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118-645: The North Texas Tollway Authority ( NTTA ) is a not-for-profit government organization that maintains and operates toll roads , bridges, and tunnels in the North Texas area. Functioning as a political subdivision of the State of Texas under Chapter 366 of the Transportation Code, the NTTA is empowered to acquire, construct, maintain, repair and operate turnpike projects; to raise capital for construction projects through

236-543: A corporate psychopath is in charge. This will not only affect the company and its outcome but the employees who work under a corporate psychopath. The way a corporate psychopath can rise in a company is by their manipulation, scheming, and bullying. They do this in a way that can hide their true character and intentions within a company. Fundamentally, finance is a social science discipline. The discipline borders behavioral economics , sociology , economics , accounting and management . It concerns technical issues such as

354-411: A "soft" approach that regards employees as a source of creative energy and participants in workplace decision making, a "hard" version explicitly focused on control and Theory Z that emphasizes philosophy, culture and consensus. None ensure ethical behavior. Some studies claim that sustainable success requires a humanely treated and satisfied workforce. Marketing ethics came of age only as late as

472-443: A business environment. It applies to all aspects of business conduct and is relevant to the conduct of individuals and entire organizations. These ethics originate from individuals, organizational statements or the legal system. These norms, values, ethical, and unethical practices are the principles that guide a business. Business ethics refers to contemporary organizational standards, principles, sets of values and norms that govern

590-526: A business to be ethical and that violating that expectation must be counterproductive for the business. Ethical issues include the rights and duties between a company and its employees, suppliers, customers and neighbors , its fiduciary responsibility to its shareholders . Issues concerning relations between different companies include hostile take-overs and industrial espionage . Related issues include corporate governance ; corporate social entrepreneurship ; political contributions ; legal issues such as

708-527: A changing environment in verses 474, 426, and 140, learning the intricacies of different tasks in verses 462 and 677. Business ethics reflects the philosophy of business , of which one aim is to determine the fundamental purposes of a company. Business purpose expresses the company's reason for existing. Modern discussion on the purpose of business has been freshened by views from thinkers such as Richard R. Ellesworth, Peter Drucker , and Nikos Mourkogiannis : Earlier views such as Milton Friedman's held that

826-402: A company longer is passed over for a promotion, but it is not unethical. It is only unethical if the employer did not give the employee proper consideration or used improper criteria for the promotion. Each employer should know the distinction between what is unethical and what is illegal. If an action is illegal it is breaking the law but if an action seems morally incorrect that is unethical. In

944-602: A flat fee either when they enter or when they exit the toll road. In a variant of the closed toll system, mainline barriers are present at the two endpoints of the toll road, and each interchange has a ramp toll that is paid upon exit or entry. In this case, a motorist pays a flat fee at the ramp toll and another flat fee at the end of the toll road; no ticket is necessary. In addition, with most systems, motorists may pay tolls only with cash or change; debit and credit cards are not accepted. However, some toll roads may have travel plazas with ATMs so motorists can stop and withdraw cash for

1062-464: A general fund by local governments, not being earmarked for transport facilities. This is sometimes limited or prohibited by central government legislation. Also, road congestion pricing schemes have been implemented in a limited number of urban areas as a transportation demand management tool to try to reduce traffic congestion and air pollution . Toll roads have existed for at least the last 2,700 years, as tolls had to be paid by travellers using

1180-400: A great deal of cooperation, trustworthiness, and self-restraint among the people who enjoy it." Menon claims that the autonomous individual, responsible for his/her own existence is a cultural construct moulded by Western culture rather than the truth about the human condition . Penner views property as an "illusion"—a "normative phantasm" without substance. In the neoliberal literature,

1298-437: A practice that continued with the automobile, and many modern tollways charge fees for motor vehicles exclusively. The amount of the toll usually varies by vehicle type, weight, or number of axles , with freight trucks often charged higher rates than cars. Tolls are often collected at toll plazas, toll booths , toll houses , toll stations, toll bars, toll barriers, or toll gates. Some toll collection points are automatic, and

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1416-514: A profit is the only concern of business, Duska argued. Peter Drucker once said, "There is neither a separate ethics of business nor is one needed", implying that standards of personal ethics cover all business situations. However, Drucker in another instance said that the ultimate responsibility of company directors is not to harm— primum non nocere . Philosopher and author Ayn Rand has put forth her idea of rational egoism , which also applies to business ethics. She stresses that position of

1534-474: A slave is distinctly and expressly affirmed in the Constitution." Neoliberals hold that private property rights are a non-negotiable natural right. Davies counters with "property is no different from other legal categories in that it is simply a consequence of the significance attached by law to the relationships between legal persons." Singer claims, "Property is a form of power, and the distribution of power

1652-442: A specific infrastructure (e.g. roads, bridges). These concepts were widely used until the last century. However, the evolution in technology made it possible to implement road tolling policies based on different concepts. The different charging concepts are designed to suit different requirements regarding purpose of the charge, charging policy, the network to the charge, tariff class differentiation, et cetera: Some toll roads charge

1770-583: A toll in only one direction. Examples include the Sydney Harbour Bridge , Sydney Harbour Tunnel , and Eastern Distributor (these all charge tolls city-bound) in Australia, in the United States, crossings between Pennsylvania and New Jersey operated by Delaware River Port Authority and crossings between New Jersey and New York operated by Port Authority of New York and New Jersey . This technique

1888-421: A whole through taxation and/or the company's involvement in social action when it occurs. On the other hand, if a company's purpose is to maximize shareholder returns, then sacrificing profits for other concerns is a violation of its fiduciary responsibility . Corporate entities are legal persons but this does not mean they are legally entitled to all of the rights and liabilities as natural persons. Ethics are

2006-496: A written code of ethics that governs standards of professional conduct expected of all in the field. It is important to note that "law" and "ethics" are not synonymous, nor are the "legal" and "ethical" courses of action in a given situation necessarily the same. Statutes and regulations passed by legislative bodies and administrative boards set forth the "law". Slavery once was legal in the US, but one certainly would not say enslaving another

2124-530: Is a political problem of the highest order". Rose finds, " 'Property' is only an effect, a construction, of relationships between people, meaning that its objective character is contestable. Persons and things, are 'constituted' or 'fabricated' by legal and other normative techniques." Singer observes, "A private property regime is not, after all, a Hobbesian state of nature; it requires a working legal system that can define, allocate, and enforce property rights." Davis claims that common law theory generally favors

2242-428: Is overlooked for another reason—issues in finance are often addressed as matters of law rather than ethics. Aristotle said, "the end and purpose of the polis is the good life". Adam Smith characterized the good life in terms of material goods and intellectual and moral excellences of character. Smith in his The Wealth of Nations commented, "All for ourselves, and nothing for other people, seems, in every age of

2360-603: Is practical where the detour to avoid the toll is large or the toll differences are small. Traditionally, tolls were paid by hand at a toll gate. Although payments may still be made in cash, it is more common now to pay using an electronic toll collection system. In some places, payment is made using transponders which are affixed to the windscreen. Three systems of toll roads exist: open (with mainline barrier toll plazas ); closed (with entry/exit tolls); and open road (no toll booths, only electronic toll collection gantries at entrances and exits or at strategic locations on

2478-400: Is that it enhances individual liberty by extending the line of non-interference by the state or others around the person. Seen from this perspective, property right is absolute and property has a special and distinctive character that precedes its legal protection. Blackstone conceptualized property as the "sole and despotic dominion which one man claims and exercises over the external things of

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2596-548: Is the largest ETC system in the U.S., and is used for both fully tolled highways and tolled express lanes. Maryland Route 200 and the Triangle Expressway in North Carolina were the first toll roads built without toll booths, with drivers charged via ETC or by optical license plate recognition and are billed by mail. In addition, many older toll roads are also being upgraded to an all-electronic tolling system, abandoning

2714-616: Is the target of the investigation or that the investigation will materially adversely affect the operations or financial condition of the Authority or the transactions contemplated by the Resolution, the Trust Agreement and this Official Statement, or would adversely affect the validity or enforceability of the Resolution, the Trust Agreement or the Series 2014 Bonds. The investigation is ongoing and

2832-641: Is value loaded and associated with the personal qualities of propriety and respectability, also implies questions relating to ownership. A 'proper' person owns and is true to herself or himself, and is thus genuine, perfect and pure. Modern discourse on property emerged by the turn of the 17th century within theological discussions of that time. For instance, John Locke justified property rights saying that God had made "the earth, and all inferior creatures, [in] common to all men". In 1802 utilitarian Jeremy Bentham stated, "property and law are born together and die together". One argument for property ownership

2950-633: The Dallas North Tollway , in 1966, and its first segment (from I-35E to I-635) was opened in 1968. The Tollway (as it is popularly known) has (along with general Dallas-area growth) expanded continually northward, opening extensions in 1987, 1994, and most recently in 2007. TTA started construction in 1977 on its first toll bridge, the 2.5-mile (4.0 km) Mountain Creek Lake Bridge , which opened in 1979. The bridge spans Mountain Creek Lake in

3068-904: The Maine Turnpike in 1947, the Blue Star Turnpike in 1950, the New Jersey Turnpike in 1951, the Garden State Parkway in 1952, the West Virginia Turnpike and New York State Thruway in 1954, the Massachusetts Turnpike in 1957, and the Chicago Skyway and Indiana Toll Road in 1958. Other toll roads were also established around this time. With the establishment of the Interstate Highway System in

3186-671: The Susa – Babylon highway under the regime of Ashurbanipal , who reigned in the seventh century BC. Aristotle and Pliny refer to tolls in Arabia and other parts of Asia. In India, before the fourth century BC, the Arthashastra notes the use of tolls. Germanic tribes charged tolls to travellers across mountain passes . Most roads were not freely open to travel on in Europe during the Middle Ages, and

3304-580: The West African kingdom of Dahomey , toll booths were also established with the function of collecting yearly taxes based on the goods carried by the people of Dahomey and their occupation. In some cases, officials imposed fines for public nuisance before allowing people to pass. Industrialisation in Europe needed major improvements to the transport infrastructure which included many new or substantially improved roads, financed from tolls. The A5 road in Britain

3422-412: The entrepreneur , who has to be responsible for his own happiness and the business is a means to said happiness, where the entrepreneur is not required to serve the interest of anyone else and no-one is entitled to his/her work. Another view of business is that it must exhibit corporate social responsibility (CSR): an umbrella term indicating that an ethical business must act as a responsible citizen of

3540-498: The toll was one of many feudal fees paid for rights of usage in everyday life. Some major European "highways", such as the Via Regia and Via Imperii , offered protection to travelers in exchange for paying the royal toll. Many modern European roads were originally constructed as toll roads in order to recoup the costs of construction and maintenance, and to generate revenue from passing travelers. In 14th-century England, some of

3658-457: The young or the old ), gender / sexual harassment , race , religion , disability , weight and attractiveness. A common approach to remedying discrimination is affirmative action . Once hired, employees have the right to the occasional cost of living increases, as well as raises based on merit. Promotions, however, are not a right, and there are often fewer openings than qualified applicants. It may seem unfair if an employee who has been with

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3776-416: The "closed motorway system" (km travelled) or through the "open motorway system" (flat-rate toll). Given the multiplicity of operators, the toll is only requested when exiting the motorway and not when the motorway operator changes. This system was made possible following article 14 of law 531 of 12 August 1982. From a technical point of view, however, the mixed barrier/free-flow system is active where, at

3894-516: The 18th and 19th century intellectuals as land, labor or idea, and property right over slaves had the same theological and essentialized justification It was even held that the property in slaves was a sacred right. Wiecek says, "Yet slavery was more clearly and explicitly established under the Constitution than it had been under the Articles". In an 1857 judgment, US Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney said, "The right of property in

4012-749: The 1980s and 1990s, both within major corporations and within academia. For example, most major corporations today promote their commitment to non- economic values under headings such as ethics codes and social responsibility charters. Adam Smith said in 1776, "People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices." Governments use laws and regulations to point business behavior in what they perceive to be beneficial directions. Ethics implicitly regulates areas and details of behavior that lie beyond governmental control. The emergence of large corporations with limited relationships and sensitivity to

4130-1627: The 1990s. Marketing ethics was approached from ethical perspectives of virtue or virtue ethics , deontology , consequentialism , pragmatism and relativism. Ethics in marketing deals with the principles, values and/or ideas by which marketers (and marketing institutions) ought to act. Marketing ethics is also contested terrain, beyond the previously described issue of potential conflicts between profitability and other concerns. Ethical marketing issues include marketing redundant or dangerous products/services, transparency about environmental risks, transparency about product ingredients such as genetically modified organisms possible health risks, financial risks , security risks, etc., respect for consumer privacy and autonomy, advertising truthfulness and fairness in pricing & distribution. According to Borgerson, and Schroeder (2008), marketing can influence individuals' perceptions of and interactions with other people, implying an ethical responsibility to avoid distorting those perceptions and interactions. Marketing ethics involves pricing practices, including illegal actions such as price fixing and legal actions including price discrimination and price skimming . Certain promotional activities have drawn fire, including greenwashing , bait and switch , shilling , viral marketing , spam (electronic) , pyramid schemes and multi-level marketing . Advertising has raised objections about attack ads , subliminal messages , sex in advertising and marketing in schools . Scholars in business and management have paid much attention to

4248-474: The 19th century. Roads radiating from Toronto required users to pay at toll gates along the street ( Yonge Street , Bloor Street , Davenport Road , Kingston Road ) but the toll gates disappeared after 1895. In the eastern United States of the 18th and 19th century, hundreds of private turnpikes were created to facilitate travel between towns and cities, typically outside built-up areas. 19th-century plank roads were usually operated as toll roads. One of

4366-563: The Authority is cooperating fully with the FBI. There can be no assurance that the investigation will be limited to the matters described above or that the Authority will not become a target at a later date." Following this memo, neither any current or former board members were charged and the result, and or findings, of the FBI 'raid' are still currently unknown. Toll road Toll roads have existed in some form since antiquity , with tolls levied on passing travelers on foot, wagon, or horseback;

4484-491: The BOT arrangement, a few of the older toll roads in these states are still operated by public authorities. In France, some toll roads are operated by private or public companies, with specific taxes collected by the state. Corporate ethics Business ethics (also known as corporate ethics ) is a form of applied ethics or professional ethics , that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that can arise in

4602-522: The BOT methodology for future highway projects. The more traditional means of managing toll roads in the United States is through semi-autonomous public authorities . Kansas , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , New Jersey , New York , North Carolina , Ohio , Oklahoma , Pennsylvania , and West Virginia manage their toll roads in this manner. While most of the toll roads in California, Delaware, Florida, Texas, and Virginia are operating under

4720-765: The South to the North. The road connects the southwest of the city, including the Sea Port area, with the Ring Road, Vasilievsky Island, Kurortny district and the Scandinavia motorway. The WHSD is divided into three sections: Southern, Central and Northern. The entire stretch of the WHSD was opened for traffic in 2016. There are 16 toll plazas on the WHSD. Paying toll by transponder is mostly recommended for frequent drivers. The Flow+ toll collection system

4838-464: The U.S. saw large road building projects in major urban areas. Electronic toll collection, first introduced in the 1980s, reduces operating costs by removing toll collectors from roads. Tolled express lanes, by which certain lanes of a freeway are designated "toll only", increases revenue by allowing a free-to-use highway to collect revenue by allowing drivers to bypass traffic jams by paying a toll. The E-ZPass system, compatible with many state systems,

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4956-529: The actions and behavior of an individual in the business organization. Business ethics have two dimensions, normative business ethics or descriptive business ethics. As a corporate practice and a career specialization, the field is primarily normative. Academics attempting to understand business behavior employ descriptive methods. The range and quantity of business ethical issues reflects the interaction of profit-maximizing behavior with non-economic concerns. Interest in business ethics accelerated dramatically during

5074-500: The attention of academics, media and business firms by the end of the Cold War . However, criticism of business practices was attacked for infringing the freedom of entrepreneurs and critics were accused of supporting communists . This scuttled the discourse of business ethics both in media and academia. The Defense Industry Initiative on Business Ethics and Conduct (DII) was created to support corporate ethical conduct. This era began

5192-488: The belief and support of self-regulation and free trade, which lifted tariffs and barriers and allowed businesses to merge and divest in an increasing global atmosphere. One of the earliest written treatments of business ethics is found in the Tirukkuṛaḷ , a Tamil book dated variously from 300 BCE to the 7th century CE and attributed to Thiruvalluvar . Many verses discuss business ethics, in particular, verse 113, adapting to

5310-490: The beltways around some larger cities ( tangenziali ) which are not part of a thoroughfare motorway, and the Autostrada A2 between Salerno and Reggio di Calabria which is operated by the government-owned ANAS . Both are toll free. On Italian motorways, the toll applies to almost all motorways not managed by Anas . The collection of motorway tolls, from a tariff point of view, is managed mainly in two ways: either through

5428-739: The brand I-Pass in Illinois ) is accepted on almost all toll roads. Similar systems include SunPass in Florida , FasTrak in California , Good to Go in Washington state , and ExpressToll in Colorado . The systems use a small radio transponder mounted in or on a customer's vehicle to deduct toll fares from a pre-paid account as the vehicle passes through the toll barrier. This reduces manpower at toll booths and increases traffic flow and fuel efficiency by reducing

5546-405: The case of the government, community, and society what was merely an ethical issue can become a legal debate and eventually law." Some emerging ethical issues are: This area of business ethics usually deals with the duties of a company to ensure that products and production processes do not needlessly cause harm. Since few goods and services can be produced and consumed with zero risks, determining

5664-461: The centre of the city tolled. In the United States, as states looked for ways to construct new freeways without federal funding again, to raise revenue for continued road maintenance, and to control congestion, new toll road construction saw significant increases during the first two decades of the 21st century. Spurred on by two innovations, the electronic toll collection system, and the advent of high-occupancy and express lane tolls , many areas of

5782-449: The communities in which it operates even at the cost of profits or other goals. In the US and most other nations, corporate entities are legally treated as persons in some respects. For example, they can hold title to property, sue and be sued and are subject to taxation, although their free speech rights are limited. This can be interpreted to imply that they have independent ethical responsibilities. Duska argued that stakeholders expect

5900-574: The communities in which they operate accelerated the development of formal ethics regimes. Maintaining an ethical status is the responsibility of the manager of the business. According to a 1990 article in the Journal of Business Ethics , "Managing ethical behavior is one of the most pervasive and complex problems facing business organizations today." Business ethics reflect the norms of each historical period. As time passes, norms evolve, causing accepted behaviors to become objectionable. Business ethics and

6018-410: The distance travelled. Motorway barriers are arranged along the route (however not at every junction), at which the user pays a fixed sum, depending only on the class of the vehicle. The user can therefore travel along sections of the motorway without paying any toll as the barriers may not be present on the section travelled. Road tolls were levied traditionally for a specific access (e.g. city) or for

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6136-406: The entrance and exit from the motorways, there are lanes dedicated to the collection of a ticket (on entry) and the delivery of the ticket with simultaneous payment (on exit) and other lanes where, during transit without the need to stop, an electronic toll system present in the vehicles records the data and debits the toll, generally into the bank account previously communicated by the customer, to

6254-518: The ethical course can be difficult. In some case, consumers demand products that harm them, such as tobacco products. Production may have environmental impacts, including pollution , habitat destruction and urban sprawl . The downstream effects of technologies nuclear power , genetically modified food and mobile phones may not be well understood. While the precautionary principle may prohibit introducing new technology whose consequences are not fully understood, that principle would have prohibited

6372-490: The ethical debate over introducing a crime of corporate manslaughter ; and the marketing of corporations' ethics policies. According to research published by the Institute of Business Ethics and Ipsos MORI in late 2012, the three major areas of public concern regarding business ethics in Britain are executive pay, corporate tax avoidance and bribery and corruption. Ethical standards of an entire organization can be damaged if

6490-461: The ethical issues in the different forms of relationships between organizations such as buyer-supplier relationships, networks, alliances , or joint ventures . Drawing in particular on Transaction Cost Theory and Agency Theory , they note the risk of opportunistic and unethical practices between partners through, for instance, shirking, poaching , and other deceitful behaviors. In turn, research on inter-organizational relationships has observed

6608-557: The event includes the first quarter collected at its toll booths. The first major deployment of an RFID electronic toll collection system in the United States was on the Dallas North Tollway in 1989 by Amtech (see TollTag ). The Amtech RFID technology used on the Dallas North Tollway was originally developed at Sandia Labs for use in tagging and tracking livestock. In the same year, the Telepass active transponder RFID system

6726-402: The expenses by introducing a toll. It was followed by Greece, which made users pay for the network of motorways around and between its cities in 1927. Later in the 1950s and 1960s, France, Spain, and Portugal started to build motorways largely with the aid of concessions, allowing rapid development of this infrastructure without massive state debts. Since then, road tolls have been introduced in

6844-535: The first US motor roads, the Long Island Motor Parkway (which opened on October 10, 1908) was built by William Kissam Vanderbilt II, the great-grandson of Cornelius Vanderbilt . The road was closed in 1938 when it was taken over by the state of New York in lieu of back taxes. The first toll road in St. Petersburg appeared in the 2000s. The Western High-Speed Diameter (WHSD) is a multilane motorway running from

6962-506: The first built in the world, connecting Milan to Lake Como and Lake Maggiore , and now parts of the Autostrada A8 and Autostrada A9 , was devised by Piero Puricelli and was inaugurated in 1924. Piero Puricelli, a civil engineer and entrepreneur, received the first authorization to build a public-utility fast road in 1921, and completed the construction (one lane in each direction) between 1924 and 1926. Piero Puricelli decided to cover

7080-792: The global market with minimal regulation over capital flows. The recommendations however, met with criticisms from various schools of ethical philosophy. Some pragmatic ethicists , found these claims to be unfalsifiable and a priori, although neither of these makes the recommendations false or unethical per se. Raising economic growth to the highest value necessarily means that welfare is subordinate, although advocates dispute this saying that economic growth provides more welfare than known alternatives. Since history shows that neither regulated nor unregulated firms always behave ethically, neither regime offers an ethical panacea . Neoliberal recommendations to developing countries to unconditionally open up their economies to transnational finance corporations

7198-461: The highway the first all-automated toll highway in the world. A bill is mailed monthly for usage of the 407. Lower charges are levied on frequent 407 users who carry electronic transponders in their vehicles. The approach has not been without controversy: In 2003 the 407 ETR settled a class action with a refund to users. Throughout most of the East Coast of the United States, E-ZPass (operated under

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7316-405: The highway. In some cases, the ticket displays the toll to be paid on exit. Upon exit, the driver must pay the amount listed for the given exit. Should the ticket be lost, a driver must typically pay the maximum amount possible for travel on that highway. Short toll roads with no intermediate entries or exits may have only one toll plaza at one end, with motorists travelling in either direction paying

7434-705: The hybrid systems they adopted during the late 20th century. These include the Massachusetts Turnpike , one of the oldest American toll roads, which went all-electronic in 2016, and the Pennsylvania Turnpike , America's oldest toll freeway, which went all-electronic in 2020, along with the Illinois Tollway , which both accelerated their transitions to such due to the COVID-19 pandemic . Turnpike trusts were established in England and Wales from about 1706 in response to

7552-468: The ideology hold that unrestricted financial flows, if redeemed from the shackles of "financial repressions", best help impoverished nations to grow. The theory holds that open financial systems accelerate economic growth by encouraging foreign capital inflows, thereby enabling higher levels of savings, investment, employment, productivity and "welfare", along with containing corruption. Neoliberals recommended that governments open their financial systems to

7670-538: The issuance of turnpike revenue bonds; and to collect tolls to operate, maintain and pay debt service on those projects. The NTTA is governed by a nine-member board of directors, two appointed by each of the four counties in its service area: Collin County, Dallas County, Denton County and Tarrant County as well as one appointed by the Texas Governor . North Texas Tollway Authority is a non-profit entity, and performs many of

7788-459: The late 1950s, toll road construction in the U.S. slowed down considerably, as the federal government now provided the bulk of funding to construct new freeways, and regulations required that such Interstate highways be free from tolls. Many older toll roads were added to the Interstate System under a grandfather clause that allowed tolls to continue to be collected on toll roads that predated

7906-562: The laws by which they are governed. TollTag is the electronic toll collection system used by the NTTA in the Dallas / Fort Worth metro area. It was North America’s first electronic toll collection system when it was installed on the Dallas North Tollway in 1989. There are currently over 4 million TollTags in operation in the North Texas area. The NTTA offers reduced toll rates for TollTag users at all toll points. TollTags can be used on all of

8024-400: The mainline toll plazas (toll barriers). It is also possible for motorists to enter an 'open toll road' after one toll barrier and exit before the next one, thus travelling on the toll road toll-free. Most open toll roads have ramp tolls or partial access junctions to prevent this practice, known in the U.S. as " shunpiking ". With a closed toll system, vehicles collect a ticket when entering

8142-523: The maintenance and improvement of most of the main roads in England and Wales, which were used to distribute agricultural and industrial goods economically. The tolls were a source of revenue for road building and maintenance, paid for by road users and not from general taxation. The turnpike trusts were gradually abolished from the 1870s. Most trusts improved existing roads, but some new roads, usually only short stretches, were also built. Thomas Telford 's Holyhead road followed Watling Street from London but

8260-528: The majority of the EU member states. In the United States, prior to the introduction of the Interstate Highway System and the large federal grants supplied to states to build it, many states constructed their first freeways by floating bonds backed by toll revenues. The first major fully grade separated toll road was the Pennsylvania Turnpike in 1940. This was followed up by other toll roads, such as

8378-455: The manager of his device. In Italy, this occurs through the Autostrade per l'Italia interchange system. The Autostrada A36 , Autostrada A59 and Autostrada A60 are exclusively free-flow. On these motorways, those who do not have the electronic toll device on board must proceed with the payment by subsequently communicating the data to the motorway manager (by telephone, online or by going to

8496-409: The median of the road). Some toll roads use a combination of the three systems. On an open toll system, all vehicles stop at various locations along the highway to pay a toll. (This is different from "open road tolling", where no vehicles stop to pay a toll.) While this may save money from the lack of need to construct toll booths at every exit, it can cause traffic congestion while traffic queues at

8614-513: The midst of bidding on lucrative Tollway contracts, as well as not having a firmly defined code of corporate ethics . Various DFW news outlets first started reporting that the North Texas Tollway Authority (NTTA) had been raided by Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) officials in late October 2011. NBC 5 DFW ( KXAS-TV ) first reported this story on October 22, 2011 that "FBI Questioned NTTA Officials". Four years after that article

8732-477: The mix of debt and equity , dividend policy , the evaluation of alternative investment projects, options , futures , swaps , and other derivatives , portfolio diversification and many others. Finance is often mistaken by the people to be a discipline free from ethical burdens. The 2008 financial crisis caused critics to challenge the ethics of the executives in charge of U.S. and European financial institutions and financial regulatory bodies. Finance ethics

8850-465: The most heavily used roads were repaired with money raised from tolls by pavage grants. Widespread toll roads sometimes restricted traffic so much, by their high tolls, that they interfered with trade and cheap transportation needed to alleviate local famines or shortages. Tolls were used in the Holy Roman Empire in the 14th and 15th centuries. After significant road construction undertaken by

8968-416: The most people in the long term. Duska argued that Friedman failed to differentiate two very different aspects of business: (1) the motive of individuals, who are generally motivated by profit to participate in business, and (2) the socially sanctioned purpose of business, or the reason why people allow businesses to exist, which is to provide goods and services to people. So Friedman was wrong that making

9086-423: The motorways subject to toll payment must only proceed at a maximum speed of 30 kilometres per hour (20 mph) without the need to stop. The amount is directly proportional to the distance travelled by the vehicle, the coefficient of its class and a variable coefficient from motorway to motorway, called the kilometre rate. Unlike the closed motorway system, in the open system, the road user does not pay based on

9204-544: The need for better roads than the few and poorly-maintained tracks then available. Turnpike trusts were set up by individual Acts of Parliament , with powers to collect road tolls to repay loans for building, improving, and maintaining the principal roads in Britain . At their peak, in the 1830s, over 1,000 trusts administered around 30,000 miles (48,000 km) of turnpike road in England and Wales, taking tolls at almost 8,000 toll-gates. The trusts were ultimately responsible for

9322-409: The need for complete stops to pay tolls at these locations. By designing a toll gate specifically for electronic collection, it is possible to carry out open-road tolling, where the customer does not need to slow at all when passing through the toll gate. The U.S. state of Texas is using a system that has no toll booths. Drivers without a TollTag have their license plate photographed automatically and

9440-600: The newest technology introduced since the industrial revolution . Product testing protocols have been attacked for violating the rights of both humans and animals . There are sources that provide information on companies that are environmentally responsible or do not test on animals. The etymological root of property is the Latin proprius , which refers to 'nature', 'quality', 'one's own', 'special characteristic', 'proper', 'intrinsic', 'inherent', 'regular', 'normal', 'genuine', 'thorough, complete, perfect' etc. The word property

9558-670: The northeastern United States, the InterCounty Connector ( Maryland Route 200 ) was partially opened to traffic in February 2011, and the final segment was completed in November 2014. The first section of another all-electronic toll road, the Triangle Expressway , opened at the beginning of 2012 in North Carolina. Some toll roads are managed under such systems as the Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) system. Private companies build

9676-455: The object is to win, and winning is measured in terms solely of material wealth. Within the discipline, this rationality concept is never questioned, and has indeed become the theory-of-the-firm's sine qua non". Financial ethics is in this view a mathematical function of shareholder wealth. Such simplifying assumptions were once necessary for the construction of mathematically robust models. However, signalling theory and agency theory extended

9794-399: The offices dedicated to payment). The closed motorway system is applied to most Italian motorways. It requires the driver of the vehicle to collect a special ticket at the entrance to the motorway and pay the amount due upon exit. If equipped with an electronic toll system the two procedures are completely automatic and the driver on the detection lanes located at the entrances and exits from

9912-503: The original interstate system funding. Houston's outer beltway of interconnected toll roads began in 1983, and many states followed over the last two decades of the 20th century adding new toll roads, including the tollway system around Orlando, Florida , Colorado's E-470 , and Georgia State Route 400 . London, in an effort to reduce traffic within the city, instituted the London congestion charge in 2003, effectively making all roads within

10030-717: The paradigm to greater realism. Fairness in trading practices, trading conditions, financial contracting, sales practices, consultancy services, tax payments, internal audit, external audit and executive compensation also, fall under the umbrella of finance and accounting. Particular corporate ethical/legal abuses include: creative accounting , earnings management , misleading financial analysis, insider trading , securities fraud , bribery /kickbacks and facilitation payments . Outside of corporations, bucket shops and forex scams are criminal manipulations of financial markets. Cases include accounting scandals , Enron , WorldCom and Satyam . Human resource management occupies

10148-535: The property is part of the private side of a public/private dichotomy and acts a counterweight to state power. Davies counters that "any space may be subject to plural meanings or appropriations which do not necessarily come into conflict". Private property has never been a universal doctrine, although since the end of the Cold War is it has become nearly so. Some societies, e.g., Native American bands, held land, if not all property, in common. When groups came into conflict,

10266-428: The purpose of a business organization is to make profit for shareholders. Nevertheless, the purpose of maximizing shareholder's wealth often "fails to energize employees". In practice, many non-shareholders also benefit from a firm's economic activity, among them employees through contractual compensation and its broader impact, consumers by the tangible or non-tangible value derived from their purchase choices; society as

10384-458: The purview of individual companies. Trade unions , for example, may push employers to establish due process for workers, but may also cause job loss by demanding unsustainable compensation and work rules. Unionized workplaces may confront union busting and strike breaking and face the ethical implications of work rules that advantage some workers over others. Among the many people management strategies that companies employ are

10502-656: The question is, do corporate executives, provided they stay within the law, have responsibilities in their business activities other than to make as much money for their stockholders as possible? And my answer to that is, no, they do not." This view is known as the Friedman doctrine . A multi-country 2011 survey found support for this view among the "informed public" ranging from 30 to 80%. Ronald Duska and Jacques Cory have described Friedman's argument as consequentialist or utilitarian rather than pragmatic : Friedman's argument implies that unrestrained corporate freedom would benefit

10620-563: The registered owner will receive a monthly bill, at a higher rate than those vehicles with TollTags. A similar variation of automatic collection is the Toll Roads in Orange County, CA, US, wherein all entry or collection points are equipped with high-speed cameras which read license plates and users will have 7 calendar days to pay online using their plate number or else set up an account for automatic debits. The first all-electronic toll road in

10738-454: The resulting behavior evolved as well. Business was involved in slavery , colonialism , and the Cold War . The term 'business ethics' came into common use in the United States in the early 1970s. By the mid-1980s at least 500 courses in business ethics reached 40,000 students, using some twenty textbooks and at least ten casebooks supported by professional societies, centers and journals of business ethics. The Society for Business Ethics

10856-641: The roads and are given a limited franchise. Ownership is transferred to the government when the franchise expires. This type of arrangement is prevalent in Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, Indonesia, India, South Korea, Japan, and the Philippines . The BOT system is a fairly new concept that is becoming more popular in the United States, with California , Delaware , Florida , Illinois , Indiana , Mississippi , Texas , and Virginia already building and operating toll roads under this scheme. Pennsylvania , Massachusetts , New Jersey , and Tennessee are also considering

10974-518: The roadways of the NTTA, and they can also be used on any other toll road in the state of Texas as well as for some parking lots in downtown Dallas for parking or toll payment at the Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport (DFW), and at Dallas Love Field Airport (DAL). Current TollTags are small stickers, similar to those used for state inspections and auto registrations but cannot be moved between vehicles. The previous TollTag

11092-522: The role of formal and informal mechanisms to both prevent unethical practices and mitigate their consequences. It especially discusses the importance of formal contracts and relational norms between partners to manage ethical issues. Being the most important element of a business, stakeholders' main concern is to determine whether or not the business is behaving ethically or unethically. The business's actions and decisions should be primarily ethical before it happens to become an ethical or even legal issue. "In

11210-427: The rules or standards that govern our decisions on a daily basis. Many consider "ethics" with conscience or a simplistic sense of "right" and "wrong". Others would say that ethics is an internal code that governs an individual's conduct, ingrained into each person by family, faith, tradition, community, laws, and personal mores. Corporations and professional organizations, particularly licensing boards, generally will have

11328-576: The same functions as the Texas Department of Transportation , but is limited solely to facilities that it operates for revenue. There are nine members of the NTTA Board of Directors. Eight members are appointed by four counties, two per county. The ninth member is appointed by the governor. Of these members, one is elected to serve as board chairman, and another is elected to serve as vice chairman. The Texas Turnpike Authority (TTA) began construction on

11446-525: The southwestern Dallas County city of Grand Prairie . Construction was started on TTA's only project outside the area, the 2.0-mile (3.2 km) Jesse Jones Memorial Bridge across the Houston Ship Channel, in 1979, with the bridge opening in 1982. TTA sold the bridge to the newly created Harris County Toll Road Authority in 1994, leaving all of TTA's assets in the area in which NTTA was later established. The North Texas Tollway Authority (NTTA)

11564-612: The sphere of activity of recruitment selection, orientation, performance appraisal , training and development , industrial relations and health and safety issues. Business Ethicists differ in their orientation towards labor ethics. Some assess human resource policies according to whether they support an egalitarian workplace and the dignity of labor . Issues including employment itself , privacy , compensation in accord with comparable worth , collective bargaining (and/or its opposite) can be seen either as inalienable rights or as negotiable. Discrimination by age (preferring

11682-539: The state's first toll road, the Dallas–Fort Worth Turnpike , in 1955 and opened the road in 1957. Original plans were for the bonds on the Turnpike to be retired in 1995; however, the bonds were retired in 1977 (17 years ahead of schedule) and tolls were then removed from the road, which the next year was officially designated as Interstate 30 (I-30). Construction began on NTTA's oldest existing toll road,

11800-560: The system. Some of these such as the Connecticut Turnpike and the Richmond–Petersburg Turnpike later removed their tolls when the initial bonds were paid off. Many states, however, have maintained the tolling of these roads as a consistent source of revenue. As the Interstate Highway System approached completion during the 1980s, states began constructing toll roads again to provide new freeways which were not part of

11918-515: The toll, and the cost of the toll booth operators—up to about one-third of revenue in some cases. Automated toll-paying systems help minimise both of these. Others object to paying "twice" for the same road, namely in fuel taxes and in tolls. In addition to toll roads, toll bridges and toll tunnels are also used by public authorities to generate funds to repay the cost of building the structures. Some tolls are set aside to pay for future maintenance or enhancement of infrastructure, or are applied as

12036-582: The tolls. The toll is calculated by the distance travelled on the toll road or the specific exit chosen. In the United States, for instance, the Kansas Turnpike , Ohio Turnpike , New Jersey Turnpike , most of the Indiana Toll Road , New York State Thruway , and Florida's Turnpike currently implement closed systems. The Union Toll Plaza on the Garden State Parkway was the first ever to use an automated toll collection machine. A plaque commemorating

12154-425: The user deposits money in a machine which opens the gate once the correct toll has been paid. To cut costs and minimise time delay, many tolls are collected with electronic toll collection equipment which automatically communicates with a toll payer's transponder or uses automatic number-plate recognition to charge drivers by debiting their accounts. Criticisms of toll roads include the time taken to stop and pay

12272-506: The view that "property is not essentially a 'right to a thing', but rather a separable bundle of rights subsisting between persons which may vary according to the context and the object which is at stake". In common parlance property rights involve a bundle of rights including occupancy, use and enjoyment, and the right to sell, devise, give, or lease all or part of these rights. Custodians of property have obligations as well as rights. Michelman writes, "A property regime thus depends on

12390-443: The workplace what is unethical does not mean illegal and should follow the guidelines put in place by OSHA ( Occupational Safety and Health Administration ), EEOC ( Equal Employment Opportunity Commission ), and other law binding entities. Potential employees have ethical obligations to employers, involving intellectual property protection and whistle-blowing . Employers must consider workplace safety , which may involve modifying

12508-420: The workplace, or providing appropriate training or hazard disclosure. This differentiates on the location and type of work that is taking place and can need to comply with the standards to protect employees and non-employees under workplace safety. Larger economic issues such as immigration , trade policy , globalization and trade unionism affect workplaces and have an ethical dimension, but are often beyond

12626-492: The world, in total exclusion of the right of any other individual in the universe". During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, slavery spread to European colonies including America, where colonial legislatures defined the legal status of slaves as a form of property. Combined with theological justification, the property was taken to be essentially natural ordained by God. Property, which later gained meaning as ownership and appeared natural to Locke, Jefferson and to many of

12744-417: The world, to have been the vile maxim of the masters of mankind." However, a section of economists influenced by the ideology of neoliberalism , interpreted the objective of economics to be maximization of economic growth through accelerated consumption and production of goods and services . Neoliberal ideology promoted finance from its position as a component of economics to its core. Proponents of

12862-493: Was a hard case tag which was affixed to the windshield using velcro tags; these tags have since been removed from service and replaced with the current version. In August 2010, the NTTA faced criticism by replacing the only minority member of the board—making the nine-member board all white and all male. A multi-year audit released in October 2011 stated that the NTTA had inappropriate discussions with consultants while they were in

12980-420: Was an "ethical" act. Economist Milton Friedman wrote that corporate executives' "responsibility ... generally will be to make as much money as possible while conforming to their basic rules of the society, both those embodied in law and those embodied in ethical custom". Friedman also said, "the only entities who can have responsibilities are individuals ... A business cannot have responsibilities. So

13098-457: Was built to provide a robust transport link between Britain and Ireland and had a toll house every few miles. In the 20th century, road tolls were introduced in Europe to finance the construction of motorway networks and specific transport infrastructure such as bridges and tunnels. Italy was the first country in the world to build motorways reserved for fast traffic and for motor vehicles only. The Autostrada dei Laghi ("Lakes Motorway"),

13216-550: Was established in 1997 by Texas Senate Bill 370. The legislation abolished the TTA, which was an independent state agency, and established the Texas Turnpike Authority division of the Texas Department of Transportation . The bill established the NTTA and made it the successor agency to TTA, assuming the prior agencies assets and liabilities. The bill authorized the establishment of other regional tollway authorities and established

13334-780: Was exceptional in creating a largely new route beyond Shrewsbury , and especially beyond Llangollen . Built in the early 19th century, with many toll booths along its length, most of it is now the A5 . In the modern day, one major toll road is the M6 Toll , relieving traffic congestion on the M6 in Birmingham. A few notable bridges and tunnels continue as toll roads including the Dartford Crossing and Mersey Gateway bridge. Some cities in Canada had toll roads in

13452-413: Was fiercely contested by some ethicists. The claim that deregulation and the opening up of economies would reduce corruption was also contested. Dobson observes, "a rational agent is simply one who pursues personal material advantage ad infinitum. In essence, to be rational in finance is to be individualistic, materialistic, and competitive. Business is a game played by individuals, as with all games

13570-524: Was founded in 1980. European business schools adopted business ethics after 1987 commencing with the European Business Ethics Network. In 1982 the first single-authored books in the field appeared. Firms began highlighting their ethical stature in the late 1980s and early 1990s, possibly in an attempt to distance themselves from the business scandals of the day, such as the savings and loan crisis . The concept of business ethics caught

13688-451: Was implemented on the WHSD. The system was designed for automatic calculation of the driving distance of a vehicle equipped with a transponder. The system does not require constructing toll plazas at each entrance to or exit from the highway. Transponders mounted on vehicles are read by signal receivers installed at the entrance and exit ramps. In Italy the only toll roads are the autostrade (Italian for motorways ). Major exceptions are

13806-416: Was introduced across Italy. Several US states now use mobile tolling platforms to facilitate use of payment via smartphones. Highway 407 in the province of Ontario , Canada, has no toll booths, and instead reads a transponder mounted on the windshields of each vehicle using the road (the rear licence plates of vehicles lacking a transponder are photographed when they enter and exit the highway). This made

13924-622: Was published, January 13, 2015, the NTTA finally released a nine-page PDF document entitled 'NTTA RUMORS Q&A' where the authority explained what exactly happened. According to the published memo: "Beginning in October 2011, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (the "FBI") interviewed several officials of the Authority regarding any knowledge the officials may have concerning the conduct of certain current and former Board members, including possible conflicts of interests pertaining to Authority business. The Authority has no reason to believe that it

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