doka La. A series of statements from each countries' respective External Affairs ministries were issued defending each countries' actions. Due to
16320-589: The ultimate resolution of the boundary question were concluded in 1993 and 1996. This included "confidence-building measures" and the Line of Actual Control . To address the boundary question formalised groups were created such as the Joint Working Group (JWG) on the boundary question. It was to be assisted by the Diplomatic and Military Expert Group. In 2003 the Special Representatives (SRs) mechanism
16456-422: The union territory continues to elect an autonomous district council as done previously. The demand for Ladakh as separate union territory was first raised by the parliamentarian Kushok Bakula Rinpoche around 1955, which was later carried forward by another parliamentarian Thupstan Chhewang . The former Jammu and Kashmir state use to obtain large allocation of annual funds from the union government based on
16592-505: The view that the Himalayas were the ancient boundaries of the Indian subcontinent and thus should be the modern boundaries of British India and later the Republic of India . Chinese boundary markers, including one set up by the newly created Chinese Republic, stood near Walong until January 1914, when T. O'Callaghan, an assistant administrator of North East Frontier Agency (NEFA)'s eastern sector, relocated them north to locations closer to
16728-539: The west, which included the Aksai Chin, in a manner that resembled the Ardagh–Johnson Line. India's basis for defining the border was "chiefly by long usage and custom". Unlike the Johnson line, India did not claim the northern areas near Shahidulla and Khotan . From the Karakoram Pass (which is not under dispute), the Indian claim line extends northeast of the Karakoram Mountains north of the salt flats of
16864-489: Was "undoubtedly British" but noted that it was "controlled by Tibet, and none of its inhabitants have any idea that they are not Tibetan." During World War II, with India's east threatened by Japanese troops and with the threat of Chinese expansionism, British troops secured Tawang for extra defence. China's claim on areas south of the McMahon Line, encompassed in the NEFA, were based on the traditional boundaries. India believes that
17000-535: Was a part of the Kushan Empire . Buddhism spread into western Ladakh from Kashmir in the 2nd century. The 7th-century Buddhist traveller Xuanzang describes the region in his accounts. Xuanzang's term of Ladakh is Mo-lo-so , which has been reconstructed by academics as *Malasa , *Marāsa , or *Mrāsa , which is believed to have been the original name of the region. For much of the first millennium, western Tibet comprised Zhangzhung kingdom(s), which practised
17136-449: Was administered as a wazarat under Dogra rule, with a governor termed wazir-e-wazarat . It had three tehsils, based at Leh, Skardu and Kargil . The headquarters of the wazarat was at Leh for six months of the year and at Skardu for six months. When the legislative assembly, called Praja Sabha , was established in 1934, Ladakh was given two nominated seats in the assembly. Ladakh was claimed as part of Tibet by Phuntsok Wangyal ,
17272-584: Was assigned to Border Roads Organisation (BRO) in 2023. The project will cost Rs. 218 crore. This will be the world's highest airfield at 11,000 ft. As of October 2024, 95% of the work for Runway at the airbase is complete. The runway is ready for emergency use by all aircraft including fighter aircraft. The base will be formally commissioned in September 2025 after allied infrastructure like hangars, an air traffic control building, and hard-standing areas are completed. Nearby Mahe has Indian Military's "Mahe Field Firing Range" (MFFR) on 1259.25 hectares land inside
17408-600: Was built in 1962 but remained unutilized. It was reactivated in 2009 when an An-32 landed in this airfield. Now the airbase at Nyoma of the Indian Military is fully operational. The airbase received the Wildlife Board's forest clearance in 2022 to expand into 508 hectare of land inside Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary . The Government of India announced in January 2023 that this airstrip will be upgraded in two years by
17544-478: Was constituted. In 2012 another dispute resolution mechanism, the Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination (WMCC) was framed. The territorial disputes between the two countries result from the historical consequences of colonialism in Asia and the lack of clear historical boundary demarcations. There was one historical attempt to set a proposed boundary, the McMahon Line, by Great Britain during
17680-558: Was divided into the Kargil and Leh districts in 1979. In 1989, there were violent riots between Buddhists and Muslims. Following demands for autonomy from the Kashmiri -dominated state government, the Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council was created in the 1990s. Leh and Kargil districts now each have their own locally elected Hill Councils with some control over local policy and development funds. In 1991,
17816-403: Was first described here and named after this region. The first European to study the wildlife of this region was William Moorcroft in 1820, followed by Ferdinand Stoliczka , an Austrian - Czech palaeontologist , who carried out a massive expedition there in the 1870s. There are many lakes in Ladakh such as Kyago Tso . The bharal (or blue sheep) is the most abundant mountain ungulate in
17952-529: Was merely a local government without treaty-making powers. The British records show that the Tibetan government's acceptance of the new border in 1914 was conditional on China accepting the Simla Convention. Since the British were not able to get an acceptance from China, Tibetans considered the McMahon line invalid. Tibetan officials continued to administer Tawang and refused to concede territory during negotiations in 1938. The governor of Assam asserted that Tawang
18088-416: Was signed between British India and Tibet to form part of the 1914 Simla Convention , but the latter was never ratified by China. China disowns the McMahon Line agreement, stating that Tibet was not independent when it signed the Simla Convention. The 1962 Sino-Indian War was fought in both disputed areas. Chinese troops attacked Indian border posts in Ladakh in the west and crossed the McMahon line in
18224-505: Was that the Aksai Chin was "part of the Ladakh region of India for centuries". The Chinese premier Zhou Enlai argued that the western border had never been delimited, that the Macartney-MacDonald Line, which left part of Aksai Chin within Chinese borders was the only line ever proposed to a Chinese government. He also claimed that Aksai Chin was already under Chinese jurisdiction, and that negotiations should take into account
18360-579: Was the time of the Dungan revolt , when China did not control Xinjiang , so this line was never presented to the Chinese. Johnson presented this line to the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, who then claimed the 18,000 square kilometres contained within his territory and by some accounts he claimed territory further north as far as the Sanju Pass in the Kun Lun Mountains . The Maharajah of Jammu and Kashmir constructed
18496-489: Was there – it was just a convenient staging post and a convenient headquarters for the nomadic Kirghiz . The abandoned fort had apparently been built a few years earlier by the Dogras . In 1878 the Chinese had reconquered Xinjiang, and by 1890 they already had Shahidulla before the issue was decided. By 1892, China had erected boundary markers at Karakoram Pass . In 1897 a British military officer, Sir John Ardagh, proposed
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