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164-593: Novogrudok or Navahrudak ( Belarusian : Навагрудак ; Russian : Новогрудок ; Polish : Nowogródek , Lithuanian : Naugardukas ; Yiddish : נאַוואַראַדאָק , romanized :  Navaradok ) is a town in Grodno Region , Belarus . It serves as the administrative center of Novogrudok District . As of 2024, it has a population of 27,936. In the Middle Ages , the city was ruled by King Mindaugas ' son Vaišvilkas . During and after Mindaugas' rule, Novogrudok

328-430: A ravelin like angular gun platform screening one of the curtain walls which is protected from flanking fire from the towers of the main part of the fort. Another example is the fortifications of Rhodes which were frozen in 1522 so that Rhodes is the only European walled town that still shows the transition between the classical medieval fortification and the modern ones. A manual about the construction of fortification

492-524: A Museum was opened in his honour on September 11, 1938. As of 1931, there were 1055 residential buildings in the city, 2 catholic churches, 2 orthodox churches, 3 synagogues, and a mosque; in addition to the Belarusian one, there was a polish gymnasium. In addition, there were 2 hospitals, 7 hotels, and 2 printing houses. At the beginning of World War II , after September 17, 1939, Soviet Air Forces' bombers began dropping leaflets written in broken Polish over

656-512: A double wall of trenches and ramparts, and in the Congo forests concealed ditches and paths, along with the main works, often bristled with rows of sharpened stakes. Inner defenses were laid out to blunt an enemy penetration with a maze of defensive walls allowing for entrapment and crossfire on opposing forces. A military tactic of the Ashanti was to create powerful log stockades at key points. This

820-571: A group of glass carved glasses, known in medieval studies under the General name " Hedwig glass ". The "Cup of Saint Jadwiga" found in Novogrudok (under this name the vessel is listed in the collection of the Hermitage Museum , this Cup was not returned to Belarus, despite requests from the Belarusian side), carved images of a lion, a Griffin and a stylized tree of life in the form of two snakes entwining

984-413: A necessity for many cities. Amnya Fort in western Siberia has been described by archaeologists as one of the oldest known fortified settlements, as well as the northernmost Stone Age fort. In Bulgaria, near the town of Provadia a walled fortified settlement today called Solnitsata starting from 4700 BC had a diameter of about 300 feet (91 m), was home to 350 people living in two-storey houses, and

1148-479: A number of names, both contemporary and historical. Some of the most dissimilar are from the Old Belarusian period. Although closely related to other East Slavic languages , especially Ukrainian , Belarusian phonology is distinct in a number of ways. The phoneme inventory of the modern Belarusian language consists of 45 to 54 phonemes: 6 vowels and 39 to 48 consonants , depending on how they are counted. When

1312-461: A number of radical changes. A fully phonetic orthography was introduced. One of the most distinctive changes brought in was the principle of akanye (Belarusian: а́канне ), wherein unstressed "o", pronounced in both Russian and Belarusian as /a/ , is written as "а". The Belarusian Academic Conference on Reform of the Orthography and Alphabet was convened in 1926. After discussions on the project,

1476-453: A perception that Belarusian was a "rural" and "uneducated" language. However, the census was a major breakthrough for the first steps of the Belarusian national self-awareness and identity, since it clearly showed to the Imperial authorities and the still-strong Polish minority that the population and the language were neither Polish nor Russian. The rising influence of Socialist ideas advanced

1640-579: A result, very very few kotas still stand to this day. Notable kotas: During Muhammad 's era in Arabia, many tribes made use of fortifications. In the Battle of the Trench , the largely outnumbered defenders of Medina, mainly Muslims led by Islamic prophet Muhammad, dug a trench , which together with Medina's natural fortifications, rendered the confederate cavalry (consisting of horses and camels ) useless, locking

1804-515: A study done by the Belarusian government in 2009, 72% of Belarusians speak Russian at home, while Belarusian is actively used by only 11.9% of Belarusians (others speak a mixture of Russian and Belarusian, known as Trasianka ). Approximately 29.4% of Belarusians can write, speak, and read Belarusian, while 52.5% can only read and speak it. Nevertheless, there are no Belarusian-language universities in Belarus. The Belarusian language has been known under

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1968-417: Is a military construction designed for the defense of territories in warfare , and is used to establish rule in a region during peacetime . The term is derived from Latin fortis ("strong") and facere ("to make"). From very early history to modern times, defensive walls have often been necessary for cities to survive in an ever-changing world of invasion and conquest . Some settlements in

2132-549: Is also an intermediate branch known as semi-permanent fortification. Castles are fortifications which are regarded as being distinct from the generic fort or fortress in that they are a residence of a monarch or noble and command a specific defensive territory. Roman forts and hill forts were the main antecedents of castles in Europe, which emerged in the 9th century in the Carolingian Empire . The Early Middle Ages saw

2296-428: Is another example of a Gaulish fortified settlement. The term casemate wall is used in the archaeology of Israel and the wider Near East , having the meaning of a double wall protecting a city or fortress, with transverse walls separating the space between the walls into chambers. These could be used as such, for storage or residential purposes, or could be filled with soil and rocks during siege in order to raise

2460-546: Is declared as a "familiar language" by about 316,000 inhabitants, among them about 248,000 Belarusians, comprising about 30.7% of Belarusians living in Russia. In Ukraine , the Belarusian language is declared as a "native language" by about 55,000 Belarusians, which comprise about 19.7% of Belarusians living in Ukraine. In Poland , the Belarusian language is declared as a "language spoken at home" by about 40,000 inhabitants According to

2624-543: Is employed when in the course of a campaign it becomes desirable to protect some locality with the best imitation of permanent defences that can be made in a short time, ample resources and skilled civilian labour being available. An example of this is the construction of Roman forts in England and in other Roman territories where camps were set up with the intention of staying for some time, but not permanently. Castles are fortifications which are regarded as being distinct from

2788-519: Is formally known as poliorcetics . In some texts, this latter term also applies to the art of building a fortification. Fortification is usually divided into two branches: permanent fortification and field fortification. Permanent fortifications are erected at leisure, with all the resources that a state can supply of constructive and mechanical skill, and are built of enduring materials. Field fortifications—for example breastworks —and often known as fieldworks or earthworks, are extemporized by troops in

2952-399: Is found in the representation of vowel reduction, and in particular akanje , the merger of unstressed /a/ and /o/, which exists in both Russian and Belarusian. Belarusian always spells this merged sound as ⟨a⟩ , whereas Russian uses either ⟨a⟩ or ⟨o⟩ , according to what the "underlying" phoneme is (determined by identifying the related words where

3116-478: Is known that even prior to Mindaugas' arrival, there was a Catholic church in Novogrudok. Maciej Stryjkowski , asserts that Ringold's father, Algimunt, ruled in Novogrudok over all Rus' and Lithuania, starting from Vilija River up to Starodub , Chernigov , Turau and Karachaev , as well as all of Podlasie with its adjacent castles, Brest , Mielnik , Drohiczyn , etc., holding them in peaceful tenure. Mindaugas son Vaišvilkas ruled Novogrudok. Novogrudok

3280-400: Is mostly synthetic and partly analytic, and overall quite similar to Russian grammar . Belarusian orthography, however, differs significantly from Russian orthography in some respects, due to the fact that it is a phonemic orthography that closely represents the surface phonology, whereas Russian orthography represents the underlying morphophonology . The most significant instance of this

3444-496: Is rarely used. Standardized Belarusian grammar in its modern form was adopted in 1959, with minor amendments in 1985 and 2008. It was developed from the initial form set down by Branislaw Tarashkyevich (first printed in Vilnius , 1918), and it is mainly based on the Belarusian folk dialects of Minsk - Vilnius region. Historically, there have been several other alternative standardized forms of Belarusian grammar. Belarusian grammar

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3608-400: Is the fact that in the earliest annals of Novgorod called "Novgorodou", and [ou] in the end later added the letter "k" turned [ouk], so the chronicle "Novgorodou" transformed into "Novgorodouk" and was later simplified to "Novogrudok". Locals use the older name " Navаgradak ", especially the older people. The place of stress is recorded in the publication of the "Tribunal for the inhabitants of

3772-560: Is the usual conventional borderline between the Ruthenian and Modern Belarusian stages of development. By the end of the 18th century, (Old) Belarusian was still common among the minor nobility in the eastern part, in the territory of present-day Belarus, of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (hereafter GDL). Jan Czeczot in the 1840s had mentioned that even his generation's grandfathers preferred speaking (Old) Belarusian. According to A. N. Pypin,

3936-579: The 10th Lithuanian Uhlan Regiment captured the city. Many Communist Poles from the Western Rifle Division fought in the battles on the Red Army 's side. With the city's capture, the Polish Army received large warehouses of military weaponry and ammunition, while also capturing about 300 prisoners of war . The Polish-Bolshevik front stopped for several months along the line of former German trenches on

4100-734: The 1st Legions Infantry Division . Ultimately captured by the Poles in October 1920, it was confirmed as part of the Second Polish Republic by the Peace of Riga . The civil authorities, headed by the headman Joseph Yellin, began to act on November 3. The traditions of the Lithuanian Tribunal were partially revived by the Novogrudok Voivodeship court, which opened on January 11, 1921, in

4264-588: The Belarusian Democratic Republic , Belarusian was used as the only official language (decreed by Belarusian People's Secretariat on 28 April 1918). Subsequently, in the Byelorussian SSR , Belarusian was decreed to be one of the four (Belarusian, Polish, Russian, and Yiddish) official languages (decreed by Central Executive Committee of BSSR in February 1921). A decree of 15 July 1924 confirmed that

4428-732: The British Raj are found in the mainland Indian subcontinent (modern day India , Pakistan , Bangladesh and Nepal ). "Fort" is the word used in India for all old fortifications. Numerous Indus Valley Civilization sites exhibit evidence of fortifications. By about 3500 BC, hundreds of small farming villages dotted the Indus floodplain. Many of these settlements had fortifications and planned streets. The stone and mud brick houses of Kot Diji were clustered behind massive stone flood dykes and defensive walls, for neighbouring communities bickered constantly about

4592-614: The Indus Valley Civilization were the first small cities to be fortified. In ancient Greece , large stone walls had been built in Mycenaean Greece , such as the ancient site of Mycenae (known for the huge stone blocks of its ' cyclopean ' walls). A Greek phrourion was a fortified collection of buildings used as a military garrison , and is the equivalent of the Roman castellum or fortress. These constructions mainly served

4756-1147: The Maratha Empire . A large majority of forts in India are in North India. The most notable forts are the Red Fort at Old Delhi , the Red Fort at Agra , the Chittor Fort and Mehrangarh Fort in Rajasthan , the Ranthambhor Fort , Amer Fort and Jaisalmer Fort also in Rajasthan and Gwalior Fort in Madhya Pradesh . Arthashastra , the Indian treatise on military strategy describes six major types of forts differentiated by their major modes of defenses. Forts in Sri Lanka date back thousands of years, with many being built by Sri Lankan kings. These include several walled cities. With

4920-574: The Mediterranean . The fortifications were continuously being expanded and improved. Around 600 BC, in Heuneburg , Germany, forts were constructed with a limestone foundation supported by a mudbrick wall approximately 4 metres tall, probably topped by a roofed walkway, thus reaching a total height of 6 metres. The wall was clad with lime plaster, regularly renewed. Towers protruded outwards from it. The Oppidum of Manching (German: Oppidum von Manching)

5084-552: The Napoleonic wars . Most of the colonial forts were garrisoned up until the early 20th century. The coastal forts had coastal artillery manned by the Ceylon Garrison Artillery during the two world wars. Most of these were abandoned by the military but retained civil administrative officers, while others retained military garrisons, which were more administrative than operational. Some were reoccupied by military units with

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5248-518: The Nordic states and in Britain , the fortifications of Berwick-upon-Tweed and the harbour archipelago of Suomenlinna at Helsinki being fine examples. During the 18th century, it was found that the continuous enceinte , or main defensive enclosure of a bastion fortress, could not be made large enough to accommodate the enormous field armies which were increasingly being employed in Europe; neither could

5412-593: The Novogrudok Ghetto , Novogrudok and nearby villages during the Holocaust . However, in mid-may 1943, the last remaining ghetto prisoners began to dig a 250-metre (820 ft) underground passage outside the ghetto, and five months later, on September 26, 1943, an escape was made through it. A total of 232 people escaped through the tunnel. Some of the fleeing Jews joined the Bielski partisans , which actively fought against

5576-737: The Old Church Slavonic language. The modern Belarusian form was defined in 1918, and consists of thirty-two letters. Before that, Belarusian had also been written in the Belarusian Latin alphabet (Łacinka / Лацінка), the Belarusian Arabic alphabet (by Lipka Tatars ) and the Hebrew alphabet (by Belarusian Jews ). The Glagolitic script was used, sporadically, until the 11th or 12th century. There are several systems of romanization of Belarusian written texts. The Belarusian Latin alphabet

5740-677: The Old City of Shanghai , Suzhou , Xi'an and the walled villages of Hong Kong . The famous walls of the Forbidden City in Beijing were established in the early 15th century by the Yongle Emperor . The Forbidden City made up the inner portion of the Beijing city fortifications . During the Spanish Era several forts and outposts were built throughout the archipelago. Most notable is Intramuros ,

5904-738: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth after the Union of Lublin in 1569. In 1505, the Tatars tried to capture the city, but failed. Novogrudok was designated as the capital of the Nowogródek Voivodeship from 1507 until the Third Partition of Poland in 1795. On July 26, 1511, the town was granted Magdeburg rights by King Sigismund I the Old , which were reconfirmed in 1562, 1595 and 1776. It

6068-579: The Red Army to occupy Vilnius. On 8 July 1944, the Red Army reoccupied Novogrudok after almost three years of German occupation. However, after retaking Western Belorussia from the Germans, the recent allies became enemies. Thus, on August 21, 1944, in the village of Surkontakh, the commander of the Home Army's Novogrudok partisan district, Lieutenant Colonel Maciej Kalenkiewicz , nicknamed "Kotvich" (1906-1944) from

6232-543: The Russian Academy of Sciences refused to print his submission, on the basis that it had not been prepared in a sufficiently scientific manner. From the mid-1830s ethnographic works began to appear, and tentative attempts to study the language were instigated (e.g. Shpilevskiy's grammar). The Belarusian literary tradition began to re-form, based on the folk language, initiated by the works of Vintsent Dunin-Martsinkyevich . See also : Jan Czeczot , Jan Barszczewski . At

6396-605: The Siege of Ta'if in January 630, Muhammad ordered his followers to attack enemies who fled from the Battle of Hunayn and sought refuge in the fortress of Taif. The entire city of Kerma in Nubia (present day Sudan) was encompassed by fortified walls surrounded by a ditch. Archaeology has revealed various Bronze Age bastions and foundations constructed of stone together with either baked or unfired brick. The walls of Benin are described as

6560-617: The Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). The Great Wall of China had been built since the Qin dynasty (221–207 BC), although its present form was mostly an engineering feat and remodelling of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 AD). In addition to the Great Wall, a number of Chinese cities also employed the use of defensive walls to defend their cities. Notable Chinese city walls include the city walls of Hangzhou , Nanjing ,

6724-787: The Theodosian Walls of Constantinople , together with partial remains elsewhere. These are mostly city gates, like the Porta Nigra in Trier or Newport Arch in Lincoln . Hadrian's Wall was built by the Roman Empire across the width of what is now northern England following a visit by Roman Emperor Hadrian (AD 76–138) in AD ;122. A number of forts dating from the Later Stone Age to

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6888-401: The "Great Wall of Brodgar" it was 4 metres (13 ft) thick and 4 metres tall. The wall had some symbolic or ritualistic function. The Assyrians deployed large labour forces to build new palaces , temples and defensive walls. In Bronze Age Malta , some settlements also began to be fortified. The most notable surviving example is Borġ in-Nadur , where a bastion built in around 1500 BC

7052-502: The "soft sounding R" ( мякка-эравы ) and "strong akanye " ( моцнае аканне ), and the South-Western dialect is chiefly characterized by the "hard sounding R" ( цвёрда-эравы ) and "moderate akanye" ( умеранае аканне ). The West Polesian dialect group is separated from the rest of the country by the conventional line Pruzhany – Ivatsevichy – Tsyelyakhany – Luninyets – Stolin . There is a high degree of mutual intelligibility among

7216-505: The 10th century, and the fortifications by the mid-11th century. Research also suggests that a city already existed on-site in the 9th–10th centuries, which had trade links with Byzantium , the Near East , Western Europe and Scandinavia . These trade links were related to the Amber Road . Archaeologically, Novogrudok was studied in the years 1957-1977. In the first half of the 11th century,

7380-431: The 1897 Russian Empire census , about 5.89 million people declared themselves speakers of Belarusian (then known as White Russian). The end of the 19th century, however, still showed that the urban language of Belarusian towns remained either Polish or Russian. The same census showed that towns with a population greater than 50,000 had fewer than a tenth Belarusian speakers. This state of affairs greatly contributed to

7544-530: The 19th and early 20th centuries. The advances in modern warfare since World War I have made large-scale fortifications obsolete in most situations. Many United States Army installations are known as forts, although they are not always fortified. During the pioneering era of North America, many outposts on the frontiers, even non-military outposts, were referred to generically as forts. Larger military installations may be called fortresses; smaller ones were once known as fortalices. The word fortification can refer to

7708-630: The Baltic – amber . Novogrudok was first mentioned in the Sofia First Chronicle and Novgorod Fourth Chronicle in 1044 in reference to a war between Yaroslav I and Lithuanian tribes. It was also mentioned in the Hypatian Codex in 1252 as Novogorodok , meaning "new little town". Novogrudok was a major settlement in the remote western lands of the Krivichs that came under Kievan Rus' control at

7872-510: The Belarusian grammar. In 1915, Rev. Balyaslaw Pachopka had prepared a Belarusian grammar using the Latin script. Belarusian linguist S. M. Nyekrashevich considered Pachopka's grammar unscientific and ignorant of the principles of the language. But Pachopka's grammar was reportedly taught in an unidentified number of schools, from 1918 for an unspecified period. Another grammar was supposedly jointly prepared by A. Lutskyevich and Ya. Stankyevich, and differed from Tarashkyevich's grammar somewhat in

8036-403: The Belarusian language was spoken in some areas among the minor nobility during the 19th century. In its vernacular form, it was the language of the smaller town dwellers and of the peasantry and it had been the language of oral folklore. Teaching in Belarusian was conducted mainly in schools run by the Basilian order . The development of Belarusian in the 19th century was strongly influenced by

8200-502: The Belarusian, Russian, Yiddish and Polish languages had equal status in Soviet Belarus. In the BSSR, Tarashkyevich's grammar had been officially accepted for use in state schooling after its re-publication in unchanged form, first in 1922 by Yazep Lyosik under his own name as Practical grammar. Part I , then in 1923 by the Belarusian State Publishing House under the title Belarusian language. Grammar. Ed. I. 1923 , also by "Ya. Lyosik". In 1925, Lyosik added two new chapters, addressing

8364-406: The Belarusian, Russian, and Ukrainian languages. Within East Slavic, the Belarusian language is most closely related to Ukrainian . The modern Belarusian language was redeveloped on the base of the vernacular spoken remnants of the Ruthenian language , surviving in the ethnic Belarusian territories in the 19th century. The end of the 18th century (the times of the Divisions of Commonwealth )

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8528-493: The CP(b) of Belarus, it became a part of the Belarusian SSR . On May 25, 1919, the Novogrudok Belarusian gymnasium was opened here. During the Polish–Soviet War , Novogrudok changed hands several times. From mid-March 1919, Polish Army detachments began to appear in Novogrudok's vicinity. On April 18, 1919, at dawn, after several hours of fighting, soldiers of the 2nd Kaunas Rifle Regiment  [ pl ] of Major Leon Zawistowski  [ pl ] and two squadrons of

8692-410: The Commission had actually prepared the project for spelling reform. The resulting project had included both completely new rules and existing rules in unchanged and changed forms, some of the changes being the work of the Commission itself, and others resulting from the resolutions of the Belarusian Academic Conference (1926), re-approved by the Commission. Notably, the use of the Ь (soft sign) before

8856-475: The Conference made resolutions on some of the problems. However, the Lyosik brothers' project had not addressed all the problematic issues, so the Conference was not able to address all of those. As the outcome of the conference, the Orthographic Commission was created to prepare the project of the actual reform. This was instigated on 1 October 1927, headed by S. Nyekrashevich, with the following principal guidelines of its work adopted: During its work in 1927–29,

9020-413: The Cup of life. According to the British Museum , the vessels of this group are among the first hundred outstanding works of the material culture of universal civilization. All currently known cups of the "Hedwig glass" series, both preserved intact and individual fragments of these cups, were stored for many centuries exclusively in the capital cities of States that were either part of the medieval state of

9184-419: The East Slavic languages, Belarusian shares many grammatical and lexical features with other members of the group. To some extent, Russian, Ukrainian , and Belarusian retain a degree of mutual intelligibility . Belarusian descends from a language generally referred to as Ruthenian (13th to 18th centuries), which had, in turn, descended from what is referred to as Old East Slavic (10th to 13th centuries). In

9348-469: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania'" (Vilna, 1586), where it is marked in print "in Novа́gorodku". At the time of entry into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , the traditional Belarusian pronunciation Navа́gradak , transformed into the modern name Novogrudok , from Polish Nowogródek . Some historians believe that the chronicle versions of the name of the city – Novogorod , Novgorodok , Novy Gorodok , Novogorodok-Litovsky , etc. indicate that, perhaps, there

9512-411: The Great founded the Roman Catholic Transfiguration Church in Novogrudok, in which the wedding of the king of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Jogaila with Sophia of Halshany took place. This marriage gave rise to the Jagiellonian dynasty . Their son Casimir IV Jagiellon granted town rights in 1444. After the Union of Krewo (1385), it was part of the Polish–Lithuanian Union , which became

9676-443: The Holy Roman Empire, or in the capitals of dynasties that had a kinship with the dynasties that ruled these States. In 1997, Novogrudok and Novogrudoky district were merged into a single administrative unit. The city has links with the twin cities of Elbląg , Krynica Morska and Leymen . On September 10, 2011, in honour of the 500th anniversary of the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania Magdeburg law (freed from feudal duties,

9840-458: The Indus Valley Civilization were fortified. Forts also appeared in urban cities of the Gangetic valley during the second urbanisation period between 600 and 200 BC, and as many as 15 fortification sites have been identified by archaeologists throughout the Gangetic valley, such as Kaushambi , Mahasthangarh , Pataliputra , Mathura , Ahichchhatra , Rajgir , and Lauria Nandangarh . The earliest Mauryan period brick fortification occurs in one of

10004-455: The Iron Age and peaking in Iron Age II (10th–6th century BC). However, the construction of casemate walls had begun to be replaced by sturdier solid walls by the 9th century BC , probably due the development of more effective battering rams by the Neo-Assyrian Empire . Casemate walls could surround an entire settlement, but most only protected part of it. The three different types included freestanding casemate walls, then integrated ones where

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10168-487: The Khubala detachment, was killed in a battle with tenfold superior units of the NKVD . During the war, more than 45,000 people were killed in the city and the surrounding area, and over 60% of housing was destroyed. After the war, on this region did the organization "the black cat", which was aimed at the struggle against the Soviet regime, so in March 1948, the United group of troops of the organization "the black cat" with several units " bulbivtsiv " (total 200 men) attacked

10332-479: The Nazis in the region. During the German occupation , the city served as the administrative centre of Kreisgebiet Nowogrodek within the Generalbezirk Weißruthenien of Reichskommissariat Ostland . The local population was subjected to deportations for forced labour to Germany and executions. In February–March 1944, by order of the Gebietskommissar (Area Commissioner) of the Novogrudok district, SS- Obersturmbannführer Wilhelm Traub , former Lieutenant of

10496-538: The Novogrudok gymnasium in 1858. In 1837, Novogrudok had 4 unpaved and 9 paved streets and alleys. During the January Uprising , an insurgent organization led by V. Borzobogaty was formed in the city. In 1863, priest Felician Lashkevich from Novogrudok partook in this uprising. As part of anti-Catholic repression following the January Uprising , the tsarist administration closed down the gymnasium as well as Catholic churches, which were transformed into Orthodox churches. In 1896, Rabbi Yosef Yozel Horwitz founded one of

10660-428: The Novogrudok to release the arrested members of his organization. The city was the base of the MGB 's Special Department, which fought against anti-Soviet partisans . The anti-Soviet partisan movement continued until the early 1960s until it completely ceased to exist. After the war, the area remained part of the Byelorussian SSR , and most of the destroyed infrastructure was rapidly rebuilt. On 8 July 1954, following

10824-400: The Polish army Barys Rahula formed the Belarusian Novogrudok mounted squadron to fight the partisans. In February 1944, the 65th Belarusian Schutzmannschaft Battalion was formed in Novogrudok. However, in early July 1944, Barys Rahula curtailed the activities of the squadron. During the German occupation in Novogrudok, the Sisters of the Holy Family of Nazareth organized, at the request of

10988-402: The Polish-Lithuanian army, and was exempt from paying taxes for a period of 4 years. In the 16th–18th centuries, Novogrudok suffered numerous fires (1578, 1599, 1613, 1652, the most severe – in 1751, when 167 houses, 4 churches, the town hall and the Governor's office burned down) and epidemics (1590, 1592, 1603, 1708). In addition, military events and cataclysms of the 17th–18th centuries caused

11152-443: The Russian language and literature department of St. Petersburg University, approached the board of the Belarusian newspaper Nasha Niva with a proposal that a Belarusian linguist be trained under his supervision in order to be able to create documentation of the grammar. Initially, the famous Belarusian poet Maksim Bahdanovič was to be entrusted with this work. However, Bahdanovič's poor health (tuberculosis) precluded his living in

11316-400: The South-Western. In addition, there is a transitional Middle Belarusian dialect group and the separate West Polesian dialect group. The North-Eastern and the South-Western dialects are separated by a hypothetical line Ashmyany – Minsk – Babruysk – Gomel , with the area of the Middle Belarusian dialect group placed on and along this line. The North-Eastern dialect is chiefly characterized by

11480-545: The all-Russian " narodniki " and Belarusian national movements (late 1870s–early 1880s) renewed interest in the Belarusian language (See also: Homan (1884) , Bahushevich , Yefim Karskiy , Dovnar-Zapol'skiy , Bessonov, Pypin, Sheyn, Nasovič). The Belarusian literary tradition was also renewed ( see also : F. Bahushevich ). It was in these times that F. Bahushevich made his famous appeal to Belarusians: "Do not forsake our language, lest you pass away" (Belarusian: Не пакідайце ж мовы нашай, каб не ўмёрлі ). The first dictionary of

11644-409: The ancient site of Mycenae (famous for the huge stone blocks of its ' cyclopean ' walls). In classical era Greece , the city of Athens built two parallel stone walls, called the Long Walls , that reached their fortified seaport at Piraeus a few miles away. In Central Europe , the Celts built large fortified settlements known as oppida , whose walls seem partially influenced by those built in

11808-410: The arrival of cannons on the 14th century battlefield . Fortifications in the age of black powder evolved into much lower structures with greater use of ditches and earth ramparts that would absorb and disperse the energy of cannon fire. Walls exposed to direct cannon fire were very vulnerable, so were sunk into ditches fronted by earth slopes. This placed a heavy emphasis on the geometry of

11972-634: The beginning of the 1860s, both the Russian and Polish parties in Belarusian lands had begun to realise that the decisive role in the upcoming conflicts was shifting to the peasantry, overwhelmingly Belarusian. So a large amount of propaganda appeared, targeted at the peasantry and written in Belarusian; notably, the anti-Russian, anti-Tsarist, anti-Eastern Orthodox "Manifesto" and the first newspaper Mužyckaja prauda ( Peasants' Truth ) (1862–1863) by Konstanty Kalinowski , and anti-Polish, anti-Revolutionary, pro-Orthodox booklets and poems (1862). The advent of

12136-526: The building of the former Russian County school. During the interwar period , Novogrudok served as the seat of the Novogrudok Voivodeship until the 1939 invasion of Poland by Germany and the Soviet Union. Many new buildings were built, including the voivodeship office, district court, tax office, theatre, power plant, city bath and a narrow-gauge railway station. In 1938, a museum was created in

12300-597: The castle was besieged by the Teutonic Order . It was again attacked by the Teutons in 1321, 1341, 1390 and finally in 1394. As the centre of the appanage Principality, Novogrudok was owned from 1329 by Prince Karijotas , and then by his son Fyodor from 1358, and from 1386 by Kaributas . At that time, Novogrudok was part of the Trakai Voivodeship , whose population was entirely ethnically Lithuanian , hence Novogrudok

12464-616: The city along with the surrounding villages in the lifetime possession of his wife Uliana . In 1415, at the Council of Orthodox bishops in Novogrudok, Gregory Tsamblak was elected Metropolitan of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Synod de facto declared autocephaly of the Orthodox Church in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and also reformed internal administration in the Church. In 1422, Vytautas

12628-652: The city consisted of two undefended settlements located on the Small castle and Castle hill . In the second half of the 11th century, fortifications were built around the settlement on the Castle hill , thus forming the Novogrudok detinets . On the Small Castle to the West of the detinets formed a settlement, which in the 12th century was also fortified and turned into a roundabout city. On

12792-527: The city had 428 wooden and 9 stone houses. At that time, mainly Jews , Belarusians , Poles , Lipka Tatars and Russians lived in the city. During the November Uprising , on July 22, 1831, Novogrudok was occupied for some time by the detachments of Y. Kashits and M. Mezheyevsky. After the liquidation of the Dominican school in 1834, the tsarist authorities opened a five-class school, which turned into

12956-464: The city's decline. During the Great Northern War in 1706, the city was occupied by Swedish Army , and later by Muscovite troops, who burned the city and blew up the castle . On 1 May 1751, there was great destruction due to a fire. On September 23, 1784, the king of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Stanisław August Poniatowski arrived in the city. On his way back from Nyasvizh , he visited

13120-515: The city, announcing the imminent liberation "from the yoke of the lords" and other oppressors. On 18 September 1939 Novogrudok was occupied by the Red Army and, on 14 November 1939, incorporated into the Byelorussian SSR . Many residents of the city and region were repressed and exiled to other regions of the USSR, and the region was subjected to severe Sovietization . In the administrative division of

13284-427: The city, gave a huge number of interesting finds (Byzantine glass, jewellery, and even the ruins of a house with painted walls from the inside, which had suspended lanterns in which oil was lit) this, as well as the conclusion of the archaeologist that the city appeared on this site no later than the 9th century, allows Novogrudok to claim the role of historical chronicle Novgorod. In favour of this version of localization

13448-735: The city, the Novogrudok Castle 's ruins, the tribunal and the city archive. The 6th Lithuanian Infantry Regiment was stationed in the town in 1790. During the War in Defense of the Constitution , in early June 1792, Novogrudok was attacked by the 33,000-strong Tsarist army led by Mikhail Krechetnikov . In mid-June 1792, after the defeat in the battle of Mir , Lithuanian troops under Duke Louis of Württemberg 's command retreated through Novogrudok to Grodno . Tatars from General Józef Bielak 's Corps were among

13612-575: The city. In 1907-1909, a provincial branch of the Polish society "Enlightenment" worked in the city, which supported Polish education. It had a thriving Jewish community. In 1900, its population was 5,015. During the First World War , the city was under German occupation from 22 September 1915 to 27 December 1918. On September 22, 1915, Novogrudok was occupied by the German 10th Army . The Russian-German front

13776-402: The city: Stanisław Wojciechowski (May 25–27, 1924) and Ignacy Mościcki (September 1929 and the end of June 1931). In the 1920s and 1930s, more than 10 titles of periodicals were published in the city. In October 1922, the first Belarusian-language newspaper "Nasha Batskayshchyna" was published in Novogrudok. In 1924-1931, a mound was built on the small castle in honour of Adam Mickiewicz , and

13940-488: The climate of St. Petersburg, so Branislaw Tarashkyevich , a fresh graduate of the Vilnya Liceum No. 2 , was selected for the task. In the Belarusian community, great interest was vested in this enterprise. The already famous Belarusian poet Yanka Kupala , in his letter to Tarashkyevich, urged him to "hurry with his much-needed work". Tarashkyevich had been working on the preparation of the grammar during 1912–1917, with

14104-516: The combinations "consonant+iotated vowel" ("softened consonants"), which had been previously denounced as highly redundant (e.g., in the proceedings of the Belarusian Academic Conference (1926)), was cancelled. However, the complete resolution of the highly important issue of the orthography of unstressed Е ( IE ) was not achieved. Fortification A fortification (also called a fort , fortress , fastness , or stronghold )

14268-560: The control of prime agricultural land. The fortification varies by site. While Dholavira has stone-built fortification walls, Harrapa is fortified using baked bricks; sites such as Kalibangan exhibit mudbrick fortifications with bastions and Lothal has a quadrangular fortified layout. Evidence also suggested of fortifications in Mohenjo-daro . Even a small town—for instance, Kotada Bhadli, exhibiting sophisticated fortification-like bastions—shows that nearly all major and minor towns of

14432-407: The creation of some towns built around castles. Medieval-style fortifications were largely made obsolete by the arrival of cannons in the 14th century. Fortifications in the age of black powder evolved into much lower structures with greater use of ditches and earth ramparts that would absorb and disperse the energy of cannon fire. Walls exposed to direct cannon fire were very vulnerable, so

14596-931: The current level of military development. During the Renaissance era , the Venetian Republic raised great walls around cities, and the finest examples, among others, are in Nicosia (Cyprus), Rocca di Manerba del Garda (Lombardy), and Palmanova (Italy), or Dubrovnik (Croatia), which proved to be futile against attacks but still stand to this day. Unlike the Venetians, the Ottomans used to build smaller fortifications but in greater numbers, and only rarely fortified entire settlements such as Počitelj , Vratnik , and Jajce in Bosnia . Medieval-style fortifications were largely made obsolete by

14760-485: The defences be constructed far enough away from the fortress town to protect the inhabitants from bombardment by the besiegers, the range of whose guns was steadily increasing as better manufactured weapons were introduced. Threfore, since refortifying the Prussian fortress cities of Koblenz and Cologne after 1815, the principle of the ring fortress or girdle fortress was used: forts, each several hundred metres out from

14924-663: The disestablishment of the Baranavichy Region, the raion , along with Novogrudok, became part of the Grodno Region , where it still is, now in Belarus. During the archaeological excavations at the Small Castle in Novogrudok in the period from 1955 to 1962, conducted by the Leningrad Department of the Institute of Archaeology of the USSR Academy of Sciences , an artefact was found, called "glass carved glass", belonging to

15088-531: The educational system. The Polish and Russian languages were being introduced and re-introduced, while the general state of the people's education remained poor until the very end of the Russian Empire. In summary, the first two decades of the 19th century had seen the unprecedented prosperity of Polish culture and language in the former GDL lands, and had prepared the era of such famous Polish writers as Adam Mickiewicz and Władysław Syrokomla . The era had seen

15252-514: The effective completion of the Polonization of the lowest level of the nobility, the further reduction of the area of use of contemporary Belarusian, and the effective folklorization of Belarusian culture. Nevertheless, at the beginning of the 19th century "there began a revival of national pride within the country ... and a growth in interest [in Belarusian] from outside". Due both to the state of

15416-427: The emancipation of the Belarusian language even further ( see also: Belarusian Socialist Assembly , Circle of Belarusian People's Education and Belarusian Culture , Belarusian Socialist Lot , Socialist Party "White Russia" , Alaiza Pashkevich , Nasha Dolya ). The fundamental works of Yefim Karsky marked a turning point in the scientific perception of Belarusian. The ban on publishing books and papers in Belarusian

15580-643: The end of the 10th century. However, this hypothesis has been disputed as the earliest archaeological findings date from the 11th century. In the 13th century, the Kievan Rus disintegrated due to Asian nomadic incursions, which climaxed with the Mongol horde's Siege of Kiev (1240) , resulting in the sack of Kiev and leaving a regional geopolitical vacuum in which the East Slavs splintered along pre-existing tribal lines and formed several independent, competing principalities. It

15744-704: The escalation of the Sri Lankan Civil War ; Jaffna fort , for example, came under siege several times. Large tempered earth (i.e. rammed earth ) walls were built in ancient China since the Shang dynasty ( c.  1600 –1050 BC); the capital at ancient Ao had enormous walls built in this fashion (see siege for more info). Although stone walls were built in China during the Warring States (481–221 BC), mass conversion to stone architecture did not begin in earnest until

15908-400: The field, perhaps assisted by such local labour and tools as may be procurable and with materials that do not require much preparation, such as soil, brushwood, and light timber , or sandbags (see sangar ). An example of field fortification was the construction of Fort Necessity by George Washington in 1754. There is also an intermediate branch known as semi-permanent fortification. This

16072-399: The first Belarusian census in 1999, the Belarusian language was declared as a "language spoken at home" by about 3,686,000 Belarusian citizens (36.7% of the population). About 6,984,000 (85.6%) of Belarusians declared it their "mother tongue". Other sources, such as Ethnologue , put the figure at approximately 3.5 million active speakers in Belarus. In Russia , the Belarusian language

16236-460: The foreign speakers' task of learning these paradigms; on the other hand, though, it makes spelling easier for native speakers. An example illustrating the contrast between the treatment of akanje in Russian and Belarusian orthography is the spelling of the word for "products; food": Besides the standardized lect , there are two main dialects of the Belarusian language, the North-Eastern and

16400-453: The former home of Adam Mickiewicz. The first voivode of Novogrudok (1921-1924) was Władysław Raczkiewicz , later (1939-1947) President of Poland in exile. On May 13, 1922, Adam Mickiewicz's eldest son, Wladyslaw, came to Novogrudok to stay, and on October 30, 1922, the chief of state , Marshal Józef Piłsudski , came here. In the following years, the former power station was converted into a city theatre. Several other Polish presidents visited

16564-467: The fortification to allow defensive cannonry interlocking fields of fire to cover all approaches to the lower and thus more vulnerable walls. The evolution of this new style of fortification can be seen in transitional forts such as Sarzanello in North West Italy which was built between 1492 and 1502. Sarzanello consists of both crenellated walls with towers typical of the medieval period but also has

16728-521: The frontiers of the Nile Valley to protect against invaders from neighbouring territories, as well as circle-shaped mud brick walls around their cities. Many of the fortifications of the ancient world were built with mud brick, often leaving them no more than mounds of dirt for today's archaeologists. A massive prehistoric stone wall surrounded the ancient temple of Ness of Brodgar 3200 BC in Scotland . Named

16892-504: The generic fort or fortress in that it describes a residence of a monarch or noble and commands a specific defensive territory. An example of this is the massive medieval castle of Carcassonne . Defensive fences for protecting humans and domestic animals against predators was used long before the appearance of writing and began "perhaps with primitive man blocking the entrances of his caves for security from large carnivores ". From very early history to modern times, walls have been

17056-518: The height of the Maguindanao Sultanate 's power, they blanketed the areas around Western Mindanao with kotas and other fortifications to block the Spanish advance into the region. These kotas were usually made of stone and bamboo or other light materials and surrounded by trench networks. As a result, some of these kotas were burned easily or destroyed. With further Spanish campaigns in the region,

17220-553: The help and supervision of Shakhmatov and Karskiy. Tarashkyevich had completed the work by the autumn of 1917, even moving from the tumultuous Petrograd of 1917 to the relative calm of Finland in order to be able to complete it uninterrupted. By the summer of 1918, it became obvious that there were insurmountable problems with the printing of Tarashkyevich's grammar in Petrograd: a lack of paper, type and qualified personnel. Meanwhile, his grammar had apparently been planned to be adopted in

17384-413: The inner wall was part of the outer buildings of the settlement, and finally filled casemate walls, where the rooms between the walls were filled with soil right away, allowing for a quick, but nevertheless stable construction of particularly high walls. The Romans fortified their cities with massive, mortar-bound stone walls. The most famous of these are the largely extant Aurelian Walls of Rome and

17548-402: The intervals between them. The arrival of explosive shells in the 19th century led to yet another stage in the evolution of fortification. Star forts did not fare well against the effects of high explosives and the intricate arrangements of bastions, flanking batteries and the carefully constructed lines of fire for the defending cannon could be rapidly disrupted by explosive shells. Worse,

17712-413: The large open ditches surrounding forts of this type were an integral part of the defensive scheme, as was the covered way at the edge of the counter scarp . The ditch was extremely vulnerable to bombardment with explosive shells. In response, military engineers evolved the polygonal style of fortification. The ditch became deep and vertically sided, cut directly into the native rock or soil, laid out as

17876-492: The last to leave the city. Earlier, they heroically defended the crossing of the Neman river against the Russian soldiers in the Battle of Stolbtsy . At the 18th century's end, there were 6 monasteries , 5 Catholic churches, 3 Orthodox churches, a synagogue , and a Tatar mosque in Novogrudok. In 1795, as a result of the third Partition of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , it was annexed by Imperial Russia . Administratively, it

18040-476: The main antecedents of castles in Europe , which emerged in the 9th century in the Carolingian Empire . The Early Middle Ages saw the creation of some towns built around castles. These cities were only rarely protected by simple stone walls and more usually by a combination of both walls and ditches . From the 12th century, hundreds of settlements of all sizes were founded all across Europe, which very often obtained

18204-786: The modern Belarusian language authored by Nasovič was published in 1870. In the editorial introduction to the dictionary, it is noted that: The Belarusian local tongue, which dominates a vast area from the Nioman and the Narew to the Upper Volga and from the Western Dvina to the Prypiac and the Ipuc and which is spoken by inhabitants of the North-Western and certain adjacent provinces, or those lands that were in

18368-514: The most famous Jewish higher educational religious institutions in Novogrudok, the Novardok Yeshiva , which was one of the largest and most important yeshivas in pre-war Europe and a powerful force in the Musar movement . In 1905, the first gas street lamps appeared in Novogrudok. In 1910, there were 76 stone and 1074 wooden buildings in the city, and in 1914 there were 6 educational institutions in

18532-536: The new territories, the city was briefly the centre of Navahrudak Region until it moved to Baranavichy , and region itself was renamed to Baranavichy Region and to the Novogrudok Raion (15 January 1940). On 22 June 1941, the city was subjected to German bombing, the former Starostvo, formerly the Radziwill Palace, and shopping malls were destroyed as Germany invaded the Soviet Union . On 4 July, Novogrudok

18696-457: The nine geminate consonants are excluded as mere variations, there are 39 consonants, and excluding rare consonants further decreases the count. The number 48 includes all consonant sounds, including variations and rare sounds, which may be phonetically distinct in the modern Belarusian language. The Belarusian alphabet is a variant of the Cyrillic script , which was first used as an alphabet for

18860-525: The old walled city of Manila located along the southern bank of the Pasig River . The historic city was home to centuries-old churches, schools, convents, government buildings and residences, the best collection of Spanish colonial architecture before much of it was destroyed by the bombs of World War II . Of all the buildings within the 67-acre city, only one building, the San Agustin Church, survived

19024-440: The original enceinte, were carefully sited so as to make best use of the terrain and to be capable of mutual support with the neighbouring forts. Gone were citadels surrounding towns: forts were to be moved to the outside of the cities some 12 km to keep the enemy at a distance so their artillery could not bombard the city center. From now on a ring of forts were to be built at a spacing that would allow them to effectively cover

19188-528: The orthography of compound words and partly modifying the orthography of assimilated words. From this point on, Belarusian grammar had been popularized and taught in the educational system in that form. The ambiguous and insufficient development of several components of Tarashkyevich's grammar was perceived to be the cause of some problems in practical usage, and this led to discontent with the grammar. In 1924–25, Lyosik and his brother Anton Lyosik prepared and published their project of orthographic reform, proposing

19352-711: The outset of colonial rule in the Indian Ocean , Sri Lanka was occupied by several major colonial empires that from time to time became the dominant power in the Indian Ocean. The colonists built several western-style forts, mostly in and around the coast of the island. The first to build colonial forts in Sri Lanka were the Portuguese ; these forts were captured and later expanded by the Dutch . The British occupied these Dutch forts during

19516-580: The parents of Polish children, underground teaching in the Polish language and history. On 1 August 1943, the underground school ceased to exist after 11 nuns, the Martyrs of Nowogródek , including the main organizer of the school, were shot by the German occupiers on August 1, 1943. In the summer of 1944, units of the Home Army's Novogrudok partisan district partook in Operation Ostra Brama , fighting alongside

19680-422: The particularities of different Belarusian dialects. The scientific groundwork for the introduction of a truly scientific and modern grammar of the Belarusian language was laid down by the linguist Yefim Karsky. By the early 1910s, the continuing lack of a codified Belarusian grammar was becoming intolerably obstructive in the opinion of uniformitarian prescriptivists. Then Russian academician Shakhmatov , chair of

19844-555: The past settled by the Kryvic tribe , has long attracted the attention of our philologists because of those precious remains of the ancient Ruthenian language that survived in that tongue. In 1891, in the preface to the Belarusian Flute , Francišak Bahuševič wrote, "There have been many peoples, which first lost their language… and then they perished entirely. So do not abandon our Belarusian language, lest we perish!" According to

20008-500: The people's education and to the strong positions of Polish and Polonized nobility, it was only after the 1880s–1890s that the educated Belarusian element, still shunned because of "peasant origin", began to appear in state offices. In 1846, ethnographer Pavel Shpilevskiy prepared a Belarusian grammar (using the Cyrillic alphabet) on the basis of the folk dialects of the Minsk region. However,

20172-462: The political conflict in the territories of the former GDL, between the Russian Imperial authorities, trying to consolidate their rule over the "joined provinces", and the Polish and Polonized nobility, trying to bring back its pre-Partitions rule (see also Polonization in times of Partitions ). One of the important manifestations of this conflict was the struggle for ideological control over

20336-673: The power of voivodes, gave the right to create a magistrate-a self-government body, its seal and coat of arms – the image of the Archangel Michael) in the centre of the city as a memory of the history and former greatness of the ancient city, a memorial sign was installed. Belarusian language Before Belarus gained independence in 1991, the language was known in English as Byelorussian or Belorussian , or alternatively as White Russian . Following independence, it became known as Belarusian , or alternatively as Belarusan . As one of

20500-409: The practice of improving an area's defense with defensive works. City walls are fortifications but are not necessarily called fortresses. The art of setting out a military camp or constructing a fortification traditionally has been called castrametation since the time of the Roman legions . Laying siege to a fortification and of destroying it is commonly called siegecraft or siege warfare and

20664-471: The purpose of a watch tower, to guard certain roads, passes, and borders. Though smaller than a real fortress, they acted as a border guard rather than a real strongpoint to watch and maintain the border. The art of setting out a military camp or constructing a fortification traditionally has been called "castrametation" since the time of the Roman legions . Fortification is usually divided into two branches: permanent fortification and field fortification. There

20828-636: The resistance of the outer wall against battering rams. Originally thought to have been introduced to the region by the Hittites , this has been disproved by the discovery of examples predating their arrival, the earliest being at Ti'inik (Taanach) where such a wall has been dated to the 16th century BC . Casemate walls became a common type of fortification in the Southern Levant between the Middle Bronze Age (MB) and Iron Age II, being more numerous during

20992-584: The resolution of some key aspects. On 22 December 1915, Paul von Hindenburg issued an order on schooling in German Army-occupied territories in the Russian Empire ( Ober Ost ), banning schooling in Russian and including the Belarusian language in an exclusive list of four languages made mandatory in the respective native schooling systems (Belarusian, Lithuanian , Polish , Yiddish ). School attendance

21156-429: The right of fortification soon afterward. The founding of urban centres was an important means of territorial expansion and many cities, especially in eastern Europe , were founded precisely for this purpose during the period of Eastern Colonisation . These cities are easy to recognise due to their regular layout and large market spaces. The fortifications of these settlements were continuously improved to reflect

21320-487: The rivers Servech and Uschi. On the morning of July 19, 1920, the Red Army again occupied Novogrudok. After crushing defeats in the Battle of Warsaw and later of the Niemen River , on October 1, 1920, Polish troops again occupied the city. These were detachments of the 1st and 5th Legions' Infantry Regiments , the 16th Infantry Regiment , and 3 batteries of the 1st Legionary Artillery Regiment. Most of them belonged to

21484-633: The son and successor of Mindaugas, took monastic vows in Lavrashev Monastery near Novgorodok and founded an Orthodox convent there. The enmity between Mindaugas and his relatives, who were refuged in Volhynia , led to a great war with the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia , which made several major campaigns against the city. These campaigns forced Mindaugas to ally with the Livonian Order . In 1253, Mindaugas

21648-435: The stockades by mounting old-fashioned bayonet charges, after laying down some covering fire. Defensive works were of importance in the tropical African Kingdoms. In the Kingdom of Kongo field fortifications were characterized by trenches and low earthen embankments. Such strongpoints ironically, sometimes held up much better against European cannon than taller, more imposing structures. Roman forts and hill forts were

21812-438: The stupa mounds of Lauria Nandangarh, which is 1.6 km in perimeter and oval in plan and encloses a habitation area. Mundigak ( c.  2500 BC ) in present-day south-east Afghanistan has defensive walls and square bastions of sun dried bricks. India currently has over 180 forts, with the state of Maharashtra alone having over 70 forts, which are also known as durg , many of them built by Shivaji , founder of

21976-525: The sultanate was subdued and a majority of kotas dismantled or destroyed. kotas were not only used by the Muslims as defense against Spaniards and other foreigners, renegades and rebels also built fortifications in defiance of other chiefs in the area. During the American occupation, rebels built strongholds and the datus, rajahs, or sultans often built and reinforced their kotas in a desperate bid to maintain rule over their subjects and their land. Many of these forts were also destroyed by American expeditions, as

22140-444: The territory of the detinets, wooden ground buildings with wood burning stoves made out of adobe and plank floors were studied. The most important activities of the city's population were crafts and trade. Often, there is evidence of local jewelry craft – there were foundries and jewelry workshops that formed a whole block on the small castle . Bone-cutting, wood and stone processing were also common. Graffiti with old Russian letters

22304-400: The townspeople of Novogrudok the privilege of 2 fairs a year for 2 weeks on the Catholic holidays Epiphany and Pentecost . In the 16th century, Novogrudok was also one of the Reformation 's centers. In September 1655, it was captured by Prince A. Trubetskoy's soldiers in the war between the Tsardom of Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . In 1661, the city was recaptured by

22468-405: The two sides in a stalemate. Hoping to make several attacks at once, the confederates persuaded the Medina-allied Banu Qurayza to attack the city from the south. However, Muhammad's diplomacy derailed the negotiations, and broke up the confederacy against him. The well-organized defenders, the sinking of confederate morale, and poor weather conditions caused the siege to end in a fiasco. During

22632-421: The vowel is being stressed or, if no such words exist, by written tradition, mostly but not always conforming to etymology). This means that Belarusian noun and verb paradigms, in their written form, have numerous instances of alternations between written ⟨a⟩ and ⟨o⟩ , whereas no such alternations exist in the corresponding written paradigms in Russian. This can significantly complicate

22796-499: The walls were sunk into ditches fronted by earth slopes to improve protection. The arrival of explosive shells in the 19th century led to another stage in the evolution of fortification. Star forts did not fare well against the effects of high explosives, and the intricate arrangements of bastions, flanking batteries and the carefully constructed lines of fire for the defending cannon could be rapidly disrupted by explosive shells. Steel -and- concrete fortifications were common during

22960-559: The war. Partial listing of Spanish forts: The Ivatan people of the northern islands of Batanes built their so-called idjang on hills and elevated areas to protect themselves during times of war. These fortifications were likened to European castles because of their purpose. Usually, the only entrance to the castles would be via a rope ladder that would only be lowered for the villagers and could be kept away when invaders arrived. The Igorots built forts made of stone walls that averaged several meters in width and about two to three times

23124-410: The width in height around 2000 BC. The Muslim Filipinos of the south built strong fortresses called kota or moong to protect their communities. Usually, many of the occupants of these kotas are entire families rather than just warriors. Lords often had their own kotas to assert their right to rule, it served not only as a military installation but as a palace for the local Lord. It is said that at

23288-437: The workers' and peasants' schools of Belarus that were to be set up, so Tarashkyevich was permitted to print his book abroad. In June 1918, he arrived in Vilnius , via Finland. The Belarusian Committee petitioned the administration to allow the book to be printed. Finally, the first edition of the "Belarusian grammar for schools" was printed ( Vil'nya , 1918). There existed at least two other contemporary attempts at codifying

23452-572: The world's second longest man-made structure, as well as the most extensive earthwork in the world, by the Guinness Book of Records, 1974 . The walls may have been constructed between the thirteenth and mid-fifteenth century CE or, during the first millennium CE. Strong citadels were also built other in areas of Africa. Yorubaland for example had several sites surrounded by the full range of earthworks and ramparts seen elsewhere, and sited on ground. This improved defensive potential—such as hills and ridges. Yoruba fortifications were often protected with

23616-402: Was Black Rus' , whose center was Novogrudok. Encyclopædia Britannica mentions only the following Lithuanian capitals: Kernavė , Trakai and Vilnius , excluding Novogrudok from the list. During the 16th century, three centuries after the events, Maciej Stryjkowski was the first, in his chronicle, to propose the theory that Novogrudok was the capital of the 13th-century state. Vaišvilkas ,

23780-412: Was a royal city . In 1568, there were 10 churches in the city. From 1581 to 1775, the city hosted some of the Lithuanian Tribunal 's sessions. On March 18, 1595, King Sigismund III Vasa granted the city a coat of arms depicting Saint Michael the Archangel . After the Union of Brest of 1595-1596, the Department of the Orthodox Metropolitanate became a Uniate one. In 1597, Sigismund III Vasa gave

23944-430: Was a large Celtic proto-urban or city-like settlement at modern-day Manching (near Ingolstadt), Bavaria (Germany). The settlement was founded in the 3rd century BC and existed until c.  50–30 BC . It reached its largest extent during the late La Tène period (late 2nd century BC), when it had a size of 380 hectares. At that time, 5,000 to 10,000 people lived within its 7.2 km long walls. The oppidum of Bibracte

24108-465: Was a large settlement in the remote Western lands of the Krivichs , which came under the control of the Ancient Rus' state at the end of the 10th century. The ancient name of Novgorodok (Nov'gorodok, Nov'gorodok', though leaning both parts: to Novagorodka, in Novegorodtsy, "between Novym'gorodkom'", from "Novagorodka" in "Novegorodche"). In some sources, it is called Maly Novgorod . Archaeological excavations made by Gurevich F. D. in different places of

24272-402: Was an old city center of the district – Radogoshcha. Novogrudok was established in Baltic Yotvingian lands. Eastern Slavs, specifically Dregoviches and Volhynians , were the first settlers who established Novogrudok at the end of the 10th century. According to archaeological research conducted in Novogrudok in the 1960s, the settlements arose on modern Novogrudok's territory at the end of

24436-465: Was crowned king of Lithuania on behalf of the Pope . Vaišvilkas made peace on behalf of his father with the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia and handed over Novogrudok and all Lithuanian cities to Roman Danylovich . After breaking the peace in 1258, Vaišvilkas again became a duke in Novogrudok, and then passed it along with the entire country to Shvarn . The Golden Horde Tatars repeatedly attacked Novogrudok in 1255, 1274, and finally in 1279. In 1314,

24600-420: Was declared part of the Belarusian People's Republic . On December 27, 1918, the German army's cavalry left Novogrudok. In the evening, the Bolsheviks entered the city, greeted with an ovation by the Jewish and Russian population. Soon, some Polish activists were arrested, and in March 1919, the Bolsheviks executed some of them in the castle ruins. On January 1, 1919, following the resolution and Congress of

24764-549: Was employed in later wars against the British to block British advances. Some of these fortifications were over a hundred yards long, with heavy parallel tree trunks. They were impervious to destruction by artillery fire. Behind these stockades, numerous Ashanti soldiers were mobilized to check enemy movement. While formidable in construction, many of these strongpoints failed because Ashanti guns, gunpowder and bullets were poor, and provided little sustained killing power in defense. Time and time again British troops overcame or bypassed

24928-468: Was encircled by a fortified wall. The huge walls around the settlement, which were built very tall and with stone blocks which are 6 feet (1.8 m) high and 4.5 feet (1.4 m) thick, make it one of the earliest walled settlements in Europe but it is younger than the walled town of Sesklo in Greece from 6800 BC. Uruk in ancient Sumer ( Mesopotamia ) is one of the world's oldest known walled cities . The Ancient Egyptians also built fortresses on

25092-449: Was found on fragments of frescoed plaster from building No.12 ("house of the boyar" or "powalush") of the 12th century on the Small Castle (an ancient roundabout city). Trade relations in the 12th–13th centuries were far-reaching, as evidenced by many imports: from Kyiv came glass bracelets , non-ferrous metal jewellery, engolpions , icons , spindle whorls , faience vessels from Iran , glassware from Byzantium and Syria , from

25256-435: Was found. Exceptions were few—notably, ancient Sparta and ancient Rome did not have walls for a long time, choosing to rely on their militaries for defence instead. Initially, these fortifications were simple constructions of wood and earth, which were later replaced by mixed constructions of stones piled on top of each other without mortar . In ancient Greece , large stone walls had been built in Mycenaean Greece , such as

25420-532: Was not made mandatory, though. Passports at this time were bilingual, in German and in one of the "native languages". Also at this time, Belarusian preparatory schools, printing houses, press organs were opened ( see also: Homan (1916) ). After the 1917 February Revolution in Russia, the Belarusian language became an important factor in political activities in the Belarusian lands ( see also: Central Council of Belarusian Organisations , Great Belarusian Council , First All-Belarusian Congress , Belnatskom ). In

25584-492: Was now only 20 km East of the city, along the Servechi river. The Germans built a power plant, a network of narrow-gauge railways, and telephone lines. The creation of polish and belarusian schools was also allowed in the city. Mickiewicz's house was occupied by General of Infantry Reinhard von Scheffer-Boyadel , the XVII Reserve Corps ' commander. Due to the front's proximity, Marshal Paul von Hindenburg came to Novogrudok. During German rule, on March 25, 1918, Novogrudok

25748-415: Was occupied by the Imperial German Army for three years in World War I , by the Second Polish Republic until the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939. Thereafter, the Soviet Union annexed the area to the Byelorussian SSR . From 1941 to 1944, Novogrudok was occupied by the German Army , thereafter returning to the Soviet Union until 1991. The name comes from the Old East Slavic words "New town". It

25912-416: Was occupied by the Wehrmacht . Then, the Red Army was surrounded in the Novogrudok Cauldron . Nevertheless, during the German occupation, there was active resistance to the Nazis. In mid-December 1943, the Polish resistance separated the Novogrudok district of the Home Army from the Bialystok district. The headquarters of the Home Army's district was in Lida . The Nazis killed more than 10,000 Jews in

26076-462: Was officially removed (25 December 1904). The unprecedented surge of national feeling in the 20th century, especially among the workers and peasants, particularly after the events of 1905, gave momentum to the intensive development of Belarusian literature and press (See also: Nasha Niva , Yanka Kupala , Yakub Kolas ). During the 19th and early 20th century, there was no normative Belarusian grammar. Authors wrote as they saw fit, usually representing

26240-465: Was one of Mindaugas' residences . Some identify Novogrudok as Lithuania 's first capital, later the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , however, this is refuted by the fact that Voruta is the only contemporary mention of a possible early Lithuanian capital ruled by Mindaugas . Voruta's most likely location has been identified as Šeimyniškėliai mound . The Great Russian Encyclopedia states that Mindaugas' state had no permanent capitals, but his early residence

26404-432: Was part of Lithuania Proper . Since 1392, Novogrudok was one of the centres of the Grand Ducal demesne of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , where the stone Novogrudok Castle was built. The Novogrudok Castle's firmness allowed the existence of a Castellan and a Koniuszy . At the end of the 14th and start of the 15th century, Vytautas settled the Lipka Tatars in Novogrudok and its surroundings. In 1428, he recorded

26568-435: Was part of the Kingdom of Lithuania , and later the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , which was later part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . In the 14th century, it was an episcopal see of the Metropolitanate of Lithuania . From 1795 to 1915, the Russian Empire ruled over the lands, with brief periods of intercession, e.g. Napoleon 's Grande Armée in 1812 and the Uprisings of 1831 and 1863 . After 1915, Novogrudok

26732-538: Was part of the Slonim Governorate since 1796, and the Lithuania Governorate since 1801. It was transferred to the Minsk Governorate in 1843. The city is one of two possible birthplaces of the world-renowned poet Adam Mickiewicz . Mickiewicz was baptized in the local Transfiguration Church and spent his childhood in the city. During the Napoleonic Wars , the Polish 20th Infantry Regiment and 19th Uhlan Regiment were formed from local residents after Novogrudok's occupation by Napoleon 's Grande Armée in 1812. In 1817,

26896-478: Was published by Giovanni Battista Zanchi in 1554. Fortifications also extended in depth, with protected batteries for defensive cannonry, to allow them to engage attacking cannons to keep them at a distance and prevent them from bearing directly on the vulnerable walls. The result was star shaped fortifications with tier upon tier of hornworks and bastions , of which Fort Bourtange is an excellent example. There are also extensive fortifications from this era in

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