150-662: The Communist Party of Norway ( Norwegian : Norges Kommunistiske Parti , NKP) is a communist party in Norway . The NKP was formed in 1923, following a split in the Norwegian Labour Party . It was Stalinist from its establishment and, as such, supported the Soviet government while opposing Trotskyism . During the Second World War , the NKP initially opposed active resistance to
300-571: A show trial in 1938. Nikolai Bukharin was born on 27 September (9 October, new style), 1888, in Moscow . He was the second son of two schoolteachers, Ivan Gavrilovich Bukharin and Liubov Ivanovna Bukharina. According to Nikolai his father did not believe in God and, from the age of four, often asked him to recite poetry for family friends. His childhood is vividly recounted in his mostly autobiographic novel How It All Began . Bukharin's political life began at
450-575: A bear hug and immediately began to tell them about a public library which stayed open late at night and which he proposed to show us at once" dragging the tired Trotskys across town "to admire his great discovery"). At the news of the Russian Revolution of February 1917 , exiled revolutionaries from around the world began to flock back to the homeland. Trotsky left New York on 27 March 1917, sailing for St. Petersburg. Bukharin left New York in early April and returned to Russia by way of Japan (where he
600-464: A decade earlier. Bukharin's support for the continuation of the NEP was not popular with higher Party cadres, and his slogan to peasants, "Enrich yourselves!" and proposal to achieve socialism "at snail's pace" left him vulnerable to attacks first by Zinoviev and later by Stalin. Stalin attacked Bukharin's views, portraying them as capitalist deviations and declaring that the revolution would be at risk without
750-435: A distinct dialect at the level of farm clusters. Dialects are in some cases so dissimilar as to be unintelligible to unfamiliar listeners. Many linguists note a trend toward regionalization of dialects that diminishes the differences at such local levels; there is, however, a renewed interest in preserving dialects. Norwegian nouns are inflected for number (singular/plural) and for definiteness (indefinite/definite). In
900-543: A double team of interrogators. Bukharin's confession and his motivation became subject of much debate among Western observers, inspiring Koestler's acclaimed novel Darkness at Noon and a philosophical essay by Maurice Merleau-Ponty in Humanism and Terror . His confessions were somewhat different from others in that while he pleaded guilty to the "sum total of crimes", he denied knowledge when it came to specific crimes. Some astute observers noted that he would allow only what
1050-539: A few dialects, definite nouns are also inflected for the dative case . Norwegian nouns belong to three noun classes (genders): masculine, feminine and neuter. All feminine nouns can optionally be inflected using masculine noun class morphology in Bokmål due to its Danish heritage. In comparison, the use of all three genders (including the feminine) is mandatory in Nynorsk. All Norwegian dialects have traditionally retained all
1200-569: A former ally and friend of Bukharin, wrote that in spring 1929, Bukharin told him that he had formed an alliance with Zinoviev and Kamenev, and that they were planning to use individual terror (assassination) to get rid of Stalin. Eventually, Bukharin lost his position in the Comintern and the editorship of Pravda in April 1929, and he was expelled from the Politburo on 17 November of that year. Bukharin
1350-548: A general change in policy, after mass collectivization was largely completed and the worst was over. Although Bukharin had not challenged Stalin since 1929, his former supporters, including Martemyan Ryutin , drafted and clandestinely circulated an anti-Stalin platform, which called Stalin the "evil genius of the Russian Revolution". However, Sergey Kirov , First Secretary of the Leningrad Regional Committee
1500-510: A hair from ruin". After the ratification of the treaty, Bukharin resumed his responsibilities within the party. In March 1919, he became a member of the Comintern's executive committee and a candidate member of the Politburo . During the Civil War period, he published several theoretical economic works, including the popular primer The ABC of Communism (with Yevgeni Preobrazhensky , 1919), and
1650-678: A hard line against the communists, culminating in Prime Minister Einar Gerhardsen 's 1948 condemnatory Kråkerøy speech . Norwegian authorities considered the party an extremist organization, and its activities would be closely monitored by the Police Surveillance Agency throughout the Cold War. Ideologically, the NKP has evolved since its founding. It followed Khrushchev 's lead by formally denouncing Stalin 's rule after his death in 1953, but remained pro-Soviet until
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#17328693300511800-463: A leading role in the resistance movement, organizing sabotage and guerrilla activities. Although different sectors of the resistance showed a united front towards the occupants, the relation between NKP and the Home Front , the government-in-exile, and the clandestine trade union movement were not always smooth as the government advocated only peaceful resistance, such as media and intelligence support for
1950-732: A major Bolshevik theorist. His work Imperialism and World Economy influenced Lenin, who freely borrowed from it in his larger and better-known work, Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism . He and Lenin also often had hot disputes on theoretical issues, as well as Bukharin's closeness with the European Left and his anti-statist tendencies. Bukharin developed an interest in the works of Austrian Marxists and heterodox Marxist economic theorists, such as Aleksandr Bogdanov , who did not agree with Lenin . Also, while in Vienna in 1913, he helped
2100-675: A merger with the SV. Larsen did not stand for re-election, and Martin Gunnar Knutsen was elected as the new party chairman. After the congress, Larsen and others left the NKP to join the Socialist Left Party. After Mikhail Gorbachev gained power in the Soviet Union and started his reform program, the NKP, like most other European Communist parties did, started revising its views of past Soviet policies. The party began to distance itself from
2250-441: A new Norwegian language at the age of 22. He traveled around the country collecting words and examples of grammar from the dialects and comparing the dialects among the different regions. He examined the development of Icelandic , which had largely escaped the influences under which Norwegian had come. He called his work, which was published in several books from 1848 to 1873, Landsmål , meaning 'national language'. The name Landsmål
2400-494: A noun, unlike English which has a separate article, the , to indicate the same. In general, almost all nouns in Bokmål follow these patterns (like the words in the examples above): In contrast, almost all nouns in Nynorsk follow these patterns (the noun gender system is more pronounced than in Bokmål): There is in general no way to infer what grammatical gender a specific noun has, but there are some patterns of nouns where
2550-404: A program of rapid industrialization and forced collectivization because he believed that the NEP was not working fast enough. Stalin felt that in the new situation the policies of his former foes—Trotsky, Zinoviev, and Kamenev—were the right ones. Bukharin was worried by the prospect of Stalin's plan, which he feared would lead to "military-feudal exploitation" of the peasantry. Bukharin did want
2700-476: A retreat from socialist policies, the NEP reintroduced money and allowed private ownership and capitalistic practices in agriculture, retail trade, and light industry while the state retained control of heavy industry. After Lenin's death in 1924 , Bukharin became a full member of the Politburo. In the subsequent power struggle among Leon Trotsky, Grigory Zinoviev , Lev Kamenev and Stalin, Bukharin allied himself with Stalin, who positioned himself as centrist of
2850-584: A short time. The Communist Party also had a range of company newspapers, for laborers in specific companies or specific industries. In Oslo there were Arbeidersken , Brygger'n , Den unge arbeider , Hammer'n , Huken , Kommunarden , Nødsarbeideren (renamed Steinspruten ), Skyttelen , Sporvekselen and Stemplet . In Bergen there were Byggeren , Hermetikboksen , Kommuneproletaren and Transportproletaren (renamed Havnearbeideren ). In Trondheim there were Filkloa and Signal . Einhart Lorenz has also registered seventeen other company newspapers from across
3000-512: A single country, even one as underdeveloped as Russia. This new theory stated that socialist gains could be consolidated in a single country, without that country relying on simultaneous successful revolutions across the world. The thesis would become a hallmark of Stalinism . He is an unprincipled intriguer, who subordinates everything to the preservation of his own power. He changes his theory according to whom he needs to get rid of. Bukharin on Stalin's theoretical position, 1928. Trotsky,
3150-578: A single seat in the parliament as late as 1961, but it has not been represented in any elected bodies in recent decades. In the 2017 parliamentary elections , it received only 309 votes (0.01%). The Norwegian Labour Party (DNA) became a member of the Communist International (Comintern) in 1919 under the leadership of Martin Tranmæl . While Tranmæl at first supported the move of becoming a Comintern member, he became increasingly skeptical of it after
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#17328693300513300-648: A strong policy that encouraged rapid industrialization. Having helped Stalin achieve unchecked power against the Left Opposition, Bukharin found himself easily outmaneuvered by Stalin. Yet Bukharin played to Stalin's strength by maintaining the appearance of unity within the Party leadership. Meanwhile, Stalin used his control of the Party machine to replace Bukharin's supporters in the Rightist power base in Moscow, trade unions, and
3450-430: A symbol of the Party" even though he "is not a man, but a devil". In Dan's account, Bukharin's acceptance of the Soviet Union's new direction was thus a result of his utter commitment to Party solidarity. To his boyhood friend, Ilya Ehrenburg , he expressed the suspicion that the whole trip was a trap set up by Stalin. Indeed, his contacts with Mensheviks during this trip were to feature prominently in his trial. Stalin
3600-418: A violation of democratic principles and that the party has to take responsibility for its lack of criticism of these problems. The party nonetheless views these examples of socialism as progressive with respect to their preceding regimes. Even though the NKP survived the collapse of the Soviet Union, inner turmoil, and particularly lack of recruitment amongst youth, has since marginalized the party further. In
3750-413: Is Bokmål will study Nynorsk as a mandatory subject throughout both elementary and high school. A 2005 poll indicates that 86.3% use primarily Bokmål as their daily written language, 5.5% use both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and 7.5% use primarily Nynorsk. Thus, 13% are frequently writing Nynorsk, though the majority speak dialects that resemble Nynorsk more closely than Bokmål. Broadly speaking, Nynorsk writing
3900-419: Is a Trotskyist , bourgeois nationalist and Titoist centre, which has paralysed the central board with endless and futile discussions." Moreover, in an article in the same newspaper published on 11 November 1949, read: "It is clear that within our party there are nationalist, petty bourgeois, Trotskyist, Titoist elements, enemies of the Soviet Union and socialism, that may form a base for recruitment of agents to
4050-440: Is a pitch-accent language with two distinct pitch patterns, like Swedish. They are used to differentiate two-syllable words with otherwise identical pronunciation. For example, in many East Norwegian dialects, the word bønder ('farmers') is pronounced using the simpler tone 1, while bønner ('beans' or 'prayers') uses the more complex tone 2. Though spelling differences occasionally differentiate written words, in most cases
4200-411: Is a language form based on Norwegian dialects and puristic opposition to Danish. The now-abandoned official policy to merge Bokmål and Nynorsk into one common language called Samnorsk through a series of spelling reforms has created a wide spectrum of varieties of both Bokmål and Nynorsk. The unofficial form known as Riksmål is considered more conservative than Bokmål and is far closer to Danish while
4350-712: Is comparable with that of French on English after the Norman conquest . In the late Middle Ages, dialects began to develop in Scandinavia because the population was rural and little travel occurred. When the Reformation came from Germany, Martin Luther 's High German translation of the Bible was quickly translated into Swedish, Danish, and Icelandic. Norway entered a union with Denmark in 1397 and Danish, over time, replaced Middle Norwegian as
4500-496: Is extremely important. I don't know what words I should summon up in order to entreat you to grant me this as an act of charity. After all, politically, it won't really matter, and, besides, no one will know a thing about it. But let me spend my last moments as I wish. Have pity on me! In his letter of 10 December 1937, Bukharin suggests becoming Stalin's tool against Trotsky, but there's no evidence Stalin ever seriously considered Bukharin's offer. If, contrary to expectation, my life
4650-423: Is now considered their classic forms after a reform in 1917. Riksmål was, in 1929, officially renamed Bokmål (literally 'book language'), and Landsmål to Nynorsk (literally 'new Norwegian'). A proposition to substitute Danish-Norwegian ( dansk-norsk ) for Bokmål lost in parliament by a single vote. The name Nynorsk , the linguistic term for modern Norwegian , was chosen to contrast with Danish and emphasise
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4800-597: Is regulated by the Norwegian Academy , which determines acceptable spelling, grammar, and vocabulary. There is also an unofficial form of Nynorsk, called Høgnorsk , discarding the post-1917 reforms, and thus close to Ivar Aasen's original Landsmål. It is supported by Ivar Aasen-sambandet , but has found no widespread use. In 2010, 86.5% of the pupils in the primary and lower secondary schools in Norway receive education in Bokmål, while 13.0% receive education in Nynorsk. From
4950-744: Is rising in the first syllable and falling in the second syllable or somewhere around the syllable boundary. The pitch accents (as well as the peculiar phrase accent in the low-tone dialects) give the Norwegian language a "singing" quality that makes it easy to distinguish from other languages. Accent 1 generally occurs in words that were monosyllabic in Old Norse , and accent 2 in words that were polysyllabic. The Norwegian alphabet has 29 letters. The letters c , q , w , x and z are only used in loanwords . As loanwords are assimilated into Norwegian, their spelling might change to reflect Norwegian pronunciation and
5100-511: Is some evidence that Bukharin was thinking of evolution toward some kind of two-party or at least two-slate elections. Boris Nikolaevsky reported that Bukharin said: "A second party is necessary. If there is only one electoral list, without opposition, that's equivalent to Nazism." Grigory Tokaev , a Soviet defector and admirer of Bukharin, reported that: "Stalin aimed at one party dictatorship and complete centralisation. Bukharin envisaged several parties and even nationalist parties, and stood for
5250-522: Is sometimes interpreted as 'rural language' or 'country language', but this was clearly not Aasen's intended meaning. The name of the Danish language in Norway was a topic of hot dispute throughout the 19th century. Its proponents claimed that it was a language common to Norway and Denmark, and no more Danish than Norwegian. The proponents of Landsmål thought that the Danish character of the language should not be concealed. In 1899, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson proposed
5400-447: Is the embodiment of chaste but self-absorbed laboratory craftsmanship". His speech was greeted with wild applause, though it greatly offended some of the listeners, such as the communist poet Semyon Kirsanov , who complained: "according to Bukharin, all the poets who have used their verses to participate in political life are out of date, but the others are not out of date, the so-called pure (and not so pure) lyric poets". When Bukharin
5550-669: Is to be spared, I would like to request (though I would first have to discuss it with my wife) the following: While Anastas Mikoyan and Vyacheslav Molotov later claimed that Bukharin was never tortured and his letters from prison do not give the suggestion that he was tortured, it is also known that his interrogators were given the order: "beating permitted". Bukharin held out for three months, but threats to his young wife and infant son, combined with "methods of physical influence" wore him down. But when he read his confession amended and corrected personally by Stalin, he withdrew his whole confession. The examination started all over again, with
5700-459: Is to write in dialect for informal use. When writing an SMS, Facebook update, or fridge note, many people, especially young ones, write approximations of the way they talk rather than using Bokmål or Nynorsk. There is general agreement that a wide range of differences makes it difficult to estimate the number of different Norwegian dialects. Variations in grammar, syntax, vocabulary, and pronunciation cut across geographical boundaries and can create
5850-534: Is today to a large extent the same language as Bokmål though somewhat closer to the Danish language. It is regulated by the unofficial Norwegian Academy , which translates the name as 'Standard Norwegian'. The other is Høgnorsk ('High Norwegian'), a more purist form of Nynorsk, which maintains the language in an original form as given by Ivar Aasen and rejects most of the reforms from the 20th century; this form has limited use. Nynorsk and Bokmål provide standards for how to write Norwegian, but not for how to speak
6000-490: Is widespread in western Norway, though not in major urban areas, and also in the upper parts of mountain valleys in the southern and eastern parts of Norway. Examples are Setesdal , the western part of Telemark county ( fylke ) and several municipalities in Hallingdal , Valdres , and Gudbrandsdalen . It is little used elsewhere, but 30–40 years ago, it also had strongholds in many rural parts of Trøndelag (mid-Norway) and
6150-485: The 2005 parliamentary election , it won 1,070 votes – 0.04% of the national total. In 2007, it could not find enough candidates for a list in Vadsø Municipality, and thus does not currently have any democratically elected representatives. In 2006-2008, NKP's youth league was changed from the old Young Communist League of Norway , to the new Young Communist League in Norway. The new league changed its name in 2008 to
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6300-619: The British Isles , France ( Normandy ), North America, and Kievan Rus . In all of these places except Iceland and the Faroes, Old Norse speakers went extinct or were absorbed into the local population. Around 1030, Christianity came to Scandinavia , bringing with it an influx of Latin borrowings and the Roman alphabet . These new words were related to church practices and ceremonies, although many other loanwords related to general culture also entered
6450-697: The Georgian Bolshevik Joseph Stalin write an article " Marxism and the National Question " at Lenin's request. In October 1916, while based in New York City, Bukharin edited the newspaper Novy Mir ( New World ) with Leon Trotsky and Alexandra Kollontai . When Trotsky arrived in New York in January 1917, Bukharin was the first of the émigrés to greet him. (Trotsky's wife recalled, "with
6600-653: The German occupation , in deference to the non-aggression pact between the Soviet Union and Germany . Once Germany terminated the pact and attacked the Soviet Union , the Communist Party of Norway joined the resistance. As a result of its role in the anti-Nazi struggle, the NKP experienced a brief surge in popularity immediately after the war, but popular sympathy waned with the onset of the Cold War . The ruling Labour Party took
6750-595: The Germanic peoples living in Scandinavia during the Viking Age . Today there are two official forms of written Norwegian, Bokmål (Riksmål) and Nynorsk (Landsmål), each with its own variants. Bokmål developed from the Dano-Norwegian language that replaced Middle Norwegian as the elite language after the union of Denmark–Norway in the 16th and 17th centuries and then evolved in Norway, while Nynorsk
6900-620: The International Communist Opposition , though it became better known as the Right Opposition , after a term used by the Trotskyist Left Opposition in the Soviet Union to refer to Bukharin and his supporters there. Even after his fall, Bukharin still did some important work for the Party. For example, he helped write the 1936 Soviet constitution , which he believed would guarantee real democratization. There
7050-556: The Left Communist faction in 1918, and during the civil war wrote The ABC of Communism (1920; with Yevgeni Preobrazhensky ) and Historical Materialism: A System of Sociology (1921), among other works. Bukharin was initially a proponent of war communism , but in 1921 supported the introduction of the New Economic Policy (NEP) and became its chief theorist and advocate, supporting the party leadership against Trotsky and
7200-562: The Left Opposition . By late 1924, this stance had positioned Bukharin favourably as Joseph Stalin 's chief ally, with Bukharin soon elaborating Stalin's theory of " socialism in one country ". From 1926 to 1929, Bukharin served as General Secretary of the Comintern 's executive committee. Following Stalin's decision to proceed with agricultural collectivisation in the Great Break , Bukharin
7350-478: The Mot Dag group, a circle of leftwing intellectuals, joined the party. They would leave the following year, as the Communist Party took an 'ultra-left turn'. The Comintern demanded in the summer of 1927 that the Communist Party move further to the left. The move to the left was characterised by a more open "class against class politics, in which the social democrats were designated as the primary enemy" of communism. At
7500-533: The U.S. State Department estimated the party membership to be approximately 4500 (0.2% of the working age population of the country). In the parliamentary elections of 1973 , the party participated in an electoral alliance with the Socialist People's Party and other left-wing groups, known as the Socialist Electoral League , and had its leader, Reidar Larsen , elected into parliament. In 1975,
7650-773: The Youth Communists in Norway . The party still publishes a weekly newspaper called Friheten ("The Freedom"), which was started as a clandestine paper in 1941. The party won control of eleven of the Labour Party newspapers. These were (some with new names after the communist takeover): Arbeidet , Ny Tid , Arbeideren , Vestfold Arbeiderblad , Glomdalens Arbeiderblad , Bratsberg-Demokraten , Fritt Folk , Follo Arbeiderblad , Gudbrandsdalens Arbeiderblad , Hardanger Arbeiderblad and Ny Dag . The communist party also usurped Møre Arbeiderblad , which had not yet achieved official Labour Party status. Nordlys
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#17328693300517800-522: The communist takeover in Czechoslovakia . In it, he condemned the actions in Czechoslovakia, but also warned that the same thing could happen in Norway if the Communist Party was given too much power. The speech represented the start of both an open and underground campaign against the party and its members, with the purpose of scaring away voters and reducing its influence in the labour movement. At
7950-567: The 1959 standard. Therefore, a small minority of Nynorsk enthusiasts use a more conservative standard called Høgnorsk . The Samnorsk policy had little influence after 1960, and was officially abandoned in 2002. While the sound systems of Norwegian and Swedish are similar, considerable variation exists among the dialects. The retroflex consonants only appear in East Norwegian dialects as a result of sandhi , combining / ɾ / with / d / , / l / , / n / , / s / , and / t / . The realization of
8100-475: The 20th century, being used by large newspapers, encyclopedias, and a significant proportion of the population of the capital Oslo, surrounding areas, and other urban areas, as well as much of the literary tradition. Since the reforms of 1981 and 2003 (effective in 2005), the official Bokmål can be adapted to be almost identical with modern Riksmål. The differences between written Riksmål and Bokmål are comparable to American and British English differences . Riksmål
8250-554: The 9th Plenum of the Central Committee in 1928, they denounced the right-wing faction for supporting the Labour government of Christopher Hornsrud . The 9th Plenum led to a further reduction of party members, but Furobotn and the Communist Party continued to be loyal to the line set by the Comintern. There was no significant dissent within the party against the Comintern line, and the party became vehemently loyal to it; it began to accuse
8400-711: The Bolsheviks were in the majority in Moscow. Furthermore, the Moscow Regional Bureau was formally responsible for the party organizations in each of the thirteen central provinces around Moscow – which accounted for 37% of the whole population of Russia and 20% of the Bolshevik membership. While no one dominated revolutionary politics in Moscow during the October Revolution as Trotsky did in St. Petersburg, Bukharin certainly
8550-640: The Bukharin trial marked their final break with Communism and even turned the first three into passionate anti-Communists eventually. Bukharin wrote letters to Stalin while imprisoned, attempting without success to negotiate his innocence in the case of the alleged crimes, his eventual execution, and his hoped for release. If I'm to receive the death sentence, then I implore you beforehand, I entreat you, by all that you hold dear, not to have me shot. Let me drink poison in my cell instead (let me have morphine so that I can fall asleep and never wake up). For me, this point
8700-419: The Comintern organisation in Norway after the 1923 split. The 1925 conference focused on the party's organisational structure; a structural proposed by the Comintern was duly accepted by a majority at the conference. Parallel to its decreasing electoral influence, the party was ravaged by internal strife. Halvard Olsen and other trade union leaders left the party in 1924, in protest over the trade union policy of
8850-532: The Comintern. Bukharin attempted to gain support from earlier foes including Kamenev and Zinoviev who had fallen from power and held mid-level positions within the Communist party. The details of his meeting with Kamenev, to whom he confided that Stalin was " Genghis Khan " and changed policies to get rid of rivals, were leaked by the Trotskyist press and subjected him to accusations of factionalism. Jules Humbert-Droz ,
9000-411: The Communist Party continued the representation of Norway in the Comintern. Thirteen of the Labour members of parliament joined the Communist Party, as did large parts of the trade union opposition to the Labour Party. The newly established party elected Sverre Støstad as chairman, Halvard Olsen as deputy chairman, and Peder Furubotn as general secretary. The party managed to gain 6.1 percent of
9150-515: The Communist Party. Sverre Støstad, Fredrik Monsen , and Olav Larssen were excluded from the party in 1927 because of disagreements surrounding the reunification of the Labour Party (which merged with the Social Democratic Labour Party). Jeanette Olsen , Emil Stang Jr. , and Scheflo left the party in 1928 due to their disappointment with how the Communist Party reacted towards the first DNA government, Hornsrud's Cabinet . In 1927,
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#17328693300519300-527: The Communists' relations with other parties reached an all-time low, and by the time of the German invasion of Norway in 1940, the party was in a crisis. The Norwegian public had begun to see the NKP as a tool of Moscow. At the onset of the Second World War , the NKP subscribed to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact between Germany and the Soviet Union . The DNA government, on the other hand, aligned with
9450-494: The Dano-Norwegian koiné , known as "cultivated everyday speech." A small adjustment in this direction was implemented in the first official reform of the Danish language in Norway in 1862 and more extensively after his death in two official reforms in 1907 and 1917. Meanwhile, a nationalistic movement strove for the development of a new written Norwegian. Ivar Aasen , a botanist and self-taught linguist, began his work to create
9600-502: The Labour Party conference in February 1921, Tranmæl came up with the Kristiania proposal , a declaration of semi-independence from Comintern. The Kristiania proposal supported retaining membership in the Comintern, if the Labour Party could operate on more independent lines. At the conference a majority, by a margin of two votes, voted in favour of the proposal. The Comintern representative at
9750-406: The Labour Party of being social fascist , and further claimed that the Labour Party had stopped being a workers party. This policy led to further marginalisation of the party by the 1930s. In 1930 the Comintern directly interfered into the affairs of the NKP, when it ordered Furubotn, the party chairman, to visit the Soviet Union . In 1933 the party took the initiative to propose a collaboration with
9900-412: The Labour in the 1933 parliamentary election in correlation with the Comintern's policy of a Popular Front . The proposal was rejected, but the Communist Party continued to propose a collaboration of sorts to the Labour Party in 1935, 1936, and in 1937. The Labour Party continued to be interested in such a proposal as long as the Communist Party and itself were unified organisationally. From 1938 onwards,
10050-450: The Ministry of Culture, official spelling, grammar, and vocabulary for the Norwegian language. The board's work has been subject to considerable controversy throughout the years. Both Nynorsk and Bokmål have a great variety of optional forms. The Bokmål that uses the forms that are close to Riksmål is called moderate or conservative , depending on one's viewpoint, while the Bokmål that uses
10200-613: The Moscow City Committee and also became a member of the Moscow Regional Bureau of the party. To complicate matters further, the Bolsheviks themselves were divided into a right wing and a left wing. The right-wing of the Bolsheviks, including Aleksei Rykov and Viktor Nogin , controlled the Moscow Committee, while the younger left-wing Bolsheviks, including Vladimir Smirnov , Valerian Osinsky , Georgii Lomov , Nikolay Yakovlev, Ivan Kizelshtein and Ivan Stukov, were members of
10350-678: The Moscow Regional Bureau. On 10 October 1917, Bukharin was elected to the Central Committee , along with two other Moscow Bolsheviks: Andrei Bubnov and Grigori Sokolnikov . This strong representation on the Central Committee was a direct recognition of the Moscow Bureau's increased importance. Whereas the Bolsheviks had previously been a minority in Moscow behind the Mensheviks and the Socialist Revolutionaries, by September 1917
10500-463: The NKVD charged an ever-growing group of former oppositionists with Kirov's murder and other acts of treason, terrorism, sabotage, and espionage. In February 1936, shortly before the purge started in earnest, Bukharin was sent to Paris by Stalin to negotiate the purchase of the Marx and Engels archives, held by the German Social Democratic Party (SPD) before its dissolution by Hitler. He was joined by his young wife Anna Larina , which therefore opened
10650-415: The North Germanic languages. Faroese and Icelandic are not mutually intelligible with Norwegian in their spoken form because continental Scandinavian has diverged from them. While the two Germanic languages with the greatest numbers of speakers, English and German, have close similarities with Norwegian, neither is mutually intelligible with it. Norwegian is a descendant of Old Norse , the common language of
10800-533: The Party and supported the NEP against the Left Opposition , which wanted more rapid industrialization, escalation of class struggle against the kulaks (wealthier peasants), and agitation for world revolution. It was Bukharin who formulated the thesis of " Socialism in One Country " put forth by Stalin in 1924, which argued that socialism (in Marxist theory, the period of transition to communism) could be developed in
10950-538: The Socialist Electoral League became the Socialist Left Party , which is today Norway's largest party to the left of the Norwegian Labour Party . The Communist Party took part in the process of transforming the electoral league to a new party, but in the end decided to remain a separate party. At the party congress in 1975, 113 delegates voted to maintain the party's independence, whereas 30 voted for
11100-486: The Soviet Union to achieve industrialization but he preferred the more moderate approach of offering the peasants the opportunity to become prosperous, which would lead to greater grain production for sale abroad. Bukharin pressed his views throughout 1928 in meetings of the Politburo and at the Communist Party Congress, insisting that enforced grain requisition would be counterproductive, as War Communism had been
11250-455: The Soviet liberation of Finnmark in northern Norway, also contributed to the popularity of the party. In the national unity government formed after the war, two communists were included: Johan Strand Johansen and Kirsten Hansteen . Hansteen was the first female minister in Norwegian history. The party organ, Friheten , would reach a readership of approximately 100,000 directly after the war. In
11400-649: The Soviet state. Photostatic evidence shows that Stalin's first impulse was to simply exile Bukharin, without sending him to trial. In the end, Bukharin was killed, but according to historian Alec Nove , "the road to his demise was not a straight one". Bukharin was tried in the Trial of the Twenty One on 2–13 March 1938 during the Great Purge , along with ex-premier Alexei Rykov, Christian Rakovsky , Nikolai Krestinsky , Genrikh Yagoda, and 16 other defendants alleged to belong to
11550-602: The Storting. In 1946 Furubotn was elected general secretary of the NKP. However, the growth of the party proved to be brief. The Cold War began, and the Norwegian government aligned itself with the Western powers. In the 1949 parliamentary election the NKP lost many voters. The party received 102,722 votes (5.83%). The reason for the party's decline in popularity is often accredited to Labour Party Prime Minister Einar Gerhardsen 's famous speech at Kråkerøy in 1948, four days after
11700-460: The Tranmælists and the supporters of Olav Scheflo , the party's parliamentary leader , following Kyrre Grepp 's absence due to illness and later death in 1922. The reason for the struggle was Tranmæl's desire to block Grepp from becoming the party's next leader; Grepp was a supporter of the Comintern line. By the time of the 4th World Congress of the Comintern , in which a policy of strengthening
11850-567: The United Kingdom. During the Finnish Winter War , NKP supported the Soviet war effort, whereas DNA supported the opposing side. DNA-NKP relations deteriorated further, reaching a historic low. Germany invaded Norway on 9 April 1940. The NKP publication Arbeideren ("The Worker") proclaimed that the war was an imperialist war, and that Germany and the Western powers were equally responsible for its outbreak. According to that analysis
12000-692: The active intervention of Bukharin. The journey to Armenia , our apartment and ration cards, contracts for future volumes – all this was arranged by Bukharin." Bukharin wrote to Stalin, pleading clemency for Mandelstam, and appealed personally to the head of the NKVD , Genrikh Yagoda . It was Yagoda who told him about Mandelstam's Stalin Epigram , after which he refused to have any further contact with Nadezhda Mandelstam, who had lied to him by denying that her husband had written "anything rash" – but continued to befriend Pasternak. Soon after Mandelstam's arrest, Bukharin
12150-485: The age of sixteen, with his lifelong friend Ilya Ehrenburg , when they participated in student activities at Moscow University related to the Russian Revolution of 1905 . He joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1906, and became a member of its Bolshevik faction. With Grigori Sokolnikov , Bukharin convened the 1907 national youth conference in Moscow, which was later considered
12300-448: The allies, until the last years of the war, when these elements of resistance were to join actively. Generally, the NKP wanted to adopt more offensive tactics against the occupants. It also created an illegal newspaper , Friheten , or "Liberty", which is still in print. After the war, NKP enjoyed a strong increase in popularity for its role in resistance struggle. The role the Soviet Union had played in defeating Germany, and in particular
12450-514: The apparatus of the member parties took place, Tranmæl had had enough of what he saw as the Comintern's meddling in the internal affairs of the Labour Party. He managed to get a majority within the Central Board for a withdrawal of its Comintern membership, but the Comintern's representative, Karl Radek , managed, with a bit of maneuvering, to get the majority of the party's National Board to vote in favour of retaining its Comintern membership. Before
12600-425: The bourgeois states and the counter revolution." This process contributed to the ongoing political isolation of the NKP. The expulsion of Furubotn, considered a hero of the resistance struggle, was in many ways a political suicide. The manner in which the expulsions had been conducted and the strong language used in the NKP press against those expelled contributed to an image of NKP as a 'conspirational' party. The NKP
12750-407: The campaign. Instead of going mad, they accepted terror as a normal administrative method and regarded obedience to all orders from above as a supreme virtue. ... They are no longer human beings. They have truly become the cogs in a terrible machine." Yet to another Menshevik leader, Fyodor Dan , he confided that Stalin became "the man to whom the Party granted its confidence" and "is a sort of
12900-563: The country. Nearly all were founded in 1925 or 1926, and nearly all went defunct between 1925 and 1928. The only exception as to foundation was Verksteds-Arbeideren , founded in Drammen in 1924, and the only newspaper which survived beyond 1928 was Kommuneproletaren , which existed until 1931. Currently, the party retains its strongest bases of support in Oslo, Finnmark, Troms, Tromsø, and Namsos. Historically Åsnes and Trondheim were strongholds of
13050-550: The early 1990s, the party attempted to counteract some of this by electing younger leaders to the party's top positions. However, this move failed to significantly boost recruitment, and subsequently the party's leadership was again dominated by older members, many of whom joined during the Soviet era. The NKP won three elected posts in the 2003 municipal elections , two seats in the municipal council in Åsnes Municipality and one in Vadsø Municipality . The Åsnes branch, by far
13200-448: The early 1990s, while elsewhere NKP members campaigned for the RV. This policy of unity was, however, abandoned around the mid-1990s. A defining moment in this process came when the party opposed the Soviet coup attempt of 1991 against Gorbachev by the "old guard" of the Soviet communist party. Today, the party's statement of principles explicitly acknowledges that the Soviet Union represented
13350-644: The eighth grade onwards, pupils are required to learn both. Out of the 431 municipalities in Norway, 161 have declared that they wish to communicate with the central authorities in Bokmål, 116 (representing 12% of the population) in Nynorsk, while 156 are neutral. Of 4,549 state publications in 2000, 8% were in Nynorsk, and 92% in Bokmål. The large national newspapers ( Aftenposten , Dagbladet , and VG ) are published in Bokmål or Riksmål. Some major regional newspapers (including Bergens Tidende and Stavanger Aftenblad ), many political journals, and many local newspapers use both Bokmål and Nynorsk. A newer trend
13500-584: The end of the Cold War, despite occasional instances of disagreement. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the party has recognized some of the flaws of the Soviet model. It nonetheless supports traditional Soviet historiography and pro- Russian political views, opposing NATO , the European Union and the United States . The NKP has been a marginal force in Norwegian politics since the late 1940s. It held
13650-478: The first centuries AD in what is today Southern Sweden. It is the earliest stage of a characteristically North Germanic language, and the language attested in the Elder Futhark inscriptions, the oldest form of the runic alphabets . A number of inscriptions are memorials to the dead, while others are magical in content. The oldest are carved on loose objects, while later ones are chiseled in runestones . They are
13800-496: The forms that are close to Nynorsk is called radical . Nynorsk has forms that are close to the original Landsmål and forms that are close to Bokmål. Opponents of the spelling reforms aimed at bringing Bokmål closer to Nynorsk have retained the name Riksmål and employ spelling and grammar that predate the Samnorsk movement. Riksmål and conservative versions of Bokmål have been the de facto standard written language of Norway for most of
13950-533: The founding of Komsomol . By age twenty, he was a member of the Moscow Committee of the party. The committee was widely infiltrated by the Tsarist secret police, the Okhrana . As one of its leaders, Bukharin quickly became a person of interest to them. During this time, he became closely associated with Valerian Obolensky and Vladimir Smirnov . He also met his future first wife, Nadezhda Mikhailovna Lukina, his cousin and
14100-572: The gender can be inferred. For instance, all nouns ending in - nad will be masculine in both Bokmål and Nynorsk (for instance the noun jobbsøknad , which means 'job application'). Most nouns ending in - ing will be feminine, like the noun forventning ('expectation'). Nikolai Bukharin Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin (Russian: Николай Иванович Бухарин , IPA: [nʲɪkɐˈlaj ɪˈvanəvʲɪdʑ bʊˈxarʲɪn] ; 9 October [ O.S. 27 September] 1888 – 15 March 1938)
14250-503: The highest degree of power during the 1926–1928 period. He emerged as the leader of the Party's right wing , which included two other Politburo members ( Alexei Rykov , Lenin's successor as Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars and Mikhail Tomsky , head of trade unions) and he became General Secretary of the Comintern 's executive committee in 1926. However, prompted by a grain shortage in 1928, Stalin reversed himself and proposed
14400-417: The historical connection to Old Norwegian. Today, this meaning is often lost, and it is commonly mistaken as a "new" Norwegian in contrast to the "real" Norwegian Bokmål. Bokmål and Nynorsk were made closer by a reform in 1938. This was a result of a state policy to merge Nynorsk and Bokmål into a single language, to be called Samnorsk . A 1946 poll showed that this policy was supported by 79% of Norwegians at
14550-508: The ideological publication Klassekampen (belonged to the Young Communist League of Norway) and started Gnisten and Proletaren . Newly established communist newspapers within the party's first year of existence were the main organ Norges Kommunistblad as well as Akershus Folkeblad , Buskerud-Arbeideren , Friheten , Troms Fylkes Kommunistblad , Dagens Nyheter and Finnmark Fremtid . Many became defunct after
14700-467: The language of the elite, the church, literature, and the law. When the union with Denmark ended in 1814, the Dano-Norwegian koiné had become the mother tongue of around 1% of the population. From the 1840s, some writers experimented with a Norwegianised Danish by incorporating words that were descriptive of Norwegian scenery and folk life, and adopting a more Norwegian syntax. Knud Knudsen proposed to change spelling and inflection in accordance with
14850-596: The language. The Scandinavian languages at this time are not considered to be separate languages, although there were minor differences among what are customarily called Old Icelandic, Old Norwegian , Old Gutnish , Old Danish, and Old Swedish . The economic and political dominance of the Hanseatic League between 1250 and 1450 in the main Scandinavian cities brought large Middle Low German –speaking populations to Norway. The influence of their language on Scandinavian
15000-555: The language. No standard of spoken Norwegian is officially sanctioned, and most Norwegians speak their own dialects in all circumstances. Thus, unlike in many other countries, the use of any Norwegian dialect, whether it coincides with the written norms or not, is accepted as correct spoken Norwegian. However, in areas where East Norwegian dialects are used, a tendency exists to accept a de facto spoken standard for this particular regional dialect, Urban East Norwegian or Standard East Norwegian (Norwegian: Standard østnorsk ), in which
15150-520: The languages in Europe, Norwegian derives from Proto-Indo-European . As early Indo-Europeans spread across Europe, they became isolated from each other and new languages developed. In northwest Europe, the Germanic languages evolved, further branching off into the North Germanic languages , of which Norwegian is one. Proto-Norse is thought to have evolved as a northern dialect of Proto-Germanic during
15300-504: The leader of the Left Communists in bitter opposition to Lenin's decision to sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk . In this wartime power struggle, Lenin's arrest had been seriously discussed by them and Left Socialist Revolutionaries in 1918. Bukharin revealed this in a Pravda article in 1924 and stated that it had been "a period when the party stood a hair from a split, and the whole country
15450-507: The lying-in-state of the Soviet police chief, Vyacheslav Menzhinsky in May 1934, when Pasternak was seeking help for his fellow poet, Osip Mandelstam , who had been arrested – though at that time neither Pasternak nor Bukharin knew why. Bukharin had acted as Mandelstam's political protector since 1922. According to Mandelstam's wife, Nadezhda, "M. owed him all the pleasant things in his life. His 1928 volume of poetry would never have come out without
15600-550: The maximum of decentralisation." In the brief period of thaw in 1934–1936, Bukharin was politically rehabilitated and was made editor of Izvestia in 1934. There, he consistently highlighted the dangers of fascist regimes in Europe and the need for "proletarian humanism". One of his first decisions as editor was to invite Boris Pasternak to contribute to the newspaper and sit in on editorial meetings. Pasternak described Bukharin as "a wonderful, historically extraordinary man, but fate has not been kind to him". They first met during
15750-502: The minimal pairs are written alike, since written Norwegian has no explicit accent marks. In most eastern low-tone dialects, accent 1 uses a low flat pitch in the first syllable, while accent 2 uses a high, sharply falling pitch in the first syllable and a low pitch in the beginning of the second syllable. In both accents, these pitch movements are followed by a rise of intonational nature (phrase accent)—the size (and presence) of which signals emphasis or focus, and corresponds in function to
15900-539: The more academic Economics of the Transitional Period (1920) and Historical Materialism (1921). By 1921, he changed his position and accepted Lenin's emphasis on the survival and strengthening of the Soviet state as the bastion of the future world revolution. He became the foremost supporter of the New Economic Policy (NEP), to which he was to tie his political fortunes. Considered by the Left Communists as
16050-430: The neutral name Riksmål , meaning 'national language' like Landsmål , and this was officially adopted along with the 1907 spelling reform. The name Riksmål is sometimes interpreted as 'state language', but this meaning is secondary at best. (Compare to Danish rigsmål from where the name was borrowed.) After the personal union with Sweden was dissolved in 1905, both languages were developed further and reached what
16200-540: The new postwar atmosphere of tolerance, discussions were raised over a possible reunification between DNA and NKP. During the war, discussions had taken place in the Grini concentration camp between captured DNA and NKP leaders (including Einar Gerhardsen from DNA and Jørgen Vogt from NKP). However, these plans were discarded by Furubotn. In the 1945 parliamentary election , the NKP vote share reached its historical peak. NKP received 176,535 votes (11.89%) and won eleven seats in
16350-414: The normal accent in languages that lack lexical tone , such as English. That rise culminates in the final syllable of an accentual phrase, while the utterance-final fall common in most languages is either very small or absent. There are significant variations in pitch accent between dialects. Thus, in most of western and northern Norway (the so-called high-pitch dialects) accent 1 is falling, while accent 2
16500-570: The oldest written record of any Germanic language. East Germanic languages West Germanic languages Icelandic Faroese Norwegian Danish Swedish Around 800 AD, the script was simplified to the Younger Futhark , and inscriptions became more abundant. At the same time, the beginning of the Viking Age led to the spread of Old Norse to Iceland , Greenland , and the Faroe Islands . Viking colonies also existed in parts of
16650-532: The party conference, Nikolai Bukharin , grudgingly accepted the vote. The power struggle between the Tranmælists and the Scheflo wing continued, even more aggressively, until the extraordinary party conference of November 1923 which voted in favour of withdrawing the Labour Party from the Comintern. As a reaction, the Scheflo wing left the party and established the Norwegian Communist Party. Organisationally,
16800-533: The party should not take sides for one of the imperialist powers, a policy that was in clear opposition to the (then exiled) DNA government. However, local Communist Party cells in northern Norway began (without the consent of the party leadership) to mobilize resistance activities. In August 1940, NKP was the first Norwegian political party to be banned by the German occupation authorities. The publication of Arbeideren ceased. The party then went underground. However, it
16950-403: The party's strongest at that time, left the party in 2004 to form Radical Socialists due to disagreements over the questions of religion, Joseph Stalin , and cooperation with other leftist groups. In addition, an NKP member was a member of the municipal council of Porsgrunn Municipality , elected on the RV list until he joined the RV. In later elections the NKP has received about 1,000 votes. In
17100-640: The party. Notes: Norwegian language Norwegian ( endonym : norsk [ˈnɔʂːk] ) is a North Germanic language from the Indo-European language family spoken mainly in Norway , where it is an official language. Along with Swedish and Danish , Norwegian forms a dialect continuum of more or less mutually intelligible local and regional varieties; some Norwegian and Swedish dialects , in particular, are very close. These Scandinavian languages, together with Faroese and Icelandic as well as some extinct languages , constitute
17250-478: The possibility of exile, but he decided against it, saying that he could not live outside the Soviet Union. Bukharin, who had been forced to follow the Party line since 1929, confided to his old friends and former opponents his real view of Stalin and his policy. His conversations with Boris Nicolaevsky , a Menshevik leader who held the manuscripts on behalf of the SPD, formed the basis of "Letter of an Old Bolshevik", which
17400-559: The practises of the Soviet Union, and focused on a "softer" communism. The term " democratic socialism " is frequently found in party literature from the early 1990s onward. Around 1990, there were also tendencies within the NKP working for regroupment. In the 1989 parliamentary election they joined forces with Workers' Communist Party (AKP), Red Electoral Alliance (RV), and independent socialists to form Fylkeslistene for miljø og solidaritet (County lists for Environment and Solidarity). The NKP also had joint lists with RV some places in
17550-612: The prime force behind the Left Opposition, was defeated by a triumvirate formed by Stalin, Zinoviev, and Kamenev, with the support of Bukharin. At the Fourteenth Party Congress in December 1925, Stalin openly attacked Kamenev and Zinoviev, revealing that they had asked for his aid in expelling Trotsky from the Party. By 1926, the Stalin-Bukharin alliance ousted Zinoviev and Kamenev from the Party leadership, and Bukharin enjoyed
17700-442: The principles of Norwegian orthography, e.g. zebra in Norwegian is written sebra . Due to historical reasons, some otherwise Norwegian family names are also written using these letters. Some letters may be modified by diacritics : é , è , ê , ó , ò , and ô . In Nynorsk, ì and ù and ỳ are occasionally seen as well. The diacritics are not compulsory, but may in a few cases distinguish between different meanings of
17850-514: The proclamation of the twenty-one conditions which stated that members had to enforce democratic centralism and party discipline. Even so, Tranmæl continued to support the Labour Party's membership, even if that meant a future split within the party between the left and the right. A split did occur along factional lines in 1921 and led to the establishment of the Social Democratic Labour Party . A power struggle soon erupted between
18000-604: The promise of world revolution . In the Russian turmoil near the end of World War I , when a negotiated peace with the Central Powers was looming, he demanded a continuance of the war, fully expecting to incite all the foreign proletarian classes to arms. Even as he was uncompromising toward Russia's battlefield enemies, he also rejected any fraternization with the capitalist Allied powers : he reportedly wept when he learned of official negotiations for assistance. Bukharin emerged as
18150-465: The rhotic / ɾ / depends on the dialect. In Eastern, Central, and Northern Norwegian dialects, it is a flap [ ɾ ] , whereas in Western and Southern Norway, and for some speakers also in Eastern Norway, it is uvular [ ʁ ] or [ χ ] . And in the dialects of North-Western Norway, it is realized as [ r ] , much like the trilled ⟨rr⟩ of Spanish. Norwegian
18300-707: The same time, the party would experience its most traumatic internal division. In 1946 some of Furubotn's closest associates during the war, Kjell G. Kviberg and Ørnulf Egge , were expelled. In 1949 Furubotn's enemies within the party began a campaign to expel him. On 24 October 1949, MP Johan Strand Johansen publicly declared that a division existed within the party in a speech to the local party unit in Malerne. The following day Furubotn's followers resigned from their positions. On 26 October Furubotn and his followers were expelled. The editorial of Friheten on 27 October proclaimed that "It has emerged clearly that this anti-party centre
18450-580: The sister of Nikolai Lukin , who was also a member of the party. They married in 1911, soon after returning from internal exile. In 1911, after a brief imprisonment, Bukharin was exiled to Onega in Arkhangelsk , but he soon escaped to Hanover . He stayed in Germany for a year before visiting Kraków ( Poland ) in 1912 to meet Vladimir Lenin for the first time. During the exile, he continued his education and wrote several books that established him in his 20s as
18600-654: The so-called "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites". In a trial meant to be the culmination of previous show trials , it was alleged that Bukharin and others sought to assassinate Lenin and Stalin from 1918, murder Maxim Gorky by poison, partition the Soviet Union and hand out her territories to Germany, Japan, and Great Britain. Even more than earlier Moscow show trials, Bukharin's trial horrified many previously sympathetic observers as they watched allegations levelled against someone who had been so close to Stalin and Lenin. For some prominent Communists such as Bertram Wolfe , Jay Lovestone , Arthur Koestler , and Heinrich Brandler ,
18750-606: The southern part of northern Norway ( Nordland county). Today, Nynorsk is the official language of not only four of the nineteen Norwegian counties but also various municipalities in five other counties. NRK , the Norwegian broadcasting corporation, broadcasts in both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and all governmental agencies are required to support both written languages. Bokmål is used in 92% of all written publications, and Nynorsk in 8% (2000). Like some other European countries, Norway has an official "advisory board"— Språkrådet (Norwegian Language Council)— that determines, after approval from
18900-477: The tables into an anti-trial of Stalinism (while keeping his part of the bargain to save his family). While his letters to Stalin – he wrote 34 very emotional and desperate letters tearfully protesting his innocence and professing his loyalty – suggest a complete capitulation and acceptance of his role in the trial, it contrasts with his actual conduct in the trial. Bukharin himself speaks of his "peculiar duality of mind" in his last plea, which led to "semi-paralysis of
19050-401: The three grammatical genders from Old Norse to some extent. The only exceptions are the dialect of Bergen and a few upper class sociolects at the west end of Oslo that have completely lost the feminine gender. According to Marit Westergaard , approximately 80% of nouns in Norwegian are masculine. Norwegian and other Scandinavian languages use a suffix to indicate definiteness of
19200-442: The time. However, opponents of the official policy still managed to create a massive protest movement against Samnorsk in the 1950s, fighting in particular the use of "radical" forms in Bokmål text books in schools. In the reform in 1959, the 1938 reform was partially reversed in Bokmål, but Nynorsk was changed further towards Bokmål. Since then Bokmål has reverted even further toward traditional Riksmål, while Nynorsk still adheres to
19350-426: The unofficial Høgnorsk is more conservative than Nynorsk and is far closer to Faroese , Icelandic and Old Norse . Norwegians are educated in both Bokmål and Nynorsk. Each student gets assigned a native form based on which school they go to, whence the other form (known as Sidemål ) will be a mandatory school subject from elementary school through high school. For instance, a Norwegian whose main language form
19500-447: The vocabulary coincides with Bokmål. Outside Eastern Norway , this spoken variation is not used. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, Danish was the standard written language of Norway. As a result, the development of modern written Norwegian has been subject to strong controversy related to nationalism , rural versus urban discourse, and Norway's literary history. Historically, Bokmål is a Norwegianised variety of Danish, while Nynorsk
19650-540: The votes in the 1924 parliamentary election , but its vote share decreased to 4 percent in 1927 , and further in 1930 to 1.7 percent. At the same time, its membership slowly decreased, and by the 1930s the party had lost much of its former influence. The 1924 election was a failure for the party; the party became the third largest left-wing party, behind the Labour Party and the Social Democratic Labour Party. The Communist Party had failed to restrengthen
19800-408: The whole case" ) and saying that "the confession of the accused is not essential. The confession of the accused is a medieval principle of jurisprudence" in a trial that was solely based on confessions, he finished his last plea with the words: ... the monstrousness of my crime is immeasurable especially in the new stage of struggle of the U.S.S.R. May this trial be the last severe lesson, and may
19950-547: The will" and Hegelian " unhappy consciousness ", which likely stemmed not only from his knowledge of the ruinous reality of Stalinism (although of course he could not say so in the trial) but also of the impending threat of fascism. The result was a curious mix of fulsome confessions (of being a "degenerate fascist" working for the "restoration of capitalism") and subtle criticisms of the trial. After disproving several charges against him (one observer noted that he "proceeded to demolish, or rather showed he could very easily demolish,
20100-560: The word, e.g.: for ('for/to'), fór ('went'), fòr ('furrow') and fôr ('fodder'). Loanwords may be spelled with other diacritics, most notably ï, ü , á and à . The two legally recognized forms of written Norwegian are Bokmål (literally 'book tongue') and Nynorsk ('new Norwegian'), which are regulated by the Language Council of Norway ( Språkrådet ). Two other written forms without official status also exist. One, called Riksmål ('national language'),
20250-469: Was a Russian revolutionary, Soviet politician, and Marxist theorist . A prominent Bolshevik described by Vladimir Lenin as a "most valuable and major theorist" of the Communist Party , Bukharin was active in the Soviet leadership from 1917 to his purge in the 1930s. Bukharin joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1906, and studied economics at Moscow Imperial University . In 1910, he
20400-412: Was acquired, temporarily lost in mid-November 1923, then published as communist again until 20 January 1924 when it again became aligned with Labour. Some newspapers, such as Østerdalens Arbeiderblad had sympathized with the communist opposition while it was a part of the Labour Party, but after the actual split the Labour Party managed to turn the tide and retain them. The Communist Party also took over
20550-465: Was arrested and internally exiled to Onega , but the following year escaped abroad, where he met Lenin and Leon Trotsky and built his reputation with works such as Imperialism and World Economy (1915). After the February Revolution of 1917, Bukharin returned to Moscow and became a leading figure in the party, and after the October Revolution became editor of its newspaper, Pravda . He led
20700-445: Was arrested two years later, Boris Pasternak displayed extraordinary courage by having a letter delivered to Bukharin's wife saying that he was convinced of his innocence. Stalin's collectivization policy proved to be as disastrous as Bukharin predicted, but Stalin had by then achieved unchallenged authority in the party leadership. However, there were signs that moderates among Stalin's supporters sought to end official terror and bring
20850-481: Was assassinated in Leningrad in December 1934, and his death was used by Stalin as a pretext to launch the Great Purge , in which about 700,000 people were to perish as Stalin eliminated all past and potential opposition to his authority. Some historians believe that Kirov's assassination in 1934 was arranged by Stalin himself, despite the lack of evidence to plausibly posit such a conclusion. After Kirov's assassination,
21000-518: Was broadly considered to be a loyal follower of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , although it occasionally took independent positions opposing the Soviet line. This happened in 1968, when the NKP condemned the Soviet-led invasion of Czechoslovakia . The youth league, the Young Communist League of Norway (NKU), followed a somewhat more independent line than the party. In the mid-1960s,
21150-535: Was delegated to prepare the official report on poetry for the First Soviet Writers' Congress, in August 1934. He could not any longer risk mentioning Mandelstam in his speech to the congress, but did devote a large section of his speech to Pasternak, whom he described as "remote from current affairs ... a singer of the old intelligensia ... delicate and subtle ... a wounded and easily vulnerable soul. He
21300-736: Was developed based upon a collective of spoken Norwegian dialects. Norwegian is one of the two official languages in Norway, along with Sámi , a Finno-Ugric language spoken by less than one percent of the population. Norwegian is one of the working languages of the Nordic Council . Under the Nordic Language Convention , citizens of the Nordic countries who speak Norwegian have the opportunity to use it when interacting with official bodies in other Nordic countries without being liable for any interpretation or translation costs. Like most of
21450-418: Was for a long time undecided on Bukharin and Georgy Pyatakov . After receiving Nikolay Yezhov 's written evidence denouncing Bukharin, Stalin declined to sanction his arrest. After the trial and execution of Zinoviev, Kamenev, and other leftist Old Bolsheviks in 1936, Bukharin and Rykov were arrested on 27 February 1937 following a plenum of the Central Committee, and were charged with conspiring to overthrow
21600-520: Was forced to renounce his views under pressure. He wrote letters to Stalin pleading for forgiveness and rehabilitation, but through wiretaps of Bukharin's private conversations with Stalin's enemies, Stalin knew Bukharin's repentance was insincere. International supporters of Bukharin, Jay Lovestone of the Communist Party USA among them, were also expelled from the Comintern. They formed an international alliance to promote their views, calling it
21750-426: Was in the written confession and refuse to go any further. There are several interpretations of Bukharin's motivations (besides being coerced) in the trial. Koestler and others viewed it as a true believer's last service to the Party (while preserving the little amount of personal honor left) whereas Bukharin biographer Stephen Cohen and Robert Tucker saw traces of Aesopian language , with which Bukharin sought to turn
21900-434: Was labelled as the leader of the Right Opposition and was removed from Pravda , the Comintern, and the party leadership in 1929. After a period in lower positions, in 1934 Bukharin was reelected to the Central Committee and became editor of the newspaper Izvestia . He was a principal architect of the 1936 Soviet Constitution . During the Great Purge , Bukharin was accused of treason in February 1937 and executed after
22050-501: Was poorly prepared for underground functioning. In the ongoing confusion within the party, Furubotn began to call for more active NKP resistance against the occupation. Furubotn had spent several years in Moscow, but returned to Norway just before the war. Now he was the leader of the party in Vestlandet . On 31 December 1941, the party held a clandestine national conference, which adopted Furubotn's 'active war policy'. The NKP came to play
22200-597: Was temporarily detained by local police), arriving in Moscow in early May 1917. Politically, the Bolsheviks in Moscow were a minority in relation to the Mensheviks and Social Democrats. As more people began to be attracted to Lenin's promise to bring peace by withdrawing from the Great War, membership in the Bolshevik faction began to increase dramatically – from 24,000 members in February 1917 to 200,000 members in October 1917. Upon his return to Moscow, Bukharin resumed his seat on
22350-575: Was the most prominent leader in Moscow. During the October Revolution, Bukharin drafted, introduced, and defended the revolutionary decrees of the Moscow Soviet. Bukharin then represented the Moscow Soviet in their report to the revolutionary government in Petrograd. Following the October Revolution, Bukharin became the editor of the party's newspaper, Pravda . Bukharin believed passionately in
22500-576: Was very influential in contemporary understanding of the period (especially the Ryutin Affair and the Kirov murder), although there are doubts about its authenticity. According to Nicolaevsky, Bukharin spoke of "the mass annihilation of completely defenseless men, with women and children" under forced collectivization and liquidation of kulaks as a class that dehumanized the Party members with "the profound psychological change in those communists who took part in
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