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142-477: In 2011, the region had an estimated population of 250,000. The lingua franca of Bougainville is Tok Pisin , while a variety of Austronesian and non-Austronesian languages are also spoken. The region includes several Polynesian outliers where Polynesian languages are spoken. Geographically the islands of Bougainville and Buka form part of the Solomon Islands archipelago , but are politically separate from

284-772: A vernacular language is the native language of a specific geographical community, a lingua franca is used beyond the boundaries of its original community, for trade, religious, political, or academic reasons. For example, English is a vernacular in the United Kingdom but it is used as a lingua franca in the Philippines , alongside Filipino . Likewise, Arabic , French , Standard Chinese , Russian and Spanish serve similar purposes as industrial and educational lingua francas across regional and national boundaries. Even though they are used as bridge languages, international auxiliary languages such as Esperanto have not had

426-595: A Proclamation extending the Protectorate to the islands in question, i.e. Choiseul , Ysabel , Shortland and Fauro Islands (each with its dependencies), the Tasman group, Lord Howe's group and Gower Island. From the establishment of British colonial rule until approximately 1902, Solomon Islanders continued to launch headhunting raids and murder European traders and colonists. The British responded by dispatching Royal Navy warships to launch punitive expeditions against

568-517: A common language, and spread across the Arab and Muslim worlds. In Djibouti and parts of Eritrea , both of which are countries where multiple official languages are spoken, Arabic has emerged as a lingua franca in part thanks to the population of the region being predominantly Muslim and Arabic playing a crucial role in Islam. In addition, after having fled from Eritrea due to ongoing warfare and gone to some of

710-474: A desire to see Bougainville become independent by June 2025, Papua New Guinea Prime Minister James Marape cautioned against setting a specific timetable. On 7 July 2021, it was announced that Bougainville will become independent by the end of 2027 pending approval of the PNG parliament. The region is divided into three districts, which are further divided into Local Level Government (LLGs) areas. For census purposes,

852-760: A different group of islands referred to collectively as "the Swallow Group," and it includes Trevannion in the Santa Cruz group. German interests in the islands to the east and south-east of Bougainville were transferred to the United Kingdom under the Samoa Tripartite Convention of 1899, in exchange for recognition of the German claim to Western Samoa . In October 1900, the High Commissioner issued

994-402: A difficult island to administer as Mahaffy believed that 80 per cent of Malaitan males possessed firearms in the 1900s. There were frequent inter-tribal killings and pay-back killings. Indiscriminate naval bombardments or naval shore parties destroying villages, canoes and killing pigs to punish Solomon Islanders was a common response to incidents, where the colonial administrators could not arrest

1136-407: A global lingua franca. Any language regularly used for communication between people who do not share a native language is a lingua franca. Lingua franca is a functional term, independent of any linguistic history or language structure. Pidgins are therefore lingua francas; creoles and arguably mixed languages may similarly be used for communication between language groups. But lingua franca

1278-521: A great degree of adoption, so they are not described as lingua francas. The term lingua franca derives from Mediterranean Lingua Franca (also known as Sabir ), the pidgin language that people around the Levant and the eastern Mediterranean Sea used as the main language of commerce and diplomacy from the late Middle Ages to the 18th century, most notably during the Renaissance era . During that period,

1420-647: A hotel and clubhouse for administrators and plantation owners. In 1940 Donald Gilbert Kennedy joined the administration of the British Solomon Islands Protectorate. Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, Kennedy organised an intelligence-gathering network of local informants and messengers to carry out the role of Coastwatchers to monitor Japanese activity. The Coastwatchers were planters, government officials, missionaries and islanders monitoring who went into hiding after

1562-644: A large part of Papua New Guinea's gross national product . The mine was operated by the Australian company Bougainville Copper (BLC), a subsidiary of the British-Australian mining company Rio Tinto/CRA, which had majority control of the company. The state of Papua New Guinea (PNG) holds a 19.1% stake in Bougainville Copper. As a result of the civil war and the rebel-forced closure of the mine, Papua New Guinea's government revenues fell by 20%. Some hope for

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1704-543: A majority of the islanders to Catholicism. The first fully commercial plantation was established in 1908, but German annexation had little economic impact. The Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force occupied Bougainville in December 1914, as part of the Australian occupation of German New Guinea . The 1919 Treaty of Versailles established the former colony as a League of Nations mandate , administered by Australia as

1846-466: A means of exchanging information between scientists and other scholars of different nationalities. The term is taken from the medieval Mediterranean Lingua Franca , a Romance -based pidgin language used especially by traders in the Mediterranean Basin from the 11th to the 19th centuries. A world language —a language spoken internationally and by many people—is a language that may function as

1988-820: A minority language in the Baltic states and some other states in Eastern Europe, as well as in pre- opening China. It remains the official language of the Commonwealth of Independent States . Russian is also one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union , its use has declined in post-Soviet states. Parts of the Russian speaking minorities outside Russia have emigrated to Russia or assimilated into their countries of residence by learning

2130-540: A native language. In medical practices and hospitals, nurses typically communicate with other professionals in English as a lingua franca. This occurrence has led to interest in researching the consequences of the medical community communicating in a lingua franca. English is also sometimes used in Switzerland between people who do not share one of Switzerland's four official languages , or with foreigners who are not fluent in

2272-649: A process of change the lingua franca and Portuguese lexicon was replaced with the languages of the people in contact. Portuguese remains an important lingua franca in the Portuguese-speaking African countries , East Timor , and to a certain extent in Macau where it is recognized as an official language alongside Chinese though in practice not commonly spoken. Portuguese and Spanish have a certain degree of mutual intelligibility and mixed languages such as Portuñol are used to facilitate communication in areas like

2414-466: A result, the regional authorities intend to become independent between 2025 and 2027, pending ratification by the Papua New Guinean government. If ratified, the capital may relocate from Buka back to the previous location of Arawa . Bougainville has been inhabited by humans for at least 29,000 years, according to evidence obtained from Kilu Cave on Buka Island. Until about 10,000 years ago, during

2556-487: A simplified version of mainly Italian in the eastern Mediterranean and Spanish in the western Mediterranean that incorporated many loanwords from Greek , Slavic languages , Arabic , and Turkish came to be widely used as the "lingua franca" of the region, although some scholars claim that the Mediterranean Lingua Franca was just poorly used Italian. In Lingua Franca (the specific language), lingua

2698-675: A single Governing Council . A new constitution was introduced in 1974 which established a standard Westminster form of government and gave the Islanders both Chief Ministerial and Cabinet responsibilities. Governing Council was transformed into the Legislative Assembly . The Protectorate that existed over Solomon Islands was ended under the terms of the Solomon Islands Act 1978 . After the Anglo-German Declarations about

2840-697: A steam ship. The schooner Lark owned by J. Hawkins, from Sydney, also sailed in the waters of the Solomon Islands. In 1899, Woodford purchased the Lahloo , a 33-ton ketch , which he used for suppressing head-hunting in the New Georgia group. The Lahloo was wrecked in 1909. The Belama , a 100-ton steam ship, was acquired in 1909. However, it was wrecked in February 1911 when it struck an uncharted reef off Isabel . The replacement ship, also named Belama , (previously

2982-653: A two-week referendum period which began on 23 November 2019 and closed on 7 December 2019, which is the final step in the Bougainville Peace Agreement. The referendum question was a choice between greater autonomy within Papua New Guinea, or full independence. Over 98% of the valid ballots were cast for independence. Ishmael Toroama , a former rebel leader, was elected president of Bougainville on 23 September 2020. Negotiations between Papua New Guinea and Bougainville began on 17 May 2021. While Toroama stated

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3124-582: A variant spoken in Riau specifically as the basis for " Indonesian " for national use despite Javanese having more native speakers; this standard is the sole official language spoken throughout the vast country despite being the first language of some Indonesians. Swahili developed as a lingua franca between several Bantu -speaking tribal groups on the east coast of Africa with heavy influence from Arabic. The earliest examples of writing in Swahili are from 1711. In

3266-593: A variety of fields and international organizations to communicate with one another. English is the most spoken language in the world, primarily due to the historical global influence of the British Empire and the United States . It is a co-official language of the United Nations and many other international and regional organizations and has also become the de facto language of diplomacy , science , international trade , tourism , aviation , entertainment and

3408-690: A widely studied language in Central Europe and the Balkans, especially in former Yugoslavia . It is recognized as an official language in countries outside of Europe, specifically Namibia . German is also one of the working languages of the EU along English and French, but it is used less in that role than the other two. Today, Standard Mandarin Chinese is the lingua franca of China and Taiwan , which are home to many mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese and, in

3550-468: Is Buka , which became the centre of government after Arawa was damaged during the Bougainville Civil War . The status of Buka is considered temporary, and the government is deciding on the location of a permanent capital. President John Momis confirmed that Bougainville would hold a non-binding independence referendum in 2019. The governments of both Bougainville and Papua New Guinea held

3692-486: Is a language systematically used to make communication possible between groups of people who do not share a native language or dialect, particularly when it is a third language that is distinct from both of the speakers' native languages. Linguae francae have developed around the world throughout human history, sometimes for commercial reasons (so-called "trade languages" facilitated trade), but also for cultural, religious, diplomatic and administrative convenience, and as

3834-557: Is attested across a wide geography beyond South Asia. Inscriptions and literary evidence suggest that Sanskrit was already being adopted in Southeast Asia and Central Asia in the 1st millennium CE, through monks, religious pilgrims and merchants. Until the early 20th century, Literary Chinese served as both the written lingua franca and the diplomatic language in East Asia, including China, Korea , Japan , Ryūkyū , and Vietnam . In

3976-477: Is controversial, and which have sometimes been identified with each other. These are: Ajem-Turkic functioned as lingua franca in the Caucasus region and in southeastern Dagestan , and was widely spoken at the court and in the army of Safavid Iran . English is sometimes described as the foremost global lingua franca, being used as a working language by individuals of diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds in

4118-695: Is currently one of the national languages and it is taught in schools and universities in several East African countries, thus prompting it to be regarded as a modern-day lingua franca by many people in the region. Several Pan-African writers and politicians have unsuccessfully called for Swahili to become the lingua franca of Africa as a means of unifying the African continent and overcoming the legacy of colonialism. British Solomon Islands Protectorate 9°26′6.33″S 159°57′4.46″E  /  9.4350917°S 159.9512389°E  / -9.4350917; 159.9512389 The British Solomon Islands Protectorate

4260-676: Is dedicated to Our Lady of the Assumption , and can be found on Buka Island . It was formerly the Church of St. Michael the Archangel in the former mission of Tubiana. There are a total of 33 Catholic parishes and one mission in the region. Bougainville's constitution, written in English , does not specify an official language , but calls for constitutional literature to be translated into Tok Pisin and as many local languages as possible, while also encouraging

4402-465: Is derived from the Tripartite Convention of 1899, which saw those islands ceded to the United Kingdom. The German Solomon Islands were administered through German New Guinea , although it took almost two decades for an administrative presence to be established. The German administrative station at Kieta , established in 1905, was preceded by a Marist mission, which succeeded in converting

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4544-569: Is equally applicable to a non-creole language native to one nation (often a colonial power) learned as a second language and used for communication between diverse language communities in a colony or former colony. Lingua francas are often pre-existing languages with native speakers, but they can also be pidgins or creoles developed for that specific region or context. Pidgins are rapidly developed and simplified combinations of two or more established languages, while creoles are generally viewed as pidgins that have evolved into fully complex languages in

4686-513: Is from the Italian for 'a language'. Franca is related to Greek Φρᾰ́γκοι ( Phránkoi ) and Arabic إِفْرَنْجِي ( ʾifranjiyy ) as well as the equivalent Italian—in all three cases, the literal sense is ' Frankish ', leading to the direct translation: 'language of the Franks '. During the late Byzantine Empire , Franks was a term that applied to all Western Europeans. Through changes of

4828-400: Is land not occupied by Solomon Islanders – which could be declared “not owned, cultivated, or occupied by any native or non-native person”. Regulation 3 of 1900 implemented a concept of ‘waste land' that was not consistent with Melanesian customs, as unoccupied land was still recognised by customary law as being the property of individual people and communities. From 1900 to 1902, an attempt

4970-546: Is one of the most important in Oceania , is heavily threatened by mining activities. Mining activities have caused civil unrest in the region many times. In January 2018, a moratorium on one mine was imposed by the Papua New Guinea government, in a bid to calm civil unrest against mining in the region. Bougainville had one of the world's largest open-pit copper mines, the Pangunamine, from 1972 to 1989, which for many years generated

5112-431: Is rich in copper and gold , a large mine had been established at Panguna in the early 1970s by Bougainville Copper Limited , a subsidiary of Rio Tinto . Disputes by regional residents with the company over adverse environmental impacts, failure to share financial benefits, and negative social changes brought by the mine resulted in a local revival for a secessionist movement that had been dormant. Activists proclaimed

5254-489: Is the most productive in all of PNG for cocoa. Omuru et al. , 2001 find households farming cacao ( Theobroma cacao ) average an income of US$ 215/year. The Cocoa Pod Borer ( Conopomorpha cramerella ) was considered a large risk for invasion here due to its invasion of nearby areas of Southeast Asia including East New Britain . There was great interest in modelling and phytosanitation practices to forestall its introduction. Unfortunately CPB did arrive here and in 2011

5396-520: Is the preferred and dominant language used for inter-communication between different ethnic groups of Pakistan. Malay is understood across a cultural region in Southeast Asia called the " Malay world " including Brunei , Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, southern Thailand , and certain parts of the Philippines. It is pluricentric , with several nations codifying a local vernacular variety into several national literary standards: Indonesia notably adopts

5538-511: Is the primary medium of education and serves as the lingua franca among citizens. Even in countries not associated with the English-speaking world , English has emerged as a lingua franca in certain situations where its use is perceived to be more efficient to communicate, especially among groups consisting of native speakers of many languages. In Qatar , the medical community is primarily made up of workers from countries without English as

5680-733: Is used as a lingua franca in Switzerland to some extent; however, English is generally preferred to avoid favoring it over the three other official languages. Middle Low German used to be the Lingua franca during the late Hohenstaufen till the mid-15th century periods, in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea when extensive trading was done by the Hanseatic League along the Baltic and North Seas. German remains

5822-757: The Carpathian Mountains , the Danube and the Black sea , corresponding to Wallachia and Moldavia . Nowadays, the Cyrillic writing system is used for various languages across Eurasia, and as the national script in various Slavic, Turkic , Mongolic , Uralic , Caucasian and Iranic -speaking countries in Southeastern Europe , Eastern Europe, the Caucasus , Central, North, and East Asia. The Mediterranean Lingua Franca

Autonomous Region of Bougainville - Misplaced Pages Continue

5964-569: The District commissioner or District officer who recorded the votes cast this way. In the 1950s, British and Australian government officials contemplated transferring sovereignty of the Solomon Islands from the United Kingdom to Australia. The Solomon Islands had close ties to Australia; it used the Australian pound , relied on Australian air and shipping services, employed many Australians as civil servants, and its businesses were dependent upon Australian capital. Some Australian officials argued that

6106-581: The French Caribbean , French is the lingua franca in professional sectors and education, even though it is not the native language of the majority. French continues to be used as a lingua franca in certain cultural fields such as cuisine , fashion , and sport . As a consequence of Brexit , French has been increasingly used as a lingua franca in the European Union and its institutions either alongside or, at times, in place of English. German

6248-502: The Internet . When the United Kingdom became a colonial power, English served as the lingua franca of the colonies of the British Empire . In the post-colonial period, most of the newly independent nations which had many indigenous languages opted to continue using English as one of their official languages such as Ghana and South Africa . In other former colonies with several official languages such as Singapore and Fiji , English

6390-791: The Last Glacial Maximum , there was a single island referred to as "Greater Bougainville" that spanned from the northern tip of Buka Island to the Nggela Islands north of Guadalcanal . The first inhabitants of Bougainville were Australo-Melanesians who presumably arrived from the Bismarck Archipelago . Around 3,000 years ago, Austronesian peoples brought the Lapita culture to the islands, introducing pottery, agriculture, and domesticated animals such as pigs, dogs, and chickens. Both Austronesian and non-Austronesian languages are spoken on

6532-770: The National Soccer League since 2019, although it is based in Port Moresby rather than in Bougainville itself. Previously, a team from Bougainville won the national soccer championships in 1977, defeating Rabaul . Historically the Bougainville Soccer Association came into conflict with the Papua New Guinea Football Association over various matters. During the 1970s and 1980s, teams from Bougainville played against other regions in

6674-529: The Papua New Guinea national netball team at the Commonwealth Games . Lingua franca A lingua franca ( / ˌ l ɪ ŋ ɡ w ə ˈ f r æ ŋ k ə / ; lit.   ' Frankish tongue ' ; for plurals see § Usage notes ), also known as a bridge language , common language , trade language , auxiliary language , link language or language of wider communication ( LWC ),

6816-559: The Silk Road , which is why native speakers of Sogdian were employed as translators in Tang China . The Sogdians also ended up circulating spiritual beliefs and texts, including those of Buddhism and Christianity , thanks to their ability to communicate to many people in the region through their native language. Old Church Slavonic , an Eastern South Slavic language, is the first Slavic literary language . Between 9th and 11th century, it

6958-429: The Solomon Islands archipelago with Woodford, who had been sent to survey the islands and to report on the economic feasibility of the British Solomon Islands Protectorate. On 29 September 1896, in anticipation of the establishment of the British Solomon Islands Protectorate, Woodford purchased the island of Tulagi , which he selected as the site for the administrative centre. The Colonial Office appointed Woodford as

7100-462: The Territory of New Guinea . A civilian administration was established in 1920, after which German nationals were deported and their property expropriated. A number of punitive expeditions took place during both the German and Australian administrations, as part of "pacification" programs. The colonial period saw significant changes in the culture of the islanders. In 1942, Bougainville was invaded by

7242-408: The World Bank 's Productive Partnerships in Agriculture Project was created to help farmers control the insect. From the 2009 production level, bean tonnage fell by over 41% by 2014 (although this also includes trees aging out). The Tinputz area – including Namatoa – had been the highest-producing part of the region and has seen many farms be abandoned and return to jungle. PPAP hopes to revive

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7384-532: The "development, preservation, and enrichment of all Bougainville languages". The most widely spoken Austronesian language is Halia and its dialects, spoken in the island of Buka and the Selau peninsula of Northern Bougainville. Other Austronesian languages include Nehan , Petats , Solos , Saposa (Taiof), Hahon and Tinputz , all spoken in the northern quarter of Bougainville, Buka and surrounding islands. These languages are closely related. Bannoni and Torau are Austronesian languages not closely related to

7526-477: The 12th century AD. Tamil was used for inscriptions from the 10th through 14th centuries in southern Karnataka districts such as Kolar , Mysore , Mandya and Bangalore . Latin , through the power of the Roman Republic , became the dominant language in Italy and subsequently throughout the realms of the Roman Empire. Even after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire , Latin was the common language of communication, science, and academia in Europe until well into

7668-441: The 1850s, followed by other denominations, over time gaining a large number of converts. The Anglo-German Declarations about the Western Pacific Ocean (1886), established "spheres of influence" that Imperial Germany and the United Kingdom agreed, with Germany giving up its claim to the southern Solomon Islands. Following the formal declaration of the Protectorate in 1893, Bellona and Rennell Islands and Sikaiana (formerly

7810-416: The 18th century, when other regional vernaculars (including its own descendants, the Romance languages) supplanted it in common academic and political usage, and it eventually became a dead language in the modern linguistic definition. Classical Māori is the retrospective name for the language (formed out of many dialects, albeit all mutually intelligible) of both the North Island and the South Island for

7952-408: The 1950s, the British colonial administration built a network of official local councils. On this platform Solomon Islanders with experience on the local councils started participation in central government, initially through the bureaucracy and then, from 1960, through the newly established Legislative and Executive Councils . The 1970 constitution replaced the Legislative and Executive Councils with

8094-473: The 800 years before the European settlement of New Zealand . Māori shared a common language that was used for trade, inter- iwi dialogue on marae , and education through wānanga . After the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi , Māori language was the lingua franca of the Colony of New Zealand until English superseded it in the 1870s. The description of Māori language as New Zealand's 19th-century lingua franca has been widely accepted. The language

8236-522: The Australian Department of Territories . In 1956, Australian territories minister Paul Hasluck proposed to federal cabinet that Australia take over the Solomons, with the support of External Affairs Minister Richard Casey . It was proposed that Australia would effectively double the annual development funds that the UK had allocated to the Solomons, from £1,073,533 (equivalent to £34,000,000 in 2023) to about £2,000,000 (equivalent to £63,000,000 in 2023). However, Australia's Treasury Department

8378-491: The Australian coastwatcher would also meet the president. Gasa and Kumana were interviewed by National Geographic in 2002, and can be seen on the DVD of the television special. They were presented a bust by Max Kennedy , a son of Robert F. Kennedy . The National Geographic had gone there as part of an expedition by Robert Ballard , who found the remains of the PT-109. The special was called The Search for Kennedy's PT 109 . Ambassador Caroline Kennedy met John Koloni,

8520-420: The British had shown little interest in the development of the islands, while British officials believed Australia did not have sufficient trained staff to take over the administration. Unlike Christmas Island , the Cocos (Keeling) Islands , and the New Hebrides , Australia made no formal request for a transfer of sovereignty. However, there were informal discussions between officials in the Colonial Office and

8662-401: The High Commissioner for the Western Pacific issued Proclamations which declared (apparently superfluously) that all those islands should "henceforth" form part of the Protectorate. The two Proclamations of 1898 were superseded by one dated 28 January 1899, which was apparently intended not to consolidate them but also to correct geographical errors: it lists "the Reef Islands, Swallow Group" and

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8804-415: The High Commissioner for the Western Pacific, but progressively more of the positions were directly elected or appointed by electoral colleges formed by the local councils. A major issue faced by the authorities in extending democratic representation was the low level of literacy, estimated to be below 6% in 1970. The solution was to allow for voters to whisper their vote to the presiding official, normally

8946-404: The High Commissioner issued a Proclamation extending the Protectorate to the islands in question, i.e. Choiseul , Ysabel , Shortland and Fauro Islands (each with its dependencies), the Tasman group, Lord Howe's group and Gower Island. The Protectorate was administered as part of the British Western Pacific Territories (BWPT) until the Solomon Islands became independent in 1978. During

9088-531: The Japanese in order to provide a support base for the operations elsewhere in the South-West Pacific. The Allied counter-invasion resulted in heavy casualties, beginning in 1943, with full control of the islands not re-established until 1945. After the war the Australian government incorporated Bougainville and the rest of the mandate into the Territory of Papua and New Guinea , the immediate predecessor of present-day Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea gained its independence from Australia in 1975. As Bougainville

9230-448: The Japanese invasion of the Solomon Islands in January 1942. The Coastwatchers monitored Japanese shipping and aircraft (reporting by radio) and also rescued Allied personnel who were stranded in the territory held by the Japanese. The counter-attack was led by the United States; the 1st Division of the US Marine Corps landed on Guadalcanal and Tulagi in August 1942. Some of the bitterest fighting of World War II took place on

9372-414: The LLGAs are subdivided into wards, and those into census units. The great majority of Bougainville residents are Christian, with an estimated 70% being Roman Catholic and a substantial minority being of the Protestant United Church of Papua New Guinea since 1968. The Catholic Church has its own diocese in the region (Diocese of Bougainville or Dioecesis Buganvillensis ). The cathedral and main church

9514-529: The Legislative Council (the one exception was the Eastern Outer Islands constituency , which was again appointed by electoral college). Elections were held again in 1970 and a new constitution was introduced. The 1970 constitution replaced the Legislative and Executive Councils with a single Governing Council . It also established a 'committee system of government' where all members of the Council sat on one or more of five committees. The aims of this system were to reduce divisions between elected representatives and

9656-467: The PNG national championships for Australian rules football , cricket , and field hockey . Boxing is popular in Bougainville. The region won the 2017 National Boxing Championships, which were hosted in Arawa. Notable boxers from the region include Commonwealth Boxing Council titleholder Johnny Aba and Pacific Games gold medalist Thadius Katua . Bougainvillean netball player Maleta Roberts has played professionally in Australia and represented

9798-423: The PNGDF. The war claimed an estimated 15,000 to 20,000 lives. In 1996, Prime Minister Sir Julius Chan made the controversial move to hire Sandline International , a private military company previously involved in supplying mercenaries in the civil war in Sierra Leone , to put down the rebellion. The Bougainville conflict ended in 1997 after negotiations brokered by New Zealand . In 2000, A peace agreement

9940-430: The Portuguese Empire, Africa, South America and Asia in the 15th and 16th centuries. When the Portuguese started exploring the seas of Africa, America, Asia and Oceania, they tried to communicate with the natives by mixing a Portuguese-influenced version of lingua franca with the local languages. When Dutch, English or French ships came to compete with the Portuguese, the crews tried to learn this "broken Portuguese". Through

10082-496: The Resident Commissioner in the Solomon Islands on 17 February 1897. He was directed to control the labour trade operating in the Solomon Island waters and to stop the illegal trade in firearms. Bellona and Rennell Islands and Sikaiana (formerly the Stewart Islands) were added to the Protectorate in 1897, and the Santa Cruz group, the Reef Islands , Anuda (Cherry), Fataka (Mitre) and Trevannion Islands and Duff (Wilson) group in 1898. On 18 August 1898 and 1 October 1898,

10224-604: The Resident Commissioner in the Solomon Islands, over his management of land alienation from the Solomon Islanders to plantation owners. The complaints including Woodford withdrawing ‘waste land’ from transfer to plantation owners when the original Solomon Islander owners were identified, and insisting on strict conformity with the improvement clauses on leases. The Solomons (Land) Regulation of 1914 (King's Regulation no. 3 of 1914), replace earlier regulations, and ended

10366-634: The Royal Navy warship HMS Rapid launched a punitive expedition, targeting villages which had been responsible for the murders of European traders and colonists on the islands of Rendova , New Georgia , Nggatokae and Vella Lavella . Arthur Mahaffy was appointed as the Deputy Commissioner in January 1898. In January 1900, Mahaffy established a government station at Gizo , as Woodford considered Mahaffy’s military training as making him suitable for

10508-452: The Solomon Islanders for his personal collection. Arthur Mahaffy visited Malaita on HMS  Sparrow  (1889) , as a resident magistrate, in 1902 to investigate several deaths. Mahaffy demanded the Malaitians give up the person believed to be the murderer, and when they did not, Sparrow shelled the village and a shore party burnt down the village and killed the pigs. Malaita was

10650-637: The Solomon Islands Development Company, the Shortland Islands Plantation Ltd and Choiseul Plantations Ltd. Burns Philp acquired 800 acres of coconut plantations in the Shortland Islands and other properties from plantation owners. In 1917, Burns Philp acquired 15,000 acres of grass lands on Guadalcanal on a 999 year lease. These corporate plantation owners employed 55 per cent of the Solomon Islanders engaged in

10792-784: The Solomon Islands, with most engaged in the development of copra plantations. The Solomon (Waste Land) Regulation of 1900 (Queen's Regulation no. 3 of 1900), and later revisions, was intended by the British Solomon Islands administration in Tulagi , the Western Pacific High Commission in Suva , and the Colonial Office in London to make land available for commercial plantations by a formal process of identifying ‘waste land' – that

10934-611: The Stewart Islands) were added to the Protectorate in 1897, and the Santa Cruz group, the Reef Islands , Anuda (Cherry), Fataka (Mitre) and Trevannion Islands and Duff (Wilson) group in 1898. German interests in the islands to the east and south-east of Bougainville were transferred to the United Kingdom under the Samoa Tripartite Convention of 1899, in exchange for recognition of the German claim to Western Samoa . In October 1900,

11076-788: The Western Pacific Ocean (1886), the Protectorate was first declared over the southern Solomons in June 1893. The formalities in its establishment were carried out by Captain Herbert Gibson of HMS  Curacoa , who hoisted the British flag and read Proclamations on twenty-one islands. In April 1896, Charles Morris Woodford was appointed as an Acting Deputy Commissioner of the British Western Pacific Territories . From 30 May to 10 August 1896, HMS Pylades toured through

11218-600: The alienation of land from Solomon Islander owners and a leasehold system was instituted for plantation land. Levers Pacific Plantations Ltd, a subsidiary of Lever Brothers , became the largest operator of plantations, with 26 plantations established by 1916. The Malayta Company operated 7 plantations, and was controlled by the Young family who were associated with the South Seas Evangelical Church . Burns, Philp & Co operated 7 plantations through subsidiaries -

11360-520: The border area between Brazil and Uruguay. The Hindustani language , with Hindi and Urdu as dual standard varieties, serves as the lingua franca of Pakistan and Northern India . Many Hindi-speaking North Indian states have adopted the three-language formula in which students are taught: "(a) Hindi (with Sanskrit as part of the composite course); (b) Any other modern Indian language including Urdu and (c) English or any other modern European language." The order in non-Hindi speaking states is: "(a)

11502-504: The breakup of much of the empire in the Americas, its function as a lingua franca was solidified by the governments of the newly independent nations of what is now Hispanic America . While its usage in Spain's Asia-Pacific colonies has largely died out except in the Philippines , where it is still spoken by a small minority, Spanish became the lingua franca of what is now Equatorial Guinea , being

11644-478: The case of Taiwan, indigenous Formosan languages . Among many Chinese diaspora communities, Cantonese is often used as the lingua franca instead, particularly in Southeast Asia, due to a longer history of immigration and trade networks with southern China, although Mandarin has also been adopted in some circles since the 2000s. Arabic was used as a lingua franca across the Islamic empires, whose sizes necessitated

11786-453: The colonial bureaucracy and to provide opportunities for training new representatives in managing the responsibilities of government. It was also claimed that this system was more consistent with the Melanesian style of government, however, this was quickly undermined by opposition to the 1970 constitution and the committee system by elected members of the council. As a result, a new constitution

11928-568: The colonial period the region was occupied and administered by the Germans, Australians, Japanese, and Americans for various periods. The name of the region originates from French admiral Louis Antoine de Bougainville , who reached it in 1768. Bougainvillean separatism dates to the 1960s, and the Republic of the North Solomons was declared shortly before the independence of Papua New Guinea in 1975; it

12070-481: The company purchased the coconut plantation concessions from the Pacific Islands Company Ltd for £5,000. By 1905 the company had acquired approximately 80,000 acres in the Solomon Islands which were distributed over 14 islands: 51,000 acres from Lars Nielsen and other plantation owners, and 28,870 acres purchased from islanders. The plantation companies came into conflict with Charles Morris Woodford ,

12212-476: The copra industry, with individual plantation owners employing the remaining 45 per cent. Burns, Philp acquired the island of Makambo in Tulagi Harbour to operate as a trading station and cargo depot in competition with Lever’s operation on Gavutu Island that was nearby Tulagi. Tulagi contained the administrative headquarters of the Protectorate and other facilities such as the hospital and jail, as well as

12354-799: The course of adaptation by subsequent generations. Pre-existing lingua francas such as French are used to facilitate intercommunication in large-scale trade or political matters, while pidgins and creoles often arise out of colonial situations and a specific need for communication between colonists and indigenous peoples.  Pre-existing lingua francas are generally widespread, highly developed languages with many native speakers. Conversely, pidgins are very simplified means of communication, containing loose structuring, few grammatical rules, and possessing few or no native speakers. Creole languages are more developed than their ancestral pidgins, utilizing more complex structure, grammar, and vocabulary, as well as having substantial communities of native speakers. Whereas

12496-537: The early 19th century the use of Swahili as a lingua franca moved inland with the Arabic ivory and slave traders. It was eventually adopted by Europeans as well during periods of colonization in the area. German colonizers used it as the language of administration in German East Africa , later becoming Tanganyika , which influenced the choice to use it as a national language in what is now independent Tanzania . Swahili

12638-774: The early 20th century, vernacular written Chinese replaced Classical Chinese within China as both the written and spoken lingua franca for speakers of different Chinese dialects, and because of the declining power and cultural influence of China in East Asia, English has since replaced Classical Chinese as the lingua franca in East Asia. Koine Greek was the lingua franca of the Hellenistic culture. Koine Greek (Modern Greek : Ελληνιστική Κοινή , romanized :  Ellinistikí Kiní , lit.   'Common Greek'; Greek: [elinistiˈci ciˈni] ), also known as Alexandrian dialect, common Attic, Hellenistic, or Biblical Greek,

12780-525: The eventual reopening of the Panguna mine. Negotiations to reopen the Panguna mine began in early March 2006 with talks between former PNG Mines Minister Sam Akoitai and the Rio Tinto corporation in London. Some representatives of landowners in the Panguna area have repeatedly agreed to resume mining operations, albeit in conjunction with demands for large compensation payments from the mine operator BCL. Yields from

12922-420: The former being first-listed or only-listed in major dictionaries. The use of lingua francas has existed since antiquity. Akkadian remained the common language of a large part of Western Asia from several earlier empires, until it was supplanted in this role by Aramaic . Sanskrit historically served as a lingua franca throughout the majority of South Asia. The Sanskrit language's historic presence

13064-487: The former, which are spoken in the coastal areas of central and south Bougainville. On the nearby Takuu Atoll a Polynesian language is spoken, Takuu . Official statistics about Bougainville's economy are not available. The PNG National Research Institute estimates its GDP per capita at $ 1,100 as of 2019. A small percentage of the region's economy is from mining . The majority of economic growth comes from agriculture and aquaculture . The region's biodiversity, which

13206-734: The independence of Bougainville ( Republic of North Solomons ) in 1975 and in 1990, but both times government forces suppressed the separatists. In 1988, the Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA) increased their activity significantly. Prime Minister Sir Rabbie Namaliu ordered the Papua New Guinea Defence Force (PNGDF) to put down the rebellion, and the conflict escalated into a civil war . The PNGDF retreated from permanent positions on Bougainville in 1990, but continued military action. The conflict involved pro-independence and loyalist Bougainvillean groups as well as

13348-623: The independent country of Solomon Islands . Historically, Bougainville and Buka, together with the islands of Choiseul, Santa Isabel, the Shortlands and Ontong Java, which are all now part of the country of Solomon Islands, formed the German Solomon Islands Protectorate, the geographical area later being referred to as the North Solomon Islands . Bougainville has been inhabited by humans for at least 29,000 years. During

13490-438: The industry around Namatoa. Cryptolaemus sinestria is a mealybug of cacao trees here, observed at a Buka agricultural station. Termites are common agricultural pests in Bougainville. Microcerotermes biroi and Nasutitermes novanimhebridarum are pests of coconut ( Cocos nucifera ). N. novanimhebridarum is also a pest of cacao ( Theobroma cacao ) here. Termite pests found here tend to be shared with many of

13632-446: The island's peace process. In 2015, Australia announced it would establish a diplomatic post in Bougainville for the first time. In 2016, it cancelled those plans acknowledging that it had not obtained the PNG government 's approval. In 2019, a non-binding independence referendum was held with 98.3% voting for independence rather than continued autonomy within Papua New Guinea. As a result,

13774-694: The islands for almost three years. Tulagi, the seat of the British administration on the island of Nggela Sule in Central Province was destroyed in the heavy fighting following landings by the US Marines. Then the tough battle for Guadalcanal, which was centered on the capture of the airfield, Henderson Field, led to the development of the adjacent town of Honiara as the United States logistics center. Islanders Biuku Gasa and Eroni Kumana were Allied scouts during

13916-464: The islands that were later named in his honour . In 1768, French admiral Louis Antoine de Bougainville sailed along the east coast of the island that now bears his name. The German Empire , which had already begun operations in New Guinea, annexed present-day Bougainville in 1886, after agreeing with the United Kingdom to divide the Solomon Islands archipelago between them. A German protectorate over

14058-489: The islands to this day, however there has been significant mixing between the populations to the point that cultural and genetic differences are no longer correlated with language. The first Europeans to sight present-day Bougainville were the Dutch explorers Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire , who glimpsed Takuu Atoll and Nissan Island in 1616. British naval officer Philip Carteret saw Buka Island in 1767 and also visited

14200-527: The language of communication between European academics, merchants, and diplomats. With the expansion of Western colonial empires, French became the main language of diplomacy and international relations up until World War II when it was replaced by English due the rise of the United States as the leading superpower . Stanley Meisler of the Los Angeles Times said that the fact that the Treaty of Versailles

14342-454: The lingua franca for most of ancient Tamilakam and Sri Lanka . John Guy states that Tamil was also the lingua franca for early maritime traders from India. The language and its dialects were used widely in the state of Kerala as the major language of administration, literature and common usage until the 12th century AD. Tamil was also used widely in inscriptions found in the southern Andhra Pradesh districts of Chittoor and Nellore until

14484-480: The local language and using it preferably in daily communication. In Central European countries that were members of the Warsaw Pact , where Russian was only a political language used in international communication and where there was no Russian minority, the Russian language practically does not exist, and in schools it was replaced by English as the primary foreign language. Portuguese served as lingua franca in

14626-579: The local language. In the European Union , the use of English as a lingua franca has led researchers to investigate whether a Euro English dialect has emerged. In the fields of technology and science, English emerged as a lingua franca in the 20th century. The Spanish language spread mainly throughout the New World , becoming a lingua franca in the territories and colonies of the Spanish Empire , which also included parts of Africa, Asia, and Oceania. After

14768-521: The main language of government and education and is spoken by the vast majority of the population. Due to large numbers of immigrants from Latin America in the second half of the 20th century and resulting influence, Spanish has also emerged somewhat as a lingua franca in parts of the Southwestern United States and southern Florida , especially in communities where native Spanish speakers form

14910-433: The main royal courts of Europe, and among intellectuals. This lasted from the 14th century to the end of the 16th, when French replaced Italian as the usual lingua franca in northern Europe. Italian musical terms, in particular dynamic and tempo notations, have continued in use to the present day. Classical Quechua is either of two historical forms of Quechua , the exact relationship and degree of closeness between which

15052-682: The major language of the state or region; (b) Hindi; (c) Any other modern Indian language including Urdu but excluding (a) and (b) above; and (d) English or any other modern European language." Hindi has also emerged as a lingua franca in Arunachal Pradesh , a linguistically diverse state in Northeast India. It is estimated that nine-tenths of the state's population knows Hindi. Urdu is the lingua franca of Pakistan and had gained significant influence amongst its people, administration and education. While it shares official status with English, Urdu

15194-434: The majority of the population. At present it is the second most used language in international trade, and the third most used in politics, diplomacy and culture after English and French. It is also one of the most taught foreign languages throughout the world and is also one of the six official languages of the United Nations . French is sometimes regarded as the first global lingua franca, having supplanted Latin as

15336-521: The many indigenous languages spoken in their territory. Notably, in most Francophone West and Central African countries, French has transitioned from being only a lingua franca to the native language among some communities, mostly in urban areas or among the elite class. In other regions such as the French-speaking countries of the Maghreb ( Algeria , Tunisia , Morocco , and Mauritania ) and parts of

15478-628: The middle of a 9 km (5.6 mi) strait that separates it from the Shortland Islands . The island of Buka is north of Bougainville, separated by a narrow strait. The region includes other more or less remote islands and atolls: The territory constitutes an archipelago in the Pacific Ocean that has an area of 9384 square kilometres . Elections for the first autonomous government were held in May and June 2005; Joseph Kabui , an independence leader,

15620-520: The nearby Arab countries, Eritrean emigrants are contributing to Arabic becoming a lingua franca in the region by coming back to their homelands having picked up the Arabic language. Russian is in use and widely understood in Central Asia and the Caucasus , areas formerly part of the Russian Empire and Soviet Union. Its use remains prevalent in many post-Soviet states . Russian has some presence as

15762-509: The nearby islands. A law passed by the provincial assembly – the Bougainville Flag, Emblem and Anthem (Protection) Act 2018 – affirmed the existing official status of the flag of Bougainville and emblem of Bougainville . Both the flag and emblem feature stylised depictions of the upe , a traditional headdress worn by men in parts of Bougainville to symbolise their transition to adulthood. The law also established " My Bougainville " as

15904-547: The northern islands was established later that year, but the British Solomon Islands Protectorate was not established until 1893. The initial boundary between the two territories was much more southerly, with Choiseul Island , Santa Isabel Island , Ontong Java , the Shortland Islands , and part of the Florida Islands included in the German section. The current boundary between PNG and Solomon Islands

16046-419: The particular language) was first recorded in English during the 1670s, although an even earlier example of the use of it in English is attested from 1632, where it is also referred to as "Bastard Spanish". The term is well established in its naturalization to English and so major dictionaries do not italicize it as a "foreign" term. Its plurals in English are lingua francas and linguae francae , with

16188-538: The perpetrators of killings. Woodford initially used a 27-foot open whaleboat to travel between the islands, or travelled on any available trading boat or Royal Navy ship. From 1896 the Burns Philp steamship the Titus was making between four and seven voyages from Sydney to the Solomon Islands. Two ships owned by Gustavus John Waterhouse of Sydney operated in the Solomon Islands; the schooner Chittoor , and SS Kurrara ,

16330-476: The prestige language of politics, trade, education, diplomacy, and military in early modern Europe and later spreading around the world with the establishment of the French colonial empire . With France emerging as the leading political, economic, and cultural power of Europe in the 16th century, the language was adopted by royal courts throughout the continent, including the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Russia, and as

16472-558: The region's anthem. Rugby league in Bougainville is administered by the Bougainville Rugby Football League (BRFL), which is affiliated with the Papua New Guinea Rugby Football League (PNGRFL). A number of Bougainvilleans have played for the Papua New Guinea national rugby league team , including Bernard Wakatsi, Joe Katsi, Lauta Atoi , and Chris Siriosi. F.C. Bougainville has played in

16614-560: The regional authorities intend to become independent between 2025 and 2027. A draft constitution for a "Republic of Bougainville" was published by the Autonomous Bougainville Government in May 2024. The Bougainville region occupies the north of the Solomon archipelago with Bougainville Island, which is the largest island of this group. The border between Papua New Guinea and the nation of Solomon Islands lies just south in

16756-589: The river steamer Awittaka ) arrived at Tulagi in August 1911. It was wrecked off Isabel in 1921. From about 1900, Burns Philp had a dominant role in trade in the region distributing general merchandise and collecting copra . Ships servicing the Levers Pacific Plantations started in 1903. In 1904, Burns Philp began to acquire plantations and land to develop into plantations in the British Solomon Islands. W. R. Carpenter & Co. (Solomon Islands) Ltd

16898-529: The role of suppressing headhunting in New Georgia and neighbouring islands. Mahaffy had a force of twenty-five police officers armed with rifles. The first target of this force was chief Ingava of the Roviana Lagoon of New Georgia who had been raiding Choiseul and Isabel and killing or enslaves hundreds of people. Mahaffy and the police officers under his command carried out a violent and ruthless suppression of headhunting, with his actions having

17040-409: The shift in the meaning of Lingua Franca from a single proper noun to a common noun encompassing a large class of pidgin languages. As recently as the late 20th century, some restricted the use of the generic term to mean only mixed languages that are used as vehicular languages, its original meaning. Douglas Harper's Online Etymology Dictionary states that the term Lingua Franca (as the name of

17182-564: The son of Kumana, and Nelma Ane, daughter of Gasa at a ceremony in August 2023 in Honiara to mark the 80th anniversary of the battle of Guadalcanal. She also visited the places that her father had swum after the sinking of PT 109. The impact of the war on islanders was profound. The destruction caused by the fighting and the longer-term consequences of the introduction of modern materials, machinery and western cultural artifacts, transformed traditional isolated island ways of life. The reconstruction

17324-407: The support of Woodford and the Western Pacific High Commission , who wanted to eradicate headhunting and complete a “pacification” of the western Solomon Islands. Mahaffy seized and destroyed large war canoes ( tomokos ). One of which was used to transport the police officers. The western Solomon were substantially pacified by 1902. During this time Mahaffy acquired artefacts held in high value by

17466-451: The term in literature, lingua franca has come to be interpreted as a general term for pidgins, creoles, and some or all forms of vehicular languages. This transition in meaning has been attributed to the idea that pidgin languages only became widely known from the 16th century on due to European colonization of continents such as The Americas, Africa, and Asia. During this time, the need for a term to address these pidgin languages arose, hence

17608-403: The two main exports , cocoa and copra , returned to pre-civil war levels in 2007. Largely operated by Europeans, Asians, churches and corporations, large-scale commercial plantations, which were responsible for a significant share of production before the civil war, are now used by smaller local operators. Further processing is done by small cocoa dryers promoted by AusAid. Bougainville Region

17750-448: The villages responsible in an effort to curb such activities. In September 1891, several Kalikoqu tribesmen killed a European trader operating on Uki Island named Fred Howard. In response, the screw-sloop HMS Royalist launched a punitive expedition against the village responsible, killing several of the tribesmen who were involved in the murder along with burning the village and destroying several of its canoes. In March 1897,

17892-545: The war. They became famous when they were noted by National Geographic for being the first men to find the shipwrecked John F. Kennedy and his crew of the PT-109 using a traditional dugout canoe . They suggested the idea of using a coconut to write a rescue message for delivery. The coconut was later kept on Kennedy's desk. Their names had not been credited in most movie and historical accounts, and they were turned back before they could visit President Kennedy's inauguration, though

18034-440: Was completed and, together with disarmament , provided for the establishment of an Autonomous Bougainville Government . The parties agreed to have a referendum in the future on whether the island should become politically independent. On 25 July 2005, rebel leader Francis Ona died after a short illness. A former surveyor with Bougainville Copper , Ona was a key figure in the secessionist conflict and had refused to formally join

18176-415: Was elected president. He died in office on 6 June 2008. After interim elections to fill the remainder of his term, John Momis was elected as president in 2010 for a five-year term. He supports autonomy within a relationship with the national government of Papua New Guinea. The Constitution of Bougainville specifies that the Autonomous Bougainville Government shall consist of three branches: The capital city

18318-600: Was established in 1922 and became storekeepers, traders, and operated a fleet of inter-island steamers. The policy of the colonial officials was to attempt to make the protectorate self-supporting through taxes imposed on copra and other products exported from the Islands. The long-term interests of the islanders was relegated to a secondary priority as the colonial officials focused on encouraging investment by British and Australian corporate trading companies and individual plantation owners. By 1902, there were about 83 Europeans in

18460-509: Was first established in June 1893, when Captain Herbert Gibson of HMS  Curacoa declared the southern Solomon Islands a British protectorate . Christian missionaries began visiting the Solomons from the 1840s, beginning with an attempt by French Catholics under Jean-Baptiste Epalle to establish a mission on Santa Isabel Island , which was abandoned after Epalle was killed by islanders in 1845. Anglican missionaries began arriving from

18602-542: Was initially vital for all European and Chinese migrants in New Zealand to learn, as Māori formed a majority of the population, owned nearly all the country's land and dominated the economy until the 1860s. Discriminatory laws such as the Native Schools Act 1867 contributed to the demise of Māori language as a lingua franca. Sogdian was used to facilitate trade between those who spoke different languages along

18744-537: Was introduced in 1974 which established a standard Westminster form of government and gave the Islanders both Chief Ministerial and Cabinet responsibilities. Solomon Mamaloni became the country's first Chief Minister in July 1974 and the Governing Council was transformed into the Legislative Assembly . The protectorate that existed over Solomon Islands was ended under the terms of the Solomon Islands Act 1978 which annexed

18886-517: Was largely based on Italian and Provençal . This language was spoken from the 11th to 19th centuries around the Mediterranean basin, particularly in the European commercial empires of Italian cities ( Genoa , Venice, Florence , Milan, Pisa , Siena ) and in trading ports located throughout the eastern Mediterranean rim. During the Renaissance , standard Italian was spoken as a language of culture in

19028-540: Was made by the Pacific Islands Company Ltd to establish plantations. However, it was unable to raise sufficient capital to establish plantations because Regulation 3 of 1900 only permitted the issue of ‘Certificates of Occupation’ of the land and not a formal lease. This limited right to occupy the land were not accepted by financiers as sufficient collateral to finance development of plantations. In 1903, Levers Pacific Plantations Limited purchased 50,000 acres of coconut plantations from Lars Nielsen for £6,500, and in 1906

19170-749: Was originally used at both schools, though the Cyrillic script was developed early on at the Preslav Literary School , where it superseded Glagolitic as the official script in Bulgaria in 893. Old Church Slavonic spread to other South-Eastern, Central, and Eastern European Slavic territories, most notably Croatia , Serbia , Bohemia , Lesser Poland , and principalities of the Kievan Rus' while retaining characteristically South Slavic linguistic features. It spread also to not completely Slavic territories between

19312-483: Was restored during the 1950s, as the British colonial administration built a network of official local councils. On this platform Solomon Islanders with experience on the local councils started participation in central government, initially through the bureaucracy and then, from 1960, through the newly established Legislative and Executive Councils . The Protectorate did not possess a constitution of its own until 1960. Positions on both Councils were initially appointed by

19454-531: Was slow in the absence of war reparations and with the destruction of the pre-war plantations, formerly the mainstay of the economy. Significantly, the Solomon Islanders' experience as labourers with the Allies led some to a new appreciation of the importance of economic organisation and trade as the basis for material advancement. Some of these ideas were put into practice in the early post-war political movement " Maasina Ruru "—often redacted to "Marching Rule". Stability

19596-583: Was subsumed into Papua New Guinea the following year. Conflict over the Panguna mine became the primary trigger for the Bougainville Civil War (1988–1998), which resulted in the deaths of up to 20,000 people. A peace agreement resulted in the creation of the Autonomous Bougainville Government . In late 2019, a non-binding independence referendum was held with 98% voting for independence rather than continued autonomy within Papua New Guinea. As

19738-614: Was the common supra-regional form of Greek spoken and written during the Hellenistic period , the Roman Empire and the early Byzantine Empire . It evolved from the spread of Greek following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the fourth century BC, and served as the lingua franca of much of the Mediterranean region and the Middle East during the following centuries. Old Tamil was once

19880-445: Was the lingua franca of a great part of the predominantly Slavic states and populations in Southeast and Eastern Europe , in liturgy and church organization, culture, literature, education and diplomacy, as an Official language and National language in the case of Bulgaria . It was the first national and also international Slavic literary language (autonym словѣ́ньскъ ѩꙁꙑ́къ , slověnĭskŭ językŭ ). The Glagolitic alphabet

20022-400: Was unenthused about the additional expenditure, and the Department of Defence stated there was "no defence advantage in assuming responsibility" with the islands in British hands. The Australian cabinet rejected the proposal. The first national election was held in 1964 for the seat of Honiara, and by 1967 the first general election was held for all but one of the 15 representative seats on

20164-401: Was written in English as well as French was the "first diplomatic blow" against the language. Nevertheless, it remains the second most used language in international affairs and is one of the six official languages of the United Nations . As a legacy of French and Belgian colonial rule, most former colonies of these countries maintain French as an official language or lingua franca due to

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