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111-411: Nuclear-free zones usually neither address nor prohibit radiopharmaceuticals used in nuclear medicine even though many of them are produced in nuclear reactors. They typically do not prohibit other nuclear technologies such as cyclotrons used in particle physics. Several sub-national authorities worldwide have declared themselves "nuclear-free". However, the label is often symbolic, as nuclear policy

222-617: A Chagatayid prince of Kashmir , which locates Kazakh in the eastern part of Desht-i Qipchaq . According to Vasily Bartold , the Kazakhs likely began using that name during the 15th century. Though Kazakh traditionally referred only to ethnic Kazakhs , including those living in China, Russia, Turkey, Uzbekistan and other neighbouring countries, the term is increasingly being used to refer to any inhabitant of Kazakhstan, including residents of other ethnicities. Kazakhstan has been inhabited since

333-618: A small portion of Kazakhstan is also located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Kazakhstan's terrain extends west to east from the Caspian Sea to the Altay Mountains and north to south from the plains of Western Siberia to the oases and deserts of Central Asia. The Kazakh Steppe (plain), with an area of around 804,500 square kilometres (310,600 sq mi), occupies one-third of

444-509: A 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.23/10, ranking it 26th globally out of 172 countries. Common mammals include the wolf , red fox , corsac fox , moose , argali (the largest species of sheep), Eurasian lynx , Pallas's cat , and snow leopards , several of which are protected. Kazakhstan's Red Book of Protected Species lists 125 vertebrates including many birds and mammals, and 404 plants including fungi, algae and lichens. Przewalski's horse has been reintroduced to

555-432: A 2–1 margin barring nuclear facilities or reactors without strict state-enforced regulatory standards and ratification by popular referendum, and in a follow-up 1980 initiative, Montanans narrowly voted to ban the disposal of nuclear waste.) That Missoula's measure was originally drafted as a zoning ordinance legally enforceable by the county planning department apparently created the popular term "Nuclear Free Zone" adopted as

666-481: A 68-minute half-life , produced by elution from germanium-68 in a gallium-68 generator or by proton irradiation of zinc-68. H or tritium is a beta emitter. In is a gamma emitter. Iodine-123 (I-123) is a gamma emitter. It is used only diagnostically, as its radiation is penetrating and short-lived. Thyroid metastases imaging I is a gamma emitter with a long half-life of 59.4 days (the longest of all radioiodines used in medicine). Iodine-123

777-464: A campus at Davis , runs a research reactor at the nearby former McClellan Air Force Base , as well as workers who are involved with Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. On November 8, 1988, City of Oakland, California voters passed "Measure T" with 57% of the vote, making that city a nuclear free zone. Prior to the vote, the Oakland City Council voted 8-1 to oppose the measure. Similarly,

888-711: A domino effect increase of countries in the world aiming for atomic weapons. The idea was proposed again in the Détente period of the Cold War in the 1970s, with the background of both the United States and Soviet Union decreasing their nuclear weapon stockpile. A speech made by Kekkonen in Stockholm on 8 May 1978 presented a plan for arms control in the Nordic region, the strengthening of existing non-nuclear status of northern Europe, and

999-533: A guarantee that nuclear-armed states would not use nuclear weapons against nuclear weapon free zone states. The idea for a Nuclear weapons-free zone in the north gained popularity in Norway from late 1980, and gained broad cross-party support in government. At a meeting of Nordic foreign ministers in September 1981, the issue was put on the agenda, but received little attention and no future prospects for implementation. this

1110-487: A half-hearted way. This has been seen as a victory for the British Peace movement against the policies of Margaret Thatcher . Generally, nuclear-free zones were predominantly Labour Party controlled councils but Liberal Party and even a few Conservative Party councillors were often active in this respect too. A number of towns, cities and counties in the United States established themselves as Nuclear-Free Zones in

1221-661: A livestock-based economy continued to dominate the steppe . In the 15th century, a distinct Kazakh identity began to emerge among the Turkic tribes. This was followed by the Kazakh War of Independence , where the Khanate gained its sovereignty from the Shaybanids . The process was consolidated by the mid-16th century with the appearance of the Kazakh language , culture, and economy. Nevertheless,

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1332-555: A long campaign by peace activists which included large protests and the disruption of visits by US warships. Under the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987 , territorial sea and land of New Zealand became nuclear weapons and nuclear-powered ship free zones. It does not ban nuclear power stations. A research reactor was operated by the University of Canterbury until 1981. Official planning for

1443-557: A member of the Kazakh people, derives from Russian : казах . The native name is Kazakh : қазақ , romanized :  qazaq . It might originate from the Turkic word verb qaz- , 'to wander', reflecting the Kazakhs' nomadic culture. The term Cossack is of the same origin. In Turko-Persian sources, the term Özbek-Qazaq first appeared during the mid-16th century, in the Tarikh-i-Rashidi by Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat ,

1554-458: A nuclear power station continued until the 1980s. The Act prohibits "entry into the internal waters of New Zealand 12 miles (22.2 km) radius by any ship whose propulsion is wholly or partly dependent on nuclear power" and bans the dumping of radioactive waste within the nuclear-free zone, as well as prohibiting any New Zealand citizen or resident "to manufacture, acquire, possess, or have any control over any nuclear explosive device." Combined with

1665-420: A parliamentary resolution in 1971, though they have never formally been entered into law. They continue to reflect the attitudes of both government and the general public, who remain staunchly opposed to the manufacture or use of nuclear weapons. The Japan Self-Defense Forces have never made any attempt to manufacture or otherwise obtain nuclear arms, and no nuclear weapons are known to have been introduced into

1776-453: A pharmaceutical; these are also included. There is a section for each radioisotope with a table of radiopharmaceuticals using that radioisotope. The sections are ordered alphabetically by the English name of the radioisotope. Sections for the same element are then ordered by atomic mass number . Ca is a beta and gamma emitter. C is a positron emitter. Parathyroid imaging C

1887-583: A republic within the Soviet Union. Following the August 1991 aborted coup attempt in Moscow, Kazakhstan declared independence on 16 December 1991, thus becoming the last Soviet republic to declare independence. Ten days later, the Soviet Union itself ceased to exist . Kazakhstan's communist-era leader, Nursultan Nazarbayev , became the country's first President. Nazarbayev ruled in an authoritarian manner. An emphasis

1998-508: A route for cruise missiles in the event of a nuclear war between the Soviet Union and NATO . The idea was proposed first in 1963, in a speech by Kekkonen proposing that the Nordic countries pledge to not procure nuclear weapons or station nuclear weapons in their territory. At the time, among the Nordic countries, Sweden was close to acquire nuclear weapons through a domestic programme , and only Finland had outright rejected them. Finland

2109-674: A series of clashes and in brutal massacres committed by both sides. Both sides resisted the communist government until late 1919. Following the collapse of central government in Petrograd in November 1917, the Kazakhs (then in Russia officially referred to as "Kirghiz") experienced a brief period of autonomy (the Alash Autonomy ) before eventually succumbing to the Bolsheviks ' rule. On 26 August 1920,

2220-425: A waiver from the citizen committee. In September 2005, Takoma Park took a stand against the transportation of high-level nuclear waste through the city. It voted to amend its Nuclear-Free Zone Ordinance to give its citizen committee responsibility to collect information and from this information and from consultations with individuals and organizations involved in the transportation of high-level nuclear waste, to advise

2331-1017: Is Azerbaijan ). With an area of 2,700,000 square kilometres (1,000,000 sq mi) – equivalent in size to Western Europe – Kazakhstan is the ninth-largest country and largest landlocked country in the world. While it was part of the Russian Empire , Kazakhstan lost some of its territory to China's Xinjiang province, and some to Uzbekistan's Karakalpakstan autonomous republic during Soviet years. It shares borders of 6,846 kilometres (4,254 mi) with Russia, 2,203 kilometres (1,369 mi) with Uzbekistan , 1,533 kilometres (953 mi) with China, 1,051 kilometres (653 mi) with Kyrgyzstan , and 379 kilometres (235 mi) with Turkmenistan . Major cities include Astana , Almaty , Qarağandy , Şymkent , Atyrau , and Öskemen . It lies between latitudes 40° and 56° N , and longitudes 46° and 88° E . While located primarily in Asia,

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2442-529: Is standardization of the drug nomenclature for radiopharmaceuticals, although various standards coexist. The International Nonproprietary Names (INNs), United States Pharmacopeia (USP) names, and IUPAC names for these agents are usually similar other than trivial style differences. The details are explained at Radiopharmacology § Drug nomenclature for radiopharmaceuticals . A list of nuclear medicine radiopharmaceuticals follows. Some radioisotopes are used in ionic or inert form without attachment to

2553-527: Is 80 kilometres (50 mi) long, cutting through a red sandstone plateau and stretching along the Charyn River gorge in northern Tian Shan ("Heavenly Mountains", 200 km (124 mi) east of Almaty) at 43°21′1.16″N 79°4′49.28″E  /  43.3503222°N 79.0803556°E  / 43.3503222; 79.0803556 . The steep canyon slopes, columns and arches rise to heights of between 150 and 300 metres (490 and 980 feet). The inaccessibility of

2664-416: Is a beta emitter. Cr is a gamma emitter. Co is a gamma emitter. Co is a gamma emitter. Er is a beta emitter. F is a positron emitter with a half-life of 109 minutes. It is produced in medical cyclotrons, usually from oxygen-18, and then chemically attached to a pharmaceutical formulation. Myocardial imaging Ga is a gamma emitter. Ga is a positron emitter, with

2775-776: Is a beta emitter. Technetium-99m is a gamma emitter. It is obtained on-site at the imaging center as the soluble pertechnetate which is eluted from a technetium-99m generator , and then either used directly as this soluble salt, or else used to synthesize a number of technetium-99m-based radiopharmaceuticals. Stomach and salivary gland imaging Meckel's diverticulum imaging Brain imaging Micturating cystogram First pass blood flow imaging First pass peripheral vascular imaging GI Bleeding Gastric emptying imaging Spleen imaging Cardiac blood pool imaging Peripheral vascular imaging First pass blood flow imaging Non-specific tumor imaging Thyroid tumor imaging Breast imaging Myocardial imaging Myocardial imaging Tl

2886-414: Is a gamma emitter. Lu is a beta emitter. N is a positron emitter. O is a positron emitter. Myocardial blood flow imaging P is a beta emitter. Ra is an alpha emitter. Rb is a positron and gamma emitter. Sm is a beta and gamma emitter. Se is a gamma emitter. Na is a positron and gamma emitter. Na is a beta and gamma emitter. Sr

2997-561: Is a gamma emitter. Thyroid tumor imaging Myocardial imaging Parathyroid imaging Xe is a gamma emitter. Y is a beta emitter. Kazakhstan Kazakhstan , officially the Republic of Kazakhstan , is a landlocked country primarily in Central Asia , with a small portion of its territory in Eastern Europe . It borders Russia to the north and west , China to

3108-511: Is a major port, and like Berkeley, and Davis, has major freeway and train arteries running through it. The City did not appeal the decision. In 1992, the Oakland City Council unanimously reinstated modified elements of the older ordinance, reportedly bringing the total number of Nuclear Free Zones in the United States at that time to 188, with a total population of over 17 million in 27 states. Other cities, counties, and other governments within

3219-567: Is a nuclear free zone, when a nuclear power station was built during the 1970s at Zwentendorf , Austria , start-up was prevented by a popular vote in 1978. The completed power plant is now marketed as a shooting location for film and television. On July 9, 1997, the Austrian Parliament voted unanimously to maintain the country's anti-nuclear policy. Ironically, the headquarters of the International Atomic Energy Agency

3330-565: Is also home to the Mynzhylky mountain plateau . Kazakhstan has an abundant supply of accessible mineral and fossil fuel resources. Development of petroleum, natural gas, and mineral extractions has attracted most of the over $ 40 billion in foreign investment in Kazakhstan since 1993 and accounts for some 57 percent of the nation's industrial output (or approximately 13 percent of gross domestic product). According to some estimates, Kazakhstan has

3441-638: Is deeply involved in the history of nuclear weapons , and the University of California system until recently managed operations at Los Alamos National Laboratory , a U.S. nuclear weapons design laboratory, and continues to manage the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory . At the time of the passage of the act, the university operated a nuclear reactor for research purposes, the Etcheverry Reactor , which it continued to operate after

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3552-460: Is different from contrast media which absorb or alter external electromagnetism or ultrasound. Radiopharmacology is the branch of pharmacology that specializes in these agents. The main group of these compounds are the radiotracers used to diagnose dysfunction in body tissues . While not all medical isotopes are radioactive, radiopharmaceuticals are the oldest and remain the most common of such drugs. As with other pharmaceutical drugs, there

3663-639: Is located in Vienna, and the IAEA maintains nuclear laboratories both in Vienna and Seibersdorf. The IAEA has also established programs to assist nuclear energy projects in developing countries. Austria's anti-nuclear stance also causes tension with its nuclear neighbors. Vienna is located close to the Czech reactor at Temelin , and four reactors are being built in neighboring Slovakia and two in neighboring Hungary. The province of British Columbia also bans mining for uranium, and

3774-425: Is preferred for imaging, so I-125 is used diagnostically only when the test requires a longer period to prepare the radiopharmaceutical and trace it, such as a fibrinogen scan to diagnose clotting. I-125's gamma radiation is of medium penetration, making it more useful as a therapeutic isotope for brachytherapy implant of radioisotope capsules for local treatment of cancers. I is a beta and gamma emitter. It

3885-470: Is used both to destroy thyroid and thyroid cancer tissues (via beta radiation, which is short-range), and also other neuroendocrine tissues when used in MIBG. It can also be seen by a gamma camera , and can serve as a diagnostic imaging tracer, when treatment is also being attempted at the same time. However iodine-123 is usually preferred when only imaging is desired. Fe is a beta and gamma emitter. Kr

3996-646: Is used in both Finland and Sweden . Palau adopted its first constitution in July 1979, stating that the Micronesian country would be "nuclear-free". The United States told the Palauan government that this constitution was likely incompatible with the Compact of Free Association . The Palauan government submitted a revised version of the constitution without the "nuclear-free" clause the following October. The Palauan people rejected

4107-430: Is usually determined and regulated at higher levels of government: nuclear weapons and components may traverse nuclear-free zones via military transport without the knowledge or consent of local authorities which had declared nuclear-free zones. Palau became the first nuclear-free nation in 1980. New Zealand was the first Western-allied nation to legislate towards a national nuclear free zone by effectively renouncing

4218-800: The Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic within the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) was established. The Kirghiz ASSR included the territory of present-day Kazakhstan, but its administrative centre was the mainly Russian-populated town of Orenburg . In June 1925, the Kirghiz ASSR was renamed the Kazak ASSR and its administrative centre was transferred to the town of Kyzylorda , and in April 1927 to Alma-Ata . Soviet repression of

4329-623: The Northern or Baltic Fleet . This, combined with the Soviet Union's continued occupation of the Baltic states and the Karlskrona incident of 1981, made the establishment of a Nordic nuclear free zone in the Cold War unlikely. The United States was against the establishment of a nuclear weapons-free Nordic zone, facing the fact that the zone would be against U.S. and NATO security interests. Nuclear energy

4440-666: The Oirats , a federation of western Mongol tribes, including the Dzungar . The beginning of the 18th century marked the zenith of the Kazakh Khanate. During this period the Little Horde participated in the 1723–1730 war against the Dzungar Khanate , following their "Great Disaster" invasion of Kazakh territory. Under the leadership of Abul Khair Khan , the Kazakhs won major victories over

4551-599: The Paleolithic era. The Botai culture (3700–3100 BC) is credited with the first domestication of horses. The Botai population derived most of their ancestry from a deeply European-related population known as Ancient North Eurasians , while also displaying some Ancient East Asian admixture. Pastoralism developed during the Neolithic . The population was Caucasoid during the Bronze and Iron Age period. The Kazakh territory

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4662-701: The Saka and Massagetae . Other groups included the nomadic Scythians and the Persian Achaemenid Empire in the southern territory of the modern country. The Andronovo and Srubnaya cultures , precursors to the peoples of the Scythian cultures , were found to harbor mixed ancestry from the Yamnaya Steppe herders and peoples of the Central European Middle Neolithic. In 329 BC, Alexander

4773-706: The Saka , Massagetae , and Scythians dominated the territory, with the Achaemenid Persian Empire expanding towards the southern region. Turkic nomads entered the region from as early as the sixth century. In the 13th century, the area was subjugated by the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan . Following the disintegration of the Golden Horde in the 15th century, the Kazakh Khanate was established over an area roughly corresponding with modern Kazakhstan. By

4884-614: The Silk Road connecting Asia and Europe, true political consolidation began only with the Mongol rule of the early 13th century. Under the Mongol Empire , the first strictly structured administrative districts (Ulus) were established. After the division of the Mongol Empire in 1259, the land that would become modern-day Kazakhstan was ruled by the Golden Horde , also known as the Ulus of Jochi. During

4995-457: The United States government suspended its ANZUS obligations to New Zealand, seeing New Zealand's effective rejection of United States Navy vessels as voiding the treaty. The Lange Labour government did not see their stance as incompatible with the treaty and sought a compromise for over two years before passing the Act. Support for the non-nuclear policy was bolstered by the perceived over-reaction of

5106-564: The Virgin Lands Campaign designed to turn the traditional pasturelands of Kazakhstan into a major grain-producing region for the Soviet Union. The Virgin Lands policy brought mixed results. However, along with later modernisations under Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev (in power 1964–1982), it accelerated the development of the agricultural sector, which remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's population. Because of

5217-530: The Western Turkic Khaganate were independent. The Western Khaganate reached its peak in the early 7th century. The Cumans entered the steppes of modern-day Kazakhstan around the early 11th century, where they later joined with the Kipchak and established the vast Cuman-Kipchak confederation. While ancient cities Taraz (Aulie-Ata) and Hazrat-e Turkestan had long served as important way-stations along

5328-400: The east , Kyrgyzstan to the southeast , Uzbekistan to the south , and Turkmenistan to the southwest , with a coastline along the Caspian Sea . Its capital is Astana , while the largest city and leading cultural and commercial hub is Almaty . Kazakhstan is the world's ninth-largest country by land area and the largest landlocked country. It has a population of 20 million and one of

5439-589: The nuclear deterrent . The Antarctic Treaty System banned military activity on the continent, effective in 1961, and suspended territorial claims. A nuclear reactor provided electricity for McMurdo Station , operated by the United States in the New Zealand Antarctic Territory from 1962 to 1972. Many Australian local government areas of Australia have passed anti-nuclear weaponry legislation; notable among these are Brisbane , capital of Queensland, which has been nuclear weapon free since 1983, and

5550-411: The 18th century, the Kazakh Khanate had fragmented into three jüz (tribal divisions), which were gradually absorbed and conquered by the Russian Empire ; by the mid-19th century, all of Kazakhstan was nominally under Russian rule. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution and subsequent Russian Civil War , the territory was reorganized several times. In 1936, its modern borders were established with

5661-659: The 1930s and 1940s, such as approximately 400,000 Volga Germans deported from the Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in September–October 1941, and then later the Greeks and Crimean Tatars . Deportees and prisoners were interned in some of the biggest Soviet labour camps (the Gulag), including ALZhIR camp outside Astana, which was reserved for the wives of men considered "enemies of

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5772-419: The 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. The first was Missoula, Montana . In the November 1978 general election, Missoula voters overwhelmingly approved a ballot initiative in the form of a land-use ordinance establishing the entirety of Missoula County as a "'nuclear free' zoning district" banning all nuclear facilities except those for medical purposes. (In the same election, Montana voters approved a statewide initiative by

5883-567: The 2008 election, Italy's industry minister announced that the government scheduled the construction to start the first new Italian nuclear-powered plant by 2013. The announced project was paused in March 2011, after the Japanese earthquake, and scrapped after a referendum on 12–13 June 2011. In 1984, Prime Minister David Lange barred nuclear-powered or nuclear-armed ships from using New Zealand ports or entering New Zealand waters. This policy followed

5994-449: The 2022 report. On 19 March 2019, Nazarbayev announced his resignation from the presidency. Kazakhstan's senate speaker Kassym-Jomart Tokayev won the 2019 presidential election that was held on 9 June. His first official act was to rename the capital after his predecessor. In January 2022, the country plunged into political unrest following a spike in fuel prices. In consequence, President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev took over as head of

6105-735: The Australian Nuclear Free Zones and Toxic Industries Secretariat which has 44 member councils. In 1998, the Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Act outlawed all construction and operation of nuclear power plants, nuclear fuel fabrication plants, and all other nuclear power in all Australian states and territories. All nuclear power concerns in Australia are handled by the Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency . Austria

6216-487: The Dzungar at the Bulanty River in 1726 and at the Battle of Añyraqai in 1729. Ablai Khan participated in the most significant battles against the Dzungar from the 1720s to the 1750s, for which he was declared a " batyr " ("hero") by the people. The Kazakhs suffered from the frequent raids against them by the Volga Kalmyks . The Kokand Khanate used the weakness of Kazakh jüzs after Dzungar and Kalmyk raids and conquered present Southeastern Kazakhstan, including Almaty ,

6327-466: The Golden Horde period, a Turco-Mongol tradition emerged among the ruling elite wherein Turkicised descendants of Genghis Khan followed Islam and continued to reign over the lands. In 1465, the Kazakh Khanate emerged as a result of the dissolution of the Golden Horde . Established by Janibek Khan and Kerei Khan , it continued to be ruled by the Turco-Mongol clan of Tore ( Jochid dynasty). Throughout this period, traditional nomadic life and

6438-430: The Great and his Macedonian army fought in the Battle of Jaxartes against the Scythians along the Jaxartes River, now known as the Syr Darya along the southern border of modern Kazakhstan. The main migration of Turkic peoples occurred between the 5th and 11th centuries when they spread across most of Central Asia. The Turkic peoples slowly replaced and assimilated the previous Iranian -speaking locals, turning

6549-427: The Japanese Home Islands since the end of World War II . While the United States does not maintain nuclear bases within its military installations on the Home Islands, it is believed to have once stored weapons at Okinawa , which remained under US administrative jurisdiction until 1972. Italy is a nuclear free zone since the Italian nuclear power referendum of November 1987. Following center-right parties' victory in

6660-412: The Karatau basin with 650 million tonnes of P 2 O 5 and the Chilisai deposit of the Aqtobe phosphorite basin located in northwestern Kazakhstan, with resources of 500–800   million tonnes of 9 percent ore. On 17 October 2013, the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) accepted Kazakhstan as "EITI Compliant", meaning that the country has a basic and functional process to ensure

6771-484: The Oakland Tribune editorial section, recommended a "No" vote towards the measure. Under Ordinance No. 11062 CMS then passed on December 6, 1988, the city is restricted from doing business with "any entity knowingly engaged in nuclear weapons work and any of its agents, subsidiaries or affiliates which are engaged in nuclear weapons work." Two lawsuits were filed against the City regarding the measure, one brought by Pacific Legal Foundation on behalf of businesses. The other

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6882-410: The Russian language in all schools and governmental organisations. Russia's efforts to impose its system aroused the resentment of the Kazakhs, and, by the 1860s, some Kazakhs resisted its rule. Russia had disrupted the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock-based economy, and people were suffering from starvation, with some Kazakh tribes being decimated. The Kazakh national movement, which began in

6993-448: The South and North Sydney councils. Fremantle in Western Australia was the first council to declare itself a nuclear free zone in 1980. The continuing presence of nuclear armed and powered warships in the city's port led to many protests during the 1980s and 1990s. However the passage of such legislation is generally considered just a symbolic measure. The majority of councils which have passed anti-nuclear weaponry legislation are members of

7104-438: The Soviet Union. Elections to the Majilis in September 2004, yielded a lower house dominated by the pro-government Otan Party , headed by President Nazarbayev. Two other parties considered sympathetic to the president, including the agrarian-industrial bloc AIST and the Asar Party , founded by President Nazarbayev's daughter, won most of the remaining seats. The opposition parties which were officially registered and competed in

7215-401: The UK was Manchester City Council in 1980 – this still exists to this day. Wales became 'nuclear free' on 23 February 1982 after Clwyd County Council declared itself 'nuclear free' and the Nuclear Free Wales Declaration was made. This policy was legally underpinned by Section 137 of the Local Government Act, which allowed local authorities to spend a small amount on whatever members considered

7326-399: The United States and by the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior by French spies while docked in Auckland . According to some commentators, the legislation was a milestone in New Zealand's development as a nation and seen as an important act of sovereignty, self-determination and cultural identity. New Zealand ’s three decade anti-nuclear campaign is the only successful movement of its type in

7437-566: The United States passing nuclear free zone ordinances and the date of adoption, when known: Additionally, many cities, counties, and states considered becoming nuclear free zones. Locations where governmental or popular votes were conducted and defeated, where known, were: Radiopharmaceuticals Radiopharmaceuticals , or medicinal radiocompounds , are a group of pharmaceutical drugs containing radioactive isotopes . Radiopharmaceuticals can be used as diagnostic and therapeutic agents. Radiopharmaceuticals emit radiation themselves, which

7548-508: The act went into effect. The University of California, as a state institution, is not subject to Berkeley's municipal regulations, including the ban. Berkeley also has major freeway and train lines which are used in transporting nuclear materials. On November 14, 1984, the Davis, California City Council declared the city to be a nuclear-free zone. Davis has major freeway and train arteries running through it which are used for transporting nuclear materials. The University of California , with

7659-446: The canyon provided a safe haven for a rare ash tree , Fraxinus sogdiana , which survived the Ice Age there and has now also grown in some other areas. Bigach crater , at 48°30′N 82°00′E  /  48.500°N 82.000°E  / 48.500; 82.000 , is a Pliocene or Miocene asteroid impact crater , 8 km (5 mi) in diameter and estimated to be 5±3 million years old. Kazakhstan's Almaty region

7770-608: The city on how to promote the safety and welfare of its citizens from harmful exposure to high-level nuclear waste. Another well-known nuclear-free community is Berkeley, California , whose citizens passed the Nuclear Free Berkeley Act in 1986 which allows the city to levy fines for nuclear weapons-related activity and to boycott companies involved in the United States nuclear infrastructure. The City of Berkeley has posted signs at city limits proclaiming its nuclear free status. The ordinance specifies possible fines for such activities within its borders. The University of California, Berkeley

7881-466: The collapse of the Soviet Union, the facilities were dismantled and moved to the Russian Federation . The Treaty came into force on 21 March 2009. Uzbekistan has begun preparations to begin construction of its first nuclear power plant. In 2022, Kyrgyzstan announced it would work together with Russia in order to build a small nuclear plant. In Kazakhstan , the Kazakhstan Ministry of Energy has recently proposed to reintroduce nuclear power to decrease

7992-645: The construction of nuclear power plants within its territorial limits. All states of Central Asia have signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and signed the Central Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone treaty. Thus, there are no technologies to create a weapon or enrich the particles, but in Tajikistan , during the Soviet Union, such initiatives were brought to life, but with

8103-566: The country and is the world's largest dry steppe region. The steppe is characterised by large areas of grasslands and sandy regions. Major seas, lakes and rivers include Lake Balkhash , Lake Zaysan , the Charyn River and gorge , the Ili , Irtysh , Ishim , Ural and Syr Darya rivers, and the Aral Sea until it largely dried up in one of the world's worst environmental disasters. The Charyn Canyon

8214-571: The country's reliance on fossil fuels. As a resource-poor nation, Japan is heavily reliant on nuclear power, but its unique experience in World War II has led to the wholesale rejection of nuclear weapons, holding nuclear weapons shall not be manufactured in, possessed by, or allowed entry into Japan. These tenets, known as the Three Non-Nuclear Principles , were first stated by Prime Minister Eisaku Satō in 1967, and were adopted as

8325-540: The country, situated in Atyrau , Pavlodar , and Şymkent . These are not capable of processing the total crude output, so much of it is exported to Russia. According to the US Energy Information Administration , Kazakhstan was producing approximately 1,540,000 barrels (245,000 m ) of oil per day in 2009. Kazakhstan also possesses large deposits of phosphorite . Two of the largest deposits include

8436-563: The decades of privation, war and resettlement, by 1959 the Kazakhs had become a minority, making up 30 percent of the population. Ethnic Russians accounted for 43 percent. In 1947, the USSR, as part of its atomic bomb project , founded an atomic bomb test site near the north-eastern town of Semipalatinsk , where the first Soviet nuclear bomb test was conducted in 1949. Hundreds of nuclear tests were conducted until 1989 with adverse consequences for

8547-464: The deposits on the Caspian shore are only a small part of a much larger deposit. It is said that 3.5 billion tonnes (3.4 billion long tons) of oil and 2.5 billion cubic metres (88 billion cubic feet) of gas could be found in that area. Overall the estimate of Kazakhstan's oil deposits is 6.1 billion tonnes (6.0 billion long tons). However, there are only three refineries within

8658-510: The elections won a single seat. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe was monitoring the election, which it said fell short of international standards. In March 2011, Nazarbayev outlined the progress made toward democracy by Kazakhstan. As of 2010 , Kazakhstan was reported on the Democracy Index by The Economist as an authoritarian regime , which was still the case as of

8769-449: The firm policy of the United States to "neither confirm nor deny" whether particular naval vessels carry nuclear weapons (a " policy of deliberate ambiguity "), the Act effectively bars these ships from entering New Zealand waters. New Zealand's security treaty with the United States, ANZUS , did not mention nuclear deterrence and did not require unconditional port access. However, after New Zealand refused entry to USS Buchanan in 1985,

8880-584: The formal capital in the first quarter of the 19th century. The Emirate of Bukhara ruled Şymkent before the Russians gained dominance. In the first half of the 18th century, the Russian Empire constructed the Irtysh line  [ ru ] , a series of forty-six forts and ninety-six redoubts, including Omsk (1716), Semipalatinsk (1718), Pavlodar (1720), Orenburg (1743) and Petropavlovsk (1752), to prevent Kazakh and Oirat raids into Russian territory. In

8991-508: The formation of the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic within the Soviet Union . Kazakhstan was the last constituent republic of the Soviet Union to declare independence in 1991 during its dissolution . Kazakhstan dominates Central Asia both economically and politically , accounting for 60 percent of the region's GDP , primarily through its oil and gas industry ; it also has vast mineral resources. Kazakhstan also has

9102-840: The highest Human Development Index ranking in the region. It is a unitary constitutional republic; however, its government is authoritarian . Nevertheless, there have been incremental efforts at democratization and political reform since the resignation of Nursultan Nazarbayev in 2019, who had led the country since independence. Kazakhstan is a member state of the United Nations , World Trade Organization , Commonwealth of Independent States , Shanghai Cooperation Organisation , Eurasian Economic Union , Collective Security Treaty Organization , Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe , Organization of Islamic Cooperation , Organization of Turkic States , and International Organization of Turkic Culture . The English word Kazakh , meaning

9213-573: The information disclosure in court as well as the freeway collapse generated concern from then West Oakland Councilmember, Wilson Riles Jr. who contended there would have been "deaths within a mile radius" had there been a truck carrying nuclear material present on the structure when the earthquake occurred. The measure was invalidated in federal court, on the grounds that it interfered with the Federal Government's constitutional authority over national defense and atomic energy. The issue being Oakland

9324-535: The late 18th century the Kazakhs took advantage of Pugachev's Rebellion , which was centred on the Volga area, to raid Russian and Volga German settlements. In the 19th century, the Russian Empire began to expand its influence into Central Asia. The " Great Game " period is generally regarded as running from approximately 1813 to the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 . The tsars effectively ruled over most of

9435-567: The late 19th century, sought to preserve the native language and identity by resisting the attempts of the Russian Empire to assimilate and stifle Kazakh culture. From the 1890s onward, ever-larger numbers of settlers from the Russian Empire began colonizing the territory of present-day Kazakhstan, in particular, the province of Semirechye . The number of settlers rose still further once the Trans-Aral Railway from Orenburg to Tashkent

9546-431: The lowest population densities in the world, at fewer than 6 people per square kilometre (16 people/sq mi). Ethnic Kazakhs constitute a majority, while ethnic Russians form a significant minority. Officially secular, Kazakhstan is a Muslim-majority country with a sizeable Christian community . Kazakhstan has been inhabited since the Paleolithic era . In antiquity, various nomadic Iranian peoples such as

9657-596: The name of the local political action group sponsoring the initiative and later used by other jurisdictions worldwide. Subsequently, the tiny town of Garrett Park, Maryland , attracted worldwide attention with its referendum in May, 1982. The following year, Takoma Park, Maryland , was officially declared a nuclear-free zone in 1983 by then-mayor Sam Abbott. A citizen committee of the local city council continues to monitor city contracts. The city cannot hold contracts with any company associated with any aspect of nuclear weapons without

9768-519: The nation's environment and population. The Anti-nuclear movement in Kazakhstan became a major political force in the late 1980s. In April 1961, Baikonur became the springboard of Vostok 1 , a spacecraft with Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin being the first human to enter space. In December 1986, mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs, later called the Jeltoqsan riot, took place in Almaty to protest

9879-466: The people". Many moved due to the policy of population transfer in the Soviet Union and others were forced into involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union . The Soviet-German War (1941–1945) led to an increase in industrialisation and mineral extraction in support of the war effort. At the time of Joseph Stalin 's death in 1953, however, Kazakhstan still had an overwhelmingly agricultural economy. In 1953, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev initiated

9990-575: The population into the Great, Middle and Little (or Small) hordes ( jüz ). Political disunion, tribal rivalries, and the diminishing importance of overland trade routes between east and west weakened the Kazakh Khanate. The Khiva Khanate used this opportunity and annexed the Mangyshlak Peninsula . Uzbek rule there lasted two centuries until the Russian arrival. During the 17th century, the Kazakhs fought

10101-576: The population of Central Asia from largely Iranian , into primarily of East Asian descent. The first Turkic Khaganate was founded by Bumin in 552 on the Mongolian Plateau and quickly spread west toward the Caspian Sea. The Göktürks drove before them various peoples: Xionites , Uar , Oghurs and others. These seem to have merged into the Avars and Bulgars . Within 35 years, the eastern half and

10212-470: The powerful Security Council, removing his predecessor Nursultan Nazarbayev from the post. In September 2022, the name of the country's capital was changed back to Astana from Nur-Sultan. As it extends across both sides of the Ural River , considered the dividing line separating Europe and Asia, Kazakhstan is one of only two landlocked countries in the world that has territory in two continents (the other

10323-429: The region was the focus of ever-increasing disputes between the native Kazakh emirs and the neighbouring Persian-speaking peoples to the south. At its height, the Khanate would rule parts of Central Asia and control Cumania . The Kazakh Khanate's territories would expand deep into Central Asia. By the early 17th century, the Kazakh Khanate was struggling with the impact of tribal rivalries, which had effectively divided

10434-1096: The regular disclosure of natural resource revenues. Kazakhstan has an "extreme" continental and cold steppe climate , and sits solidly inside the Eurasian steppe , featuring the Kazakh steppe , with hot summers and very cold winters. Indeed, Astana is the second coldest capital city in the world after Ulaanbaatar . Precipitation varies between arid and semi-arid conditions, the winter being particularly dry. There are ten nature reserves and ten national parks in Kazakhstan that provide safe haven for many rare and endangered plants and animals. In total there are twenty five areas of conservancy . Common plants are Astragalus , Gagea , Allium , Carex and Oxytropis ; endangered plant species include native wild apple ( Malus sieversii ), wild grape ( Vitis vinifera ) and several wild tulip species (e.g., Tulipa greigii ) and rare onion species Allium karataviense , also Iris willmottiana and Tulipa kaufmanniana . Kazakhstan had

10545-748: The replacement of the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Kazakh SSR Dinmukhamed Konayev with Gennady Kolbin from the Russian SFSR . Governmental troops suppressed the unrest, several people were killed, and many demonstrators were jailed. In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow and found expression under Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev 's policy of glasnost ("openness"). On 25 October 1990, Kazakhstan declared its sovereignty on its territory as

10656-649: The revised document and reinstated the original constitution in July 1980. Seven years later, however, the Palauan people voted to overturn their nuclear-free status out of "economic survival". The Nuclear Free Zone Movement in the United Kingdom was very strong in early 1980s; up to two hundred local authorities including county councils , district councils and city councils such as the Greater London Council (GLC) (before its abolition) declared themselves to be 'nuclear free'. The first 'nuclear-free zone' in

10767-631: The second largest uranium , chromium , lead, and zinc reserves; the third largest manganese reserves; the fifth largest copper reserves; and ranks in the top ten for coal, iron, and gold. It is also an exporter of diamonds. Perhaps most significant for economic development, Kazakhstan also has the 11th largest proven reserves of both petroleum and natural gas. One such location is the Tokarevskoye gas condensate field . In total, there are 160 deposits with over 2.7 billion tonnes (2.7 billion long tons) of petroleum. Oil explorations have shown that

10878-527: The steppes after nearly 200 years. Officially, Kazakhstan is a democratic, secular, constitutional unitary republic ; Nursultan Nazarbayev led the country from 1991 to 2019. He was succeeded by Kassym-Jomart Tokayev . The president may veto legislation that has been passed by the parliament and is also the commander-in-chief of the armed forces . The prime minister chairs the cabinet of ministers and serves as Kazakhstan's head of government. There are three deputy prime ministers and sixteen ministers in

10989-662: The territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan. The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built military garrisons and barracks in its effort to establish a presence in Central Asia in the so-called "Great Game" for dominance in the area against the British Empire , which was extending its influence from the south in India and Southeast Asia. Russia built its first outpost, Orsk , in 1735. Russia introduced

11100-637: The traditional elite, along with forced collectivisation in the late 1920s and 1930s, brought famine and high fatalities, leading to unrest (see also: Famine in Kazakhstan of 1932–33 ). During the 1930s, some members of the Kazakh intelligentsia were executed – as part of the policies of political reprisals pursued by the Soviet government in Moscow. On 5 December 1936, the Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (whose territory by then corresponded to that of modern Kazakhstan)

11211-419: The world which resulted in the nation's nuclear-free zone status being enshrined in legislation. The nuclear-free zone law does not make building land-based nuclear power plants illegal. However, the relatively small electricity system , abundance of other resources to generate electricity, and public opposition has meant a nuclear power plant has never gone beyond the investigation phase – a nuclear power plant

11322-472: Was a key constituent of the Eurasian trading Steppe Route , the ancestor of the terrestrial Silk Roads . Archaeologists believe that humans first domesticated the horse in the region's vast steppes. During recent prehistoric times, Central Asia was inhabited by groups such as the possibly Indo-European Afanasievo culture , later early Indo-Iranian cultures such as Andronovo , and later Indo-Iranians such as

11433-665: Was brought by the Federal government in September 1989. Early in court document filings, the federal government revealed that Oakland was the hub of the Bay Area's nuclear weapons distribution network and that radioactive components of atomic weapons traveled regularly through Oakland. Soon thereafter, the 6.9M 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake occurred leading to the collapse of the Cypress Street Viaduct in West Oakland. The combination of

11544-451: Was completed in 1906. A specially created Migration Department (Переселенческое Управление) in St. Petersburg oversaw and encouraged the migration to expand Russian influence in the area. During the 19th century, about 400,000 Russians immigrated to Kazakhstan, and about one million Slavs, Germans, Jews, and others immigrated to the region during the first third of the 20th century. Vasile Balabanov

11655-507: Was detached from the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) and made the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic , a full union republic of the USSR, one of eleven such republics at the time, along with the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic . The republic was one of the destinations for exiled and convicted persons, as well as for mass resettlements, or deportations affected by the central USSR authorities during

11766-473: Was in the interest of their area or a part of their area. UK nuclear-free local authorities refused to take part in civil defence exercises relating to nuclear war, which they thought were futile. The non-cooperation of the nuclear-free zone authorities was the main reason for the cancellation of the national 'Hard Rock' civil defence exercise in July 1982. In England and Wales 24 of the 54 county councils refused to participate and seven more co-operated only in

11877-455: Was placed on converting the country's economy to a market economy while political reforms lagged behind economic advances. By 2006, Kazakhstan was generating 60 percent of the GDP of Central Asia, primarily through its oil industry. In 1997, the government moved the capital to Astana , renamed Nur-Sultan on 23 March 2019, from Almaty , Kazakhstan's largest city, where it had been established under

11988-475: Was primarily due to the beliefs of ministers that the zone should be within the framework of NATO and in a wider European context of disarmament, which seemed unlikely at the time. The Soviet Union was also interested in establishing a Nordic nuclear weapons-free zone, though likely only as a tool to divide NATO. The Soviet Union did not commit to the removal of any nuclear weapons on the Kola Peninsula or in

12099-557: Was proposed north of Auckland in the early 1970s, but the discovery of large natural gas reserves in Taranaki saw the proposal shelved. Nuclear weapons-free Nordic ( Finn. Ydinaseeton Pohjola ) was an initiative by the President of Finland Urho Kekkonen for a nuclear weapons-free zone in the Nordic countries . The aim was to prevent the Nordic countries from becoming a nuclear battleground and

12210-531: Was required by Article 17 of the 1947 Peace Treaty to not seek atomic weapons, but Norway and Denmark were members of NATO, and the alliance saw nuclear weapons as crucial to their strategy. Despite both Norway and Denmark being somewhat opposed to the stationing of nuclear weapons on their territory, the presence of foreign military in their countries made an absolute peacetime and wartime ban, as proposed by Kekkonen, practically impossible. Sweden finally scrapped its nuclear weapon programme in 1968, due to concerns of

12321-488: Was the administrator responsible for the resettlement during much of this time. The competition for land and water that ensued between the Kazakhs and the newcomers caused great resentment against colonial rule during the final years of the Russian Empire . The most serious uprising, the Central Asian revolt , occurred in 1916. The Kazakhs attacked Russian and Cossack settlers and military garrisons. The revolt resulted in

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