126-926: The North Fork Popo Agie River serves as part of the boundary between the Wind River Indian Reservation and Fremont County Wyoming . The river's headwaters are at Lonesome Lake in the Wind River Range , and it flows eastward until its end near Lander, Wyoming when it joins the Middle Fork Popo Agie River . The river is considered a Class 2 fishery by the Wyoming Game and Fish Department meaning it has very good trout waters of statewide importance. Different species of fish can be found, including rainbow trout , brook trout , cutthroat trout and mountain whitefish Wind River Indian Reservation The Wind River Indian Reservation , in
252-586: A methamphetamine crisis that has since been significantly reduced, even while addiction continues to be a problem. Other residents say the Wind River Indian Reservation is a more hopeful place than is often portrayed in press reports. There are two outpatient clinics located on the reservation. There is one located in Arapahoe , and the second one is located in Fort Washakie . The clinics offer
378-692: A Cree"), in their local groups. Loosely allied with the Nehiyaw-Pwat , but politically independent, were neighboring tribes like the Ktunaxa , Secwepemc and in particular the arch enemy of the Blackfoot, the Crow, or Indian trading partners like the Nez Perce and Flathead. The Shoshone acquired horses much sooner than the Blackfoot and soon occupied much of present-day Alberta, most of Montana, and parts of Wyoming, and raided
504-563: A combined force of Lakotas, Cheyennes, and Arapahos surrounded and attacked Washakie's camp at Trout Creek on the reservation. The Shoshones survived the attack by digging rifle pits inside their tepees, and then mounting a counterattack. The last significant conflict occurred in June 1874, when 167 Shoshones and U.S. cavalry attacked the Arapaho at the Bates Battlefield on the head of Nowood Creek in
630-534: A greater speed. They could be ridden for hunting and travel. Horses revolutionised life on the Great Plains and soon came to be regarded as a measure of wealth. Warriors regularly raided other tribes for their best horses. Horses were generally used as universal standards of barter. Medicine men were paid for cures and healing with horses. Those who designed shields or war bonnets were also paid in horses. The men gave horses to those who were owed gifts as well as to
756-559: A gun from a living enemy and or touching him directly; capturing lances, and bows; scalping an enemy; killing an enemy; freeing a tied horse from in front of an enemy lodge; leading a war party; scouting for a war party; stealing headdresses, shields, pipes (sacred ceremonial pipes); and driving a herd of stolen horses back to camp. The Niitsitapi were enemies of the Crow , Cheyenne ( kiihtsipimiitapi – ″Pinto People″), and Sioux (Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota) (called pinaapisinaa – "East Cree") on
882-536: A head start (famously known in the annals of the West as "Colter's Run.") He eventually escaped by reaching a river five miles away and diving under either an island of driftwood or a beaver dam , where he remained concealed until after nightfall. He trekked another 300 miles to a fort. In the context of shifting tribal politics due to the spread of horses and guns, the Niitsitapi initially tried to increase their trade with
1008-418: A high attendance. These initiatives were designed to provide a safe and alcohol-free environment for the children and young adults. This ultimately helped quell the epidemic, and prevented suicide attempts across such young age groups. An article published in 2001, The Social Construction of American Indian Drinking: Perceptions of American Indian and White Officials , discovered, by qualitatively interviewing
1134-563: A member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, returned to Blackfoot country soon after, he barely escaped with his life. In 1809, Colter and his companion were trapping on the Jefferson River by canoe when they were surrounded by hundreds of Blackfoot warriors on horseback on both sides of the river bank. Colter's companion, John Potts, did not surrender and was killed. Colter was stripped of his clothes and forced to run for his life, after being given
1260-448: A period of great struggle and economic hardship; the Niitsitapi had to try to adapt to a completely new way of life. They suffered a high rate of fatalities when exposed to Eurasian diseases, for which they had no natural immunity. Eventually, they established a viable economy based on farming, ranching, and light industry. Their population has increased to about 16,000 in Canada and 15,000 in
1386-455: A respected leader , possibly his brothers and parents, and others who were not related. Since the band was defined by place of residence, rather than by kinship, a person was free to leave one band and join another, which tended to ameliorate leadership disputes. Also, should a band fall upon hard times, its members could split up and join other bands. In practice, bands were constantly forming and breaking up. The system maximized flexibility and
SECTION 10
#17328764277391512-581: A second the music will sweep you away. Drumming and singing accompanies all dancing and the drumbeat is considered sacred, representing the heartbeat of the tribe. Each thumping note carries songs to the Great Spirit , along with the prayers of the people." The website also advertises the powwows as being free admission. Current social and economic conditions on the Wind River Indian Reservation have complicated historical roots. The reservation has many examples of cultural survival, adaptation, and patriotism. Yet
1638-405: A small sample size of 12 Native Americans residing on the reservation and 12 Whites who also reside on the reservation, that alcoholism is present on the reservation. 10 of 12 Natives said that alcohol is a problem shared by both minors and adults, while all 12 Whites said this. 10 of 12 American Indians said that alcohol is strongly linked to crime, while 11 of 12 Whites agreed. The biggest outlier
1764-715: A southern border. Originally known as the Shoshone Indian Reservation, the Wind River Indian Reservation was established by agreement of the United States with the Eastern Shoshone Nation at the Fort Bridger Treaty Council of 1868 , restricting the tribe from the formerly vast Shoshone territory of more than 44 million acres (180,000 km ). A later settlement and land transaction after United States v. Shoshone Tribe of Indians gave
1890-428: A study done regarding suicide on the reservation in 1985, the months of August and September produced very high suicide numbers. There were 12 reported deaths, and 88 additional verified instances of suicide threats or suicidal attempts. This epidemic among Native American tribes can be attributed to high unemployment and abuse of alcohol. 40 of the attempts were between the ages of 13 and 19, and 24 attempts were between
2016-461: A variety of services such as Behavioral Health, Social Services, Business Office, Community Health Nursing, Purchased/Referred Care (PRC), Dental, Diabetes Program, Laboratory/Radiology, Medical Records, Medical Services, Nursing, Optometry, Office of Environmental Health, Utilization Review and Compliance. The average life expectancy for someone living on the reservation is 49 years. According to A Suicide Epidemic in an American Indian Community ,
2142-516: A while north of the Great Lakes in present-day Canada, but had to compete for resources with existing tribes. They left the Great Lakes area and kept moving west. When they moved, they usually packed their belongings on an A-shaped sled called a travois . The travois was designed for transport over dry land. The Blackfoot had relied on dogs to pull the travois ; they did not acquire horses until
2268-430: A wooded river valley. They were located perhaps a day's march apart, not moving camp unless food for the people and horses, or firewood became depleted. Where there was adequate wood and game resources, some bands would camp together. During this part of the year, buffalo also wintered in wooded areas, where they were partially sheltered from storms and snow. They were easier prey as their movements were hampered. In spring
2394-822: Is a historic collective name for linguistically related groups that make up the Blackfoot or Blackfeet people: the Siksika ("Blackfoot"), the Kainai or Blood ("Many Chiefs"), and two sections of the Peigan or Piikani ("Splotchy Robe") – the Northern Piikani ( Aapátohsipikáni ) and the Southern Piikani ( Amskapi Piikani or Pikuni ). Broader definitions include groups such as the Tsúùtínà ( Sarcee ) and A'aninin ( Gros Ventre ) who spoke quite different languages but allied with or joined
2520-648: Is indigenous to central Wyoming including the Wind River Basin and Bighorn Basin . Scholars believe that the Dinwoody petroglyphs most likely represent the work of ancestral Tukudika or Mountain Shoshone Sheepeaters, because some of the figures at Torrey Lake Petroglyph District and Legend Rock correspond to characters in Shoshone folklore, such as Pa waip, a water spirit woman. The Wind River Indian Reservation
2646-534: Is known as the Blackfoot Confederacy, meaning that they have banded together to help one another. The nations have their own separate governments ruled by a head chief, but regularly come together for religious and social celebrations. Originally the Blackfoot/Plains Confederacy consisted of three peoples ("nation", "tribes", "tribal nations") based on kinship and dialect , but all speaking
SECTION 20
#17328764277392772-527: Is located at the historical boundary region between the Great Basin culture of the Shoshone and the Great Plains tribal cultures. In recent centuries, the area was used by many tribes for hunting grounds and for raiding. After 1800, the historical record notes the presence of the Shoshone, as well as the Crow , Cheyenne , Arapaho, Blackfeet , and Lakota in the Wind River Basin. These latter tribes came to
2898-574: The American Fur Company entered the Upper Missouri region from the south for the first time, without Niitsitapiksi permission. This led to tensions and conflict until 1830, when peaceful trade was established. This was followed by the opening of Fort Piegan as the first American trading post in Niitsitapi territory in 1831, joined by Fort MacKenzie in 1833. The Americans offered better terms of trade and were more interested in buffalo skins than
3024-762: The Blackfeet Nation is a federally recognized Native American tribe of Southern Piikani in Montana , United States. Additionally, the Gros Ventre are members of the federally recognized Fort Belknap Indian Community of the Fort Belknap Reservation of Montana in the United States and the Tsuutʼina Nation is a First Nation band government in Alberta, Canada. The four Blackfoot nations come together to make up what
3150-551: The Bow River . In the first half of the 18th century, they acquired horses and firearms from white traders and their Cree and Assiniboine go-betweens . The Blackfoot used these to expand their territory at the expense of neighboring tribes. Today, three Blackfoot First Nation band governments (the Siksika, Kainai, and Piikani Nations) reside in the Canadian province of Alberta , while
3276-555: The Bridger Mountains east of the Shoshone Indian Reservation. Camp Augur, a military post with troops named for General Christopher C. Augur , was established at the present site of Lander on June 28, 1869. (Augur was the general present at the signing of the Fort Bridger Treaty in 1868.) In 1870 the name of the camp was changed to Camp Brown, and in 1871, the post was moved to the current site of Fort Washakie . The name
3402-468: The National Park Service and other federal agencies. This had major success at other reservations, but on the Wind River Indian Reservation, violent crime increased by seven percent. In 2013, Business Insider produced a photo scrapbook and indicated locals refer to different streets by infamously violent American locations such as Compton near Los Angeles. The reservation was experiencing
3528-698: The North Saskatchewan River , on the northern boundary of their territory. In the 1830s the Rocky Mountain region and the wider Saskatchewan District were the HBC's most profitable, and Rocky Mountain House was the HBC's busiest post. It was primarily used by the Piikani. Other Niitsitapiksi nations traded more in pemmican and buffalo skins than beaver, and visited other posts such as Fort Edmonton . Meanwhile, in 1822,
3654-645: The Rocky Mountain Rendezvous fur trade in the Green River Basin , just over the Wind River Range from today's Wind River Indian Reservation. With the onset of the fur trade, Shoshones could once again project their power east from the Snake River and Green River Valley to hunt buffalo on the plains. Increasingly, they needed to hunt farther east, because the fur trade started to wipe out bison in
3780-631: The Rocky Mountains (called Miistakistsi ) and along the South Saskatchewan River to the present Alberta-Saskatchewan border (called Kaayihkimikoyi ), east past the Cypress Hills . They called their tribal territory Niitsitpiis-stahkoii (ᖹᐟᒧᐧᐨᑯᐧ ᓴᐦᖾᐟ)- "Original People s Land." To the east, the Innu and Naskapi called their territory Nitassinan – "Our Land." They had adopted the use of
3906-707: The Southwest . (The Arapaho played a similar role of introducing the horse to the Great Plains, through trade between the Spanish settlements along the Rio Grande and the agricultural tribes along the Missouri River .) The Shoshones' dominance in what is now western Wyoming declined as other tribes such as the Blackfeet acquired horses and staged counter-raids. In the 1820s, the Shoshone started to regain power by trading for firearms in
North Fork Popo Agie River - Misplaced Pages Continue
4032-542: The Wind River Range , Owl Creek Mountains , and Absaroka Range . The Wind River Indian Reservation is the seventh-largest American Indian reservation in the United States by area and the fifth-largest by population. The land area is approximately 2.2 million acres (3,438 sq mi; 8,903 km ), and the total area (land and water) is 3,532.01 square miles (9,147.9 km ). The reservation constitutes just over one-third of Fremont County and over one-fifth of Hot Springs County . The 2000 census reported
4158-548: The 18th century. From the Great Lakes area, they continued to move west and eventually settled in the Great Plains. The Plains had covered approximately 780,000 square miles (2,000,000 km ) with the Saskatchewan River to the north, the Rio Grande to the south, the Mississippi River to the east, and the Rocky Mountains to the west. Adopting the use of the horse, the Niitsitapi established themselves as one of
4284-511: The Arapaho had no legal claim to the reservation. According to historian Loretta Fowler, Arapaho leaders at the time were aware they had no real legal status to reservation land in the Wind River Valley. They participated in land cessions and allotment of reservation land in part to solidify their title and claims to the land. It wasn't until the conclusion of the 1938 U.S. Supreme Court Case United States v. Shoshone Tribe of Indians that
4410-562: The Arapaho legal claim to the reservation, which was renamed the Wind River Indian Reservation. The Shoshone leader Washakie had a preference for the area, and had previously defeated the Crow in battle to hold the territory. As early as 1862, Indian Agent Luther Mann Jr. recommended creating a permanent reservation for the Shoshone. After prospectors discovered gold at South Pass in 1867, the United States Indian agent sought to limit numerous tribes from raiding mining camps by placing
4536-454: The Blackfoot Confederacy. Historically, the member peoples of the Confederacy were nomadic bison hunters and trout fishermen, who ranged across large areas of the northern Great Plains of western North America, specifically the semi-arid shortgrass prairie ecological region. They followed the bison herds as they migrated between what are now the United States and Canada, as far north as
4662-511: The Blackfoot frequently. Once the Piegan gained access to horses of their own and guns, obtained from the HBC via the Cree and Assiniboine, the situation changed. By 1787 David Thompson reports that the Blackfoot had completely conquered most of Shoshone territory, and frequently captured Shoshone women and children and forcibly assimilated them into Blackfoot society, further increasing their advantages over
4788-520: The Blackfoot traveled by foot and used dogs to carry and pull some of their goods. They had not seen horses in their previous lands, but were introduced to them on the Plains, as other tribes, such as the Shoshone , had already adopted their use. They saw the advantages of horses and wanted some. The Blackfoot called the horses ponokamita (elk dogs). The horses could carry much more weight than dogs and moved at
4914-732: The Canadian and English fur trade before meeting the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1806. Lewis and Clark and their men had embarked on mapping the Louisiana Territory and upper Missouri River for the United States government . On their return trip from the Pacific Coast, Lewis and three of his men encountered a group of young Blackfoot warriors with a large herd of horses, and it was clear to Meriwether Lewis that they were not far from much larger groups of warriors. Lewis explained to them that
5040-907: The Colorado Rockies around Estes Park , but also including the Snowy Range , the Bighorns, the Black Hills , and the Laramie Range . To seek favor of the Army, leaders Chief Black Coal (Northern Arapaho), Sharp Nose and their followers allied with Gen. George Crook as scouts against their former allies the Cheyenne, participating in the November 1876 Dull Knife Fight on the side of the United States, along with Shoshone, Cheyenne, Sioux, and Pawnee scouts. Officers of
5166-617: The Crow in places like Henrys Fork and Yellowstone . The Crow dominance in the Wind River Valley, though secured as official Crow territory under the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 , effectively ended when Chief Washakie defeated a Crow chief in one-on-one fight at Crowheart Butte , sometime in the late 1850s or early 1860s. Washakie likely opted to challenge the Crow because the emigrant trails and increasing white settlement in Utah, Idaho, and Montana made hunting in those areas harder. This left
North Fork Popo Agie River - Misplaced Pages Continue
5292-534: The Crow-occupied Wind River Valley as the only place Washakie could use force to secure hunting grounds from a rival tribe without significantly opposing American interests. The Crow legacy in the Wind River persists in the name of the Middle Fork Popo Agie River , pronounced "poepoe-zhuh", which comes from the Crow word Poppootcháashe , an onomatopoeia meaning "plopping river". The Crow word for
5418-567: The Eastern Shoshone and Northern Arapaho. In a coordinated scheme, companies extracted oil and paid some production royalties to tribes, while also secretly collecting and selling a separate supply of oil for which they paid no royalties. The exposé led to reforms. Of the population in 2011, 3,737 were Shoshone and 8,177 were Arapaho. There were 1,888,000 acres (7,640 km ) of tribal land with 180,387 acres (730.00 km ) of wilderness area. In 2000, 6,728 (28.9%) were Native Americans (full or part) and of them 54% were Arapaho and 30% Shoshone. Of
5544-402: The Europeans caused a spread of infectious diseases to the Niitsitapi, mostly cholera and smallpox . In one instance in 1837, an American Fur Company steamboat, the St. Peter's , was headed to Fort Union and several passengers contracted smallpox on the way. They continued to send a smaller vessel with supplies farther up the river to posts among the Niitsitapi. The Niitsitapi contracted
5670-406: The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 encompassing much of eastern Colorado and southeast Wyoming had been overrun by whites after the Colorado gold rush of 1859 . The Northern Arapaho then signed the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 , giving them claim to locate in the Great Sioux Reservation , encompassing the western half of present-day South Dakota west of the Missouri River, and rights to hunt north of
5796-439: The Great Plains; and the Shoshone , Flathead , Kalispel , Kootenai (called kotonáá'wa ) and Nez Perce (called komonóítapiikoan ) in the mountain country to their west and southwest. Their most mighty and most dangerous enemy, however, were the political/military/trading alliance of the Iron Confederacy or Nehiyaw-Pwat (in Plains Cree : Nehiyaw – 'Cree' and Pwat or Pwat-sak – 'Sioux, i.e. Assiniboine') – named after
5922-474: The Green River Basin. In the 1830s and 1840s, they are recorded as raiding in the Platte River and Powder River basins, and the Laramie Plains . The Shoshone regularly used the Wind River Basin as winter range or as a route to hunting grounds in the Sweetwater , Bighorn Basin , Bighorn Mountains , or Powder River Basin. Coming from the other direction, the post-1600s westward migration of Siouan and Algonquian -speaking peoples brought new populations onto
6048-420: The Green River, farther west, is Chiichkase Aashe or Seedskadee Aashe , meaning " sage hen river." The Fort Bridger Treaty Council of 1868 effectively designated the Wind River Valley as exclusive territory of the Shoshone, superseding the Crow's 1851 Fort Laramie treaty claims. In 1872, the Shoshone agreed to sell part of the reservation to the U.S., establishing the North Fork of the Popo Agie River as
6174-403: The Gros Ventre attacked and burned in 1793 South Branch House of the HBC on the South Saskatchewan River near the present village of St. Louis, Saskatchewan . Then, the tribe moved southward to the Milk River in Montana and allied themselves with the Blackfoot. The area between the North Saskatchewan River and Battle River (the name derives from the war fought between these two tribal groups)
6300-551: The HBC traders in Rupert's Land whilst blocking access to the HBC by neighboring peoples to the West. But the HBC trade eventually reached into what is now inland British Columbia. By the late 1820s, [this prompted] the Niitsitapiksi, and in particular the Piikani, whose territory was rich in beaver, [to] temporarily put aside cultural prohibitions and environmental constraints to trap enormous numbers of these animals and, in turn, receive greater quantities of trade items. The HBC encouraged Niitsitapiksi to trade by setting up posts on
6426-402: The HBC, which brought them more trade from the Niitsitapi. The HBC responded by building Bow Fort (Peigan Post) on the Bow River in 1832, but it was not a success. In 1833, German explorer Prince Maximilian of Wied-Neuwied and Swiss painter Karl Bodmer spent months with the Niitsitapi to get a sense of their culture. Bodmer portrayed their society in paintings and drawings. Contact with
SECTION 50
#17328764277396552-469: The Lakota then to be refugees and was sympathetic to their strife, but retained his anti-war stance. Sitting Bull and Crowfoot fostered peace between the two nations by a ceremonial offering of tobacco, ending hostilities between them. Sitting Bull was so impressed by Crowfoot that he named one of his sons after him. The Blackfoot also chose to stay out of the North-West Rebellion , led by the famous Métis leader Louis Riel . Louis Riel and his men added to
6678-426: The NWMP to fight them if they came north into Blackfoot country again. News of Crowfoot's loyalty reached Ottawa and from there London ; Queen Victoria praised Crowfoot and the Blackfoot for their loyalty. Despite his threats, Crowfoot later met those Lakota who had fled with Sitting Bull into Canada after defeating George Armstrong Custer and his battalion at the Battle of Little Big Horn . Crowfoot considered
6804-534: The Native American population, 22% spoke a language other than English at home. The Wind River Indian Reservation established a 180,000-acre (730 km ) roadless area in the Wind River Range in the 1930s, several decades before the passage of the national Wilderness Act of 1964. The tribes have re-established populations of big game , such as moose , wolf , elk , mule deer , whitetail deer , bighorn sheep and pronghorn antelope , and have passed hunting regulations to conserve these species. In November 2016
6930-403: The Niitsitapi Confederacy. During the so-called Buffalo Wars (about 1850 – 1870), they penetrated further and further into the territory from the Niitsitapi Confederacy in search for the buffalo, so that the Piegan were forced to give way in the region of the Missouri River (in Cree: Pikano Sipi – "Muddy River", "Muddy, turbid River"), the Kainai withdrew to the Bow River and Belly River ; only
7056-439: The Niitsitapi began in 1800 a long phase of keen competition in the fur trade with their former Cree allies, which often escalated militarily. In addition both groups had adapted to using horses about 1730, so by mid-century an adequate supply of horses became a question of survival. Horse theft was at this stage not only a proof of courage, but often a desperate contribution to survival, for many ethnic groups competed for hunting in
7182-431: The Niitsitapi did not originate in the Great Plains of the Midwest North America, but migrated from the upper Northeastern part of the country. They coalesced as a group while living in the forests of what is now the Northeastern United States. They were mostly located around the modern-day border between Canada and the state of Maine. By 1200, the Niitsitapi were moving in search of more land. They moved west and settled for
7308-409: The Northern Arapaho Experience Room at the Wind River Hotel and Casino. The Museum of the American West in Lander hosts weekly powwow dancing demonstrations during the summer. The Wind River Indian Reservation allows access for fishing and hiking for non-tribal members who purchase a tribal fishing license available from local retailers. The license allows access to fishing lands on the southern half of
7434-414: The Platte River in Wyoming so long as game remained. In practice the Arapaho did not wish to locate permanently at an agency shared by the Sioux. They were belittled by leaders of the more powerful Sioux including Red Cloud , and wanted to avoid being culturally subsumed within the Lakota Nation. Instead, the Arapaho hoped for a reservation of their own. In 1868–69, the Arapaho briefly sought to locate with
7560-407: The Queen back in London. The cabinet of John A. Macdonald (the current Prime Minister of Canada at the time) gave Crowfoot a round of applause. During the mid-1800s, the Niitsitapi faced a dwindling food supply, as European-American hunters were hired by the U.S. government to kill bison so the Blackfeet would remain in their reservation. Settlers were also encroaching on their territory. Without
7686-412: The Shoshone introduced ten bison to the reservation, the beginning of what is planned as a 1,000-head herd. They were the first bison to be seen on the Wind River Reservation since 1885. The tribe is also receiving bison from Yellowstone National Park that are coming out of quarantine at the Fort Peck Indian Reservation . Area suited as buffalo habitat is estimated at 700,000 acres (2,800 km ) on
SECTION 60
#17328764277397812-404: The Shoshone reservation in the Wind River Valley as a buffer. The United States hoped that tribes like the Crow, Blackfeet, Cheyenne, Lakota, and Arapaho would attack their traditional Shoshone enemies instead of the miners. However, the area was too dangerous for the Shoshone to occupy year-round, so Chief Washakie kept his people closer to Fort Bridger for several years after 1868. Washakie's son
7938-425: The Shoshone. Thompson reports that Blackfoot territory in 1787 was from the North Saskatchewan River in the north to the Missouri River in the South, and from Rocky Mountains in the west out to a distance of 300 miles (480 km) to the east. Between 1790 and 1850, the Nehiyaw-Pwat were at the height of their power; they could successfully defend their territories against the Sioux (Lakota, Nakota and Dakota) and
8064-446: The Siksika could hold their tribal lands along the Red Deer River . Around 1870, the alliance between the Blackfoot and the Gros Ventre broke, and the latter began to look to their former enemies, the Southern Assiniboine (or Plains Assiniboine), for protection. Anthony Henday of the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) met a large Blackfoot group in 1754 in what is now Alberta . The Blackfoot had established dealings with traders connected to
8190-427: The U.S. Army saw the onset of winter with roughly 1,000 hungry and impoverished Arapaho still averse to living near the Red Cloud Agency , at an agreed-upon agency of Fort Randall , or in Indian Territory with the Southern Arapaho. Chief Black Coal had previously visited the Southern Arapaho reservation on the Canadian River in Oklahoma, finding the location unacceptable. So, Army officers looked to Fort Washakie as
8316-405: The U.S. today. With their new economic stability, the Niitsitapi have been free to adapt their culture and traditions to their new circumstances, renewing their connection to their ancient roots. The Niitsitapi, also known as the Blackfoot or Blackfeet Indians, reside in the Great Plains of Montana and the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. Originally, only one of the Niitsitapi tribes
8442-414: The United States Army supported the idea of an Arapaho reservation in eastern Wyoming Territory — General Crook may have promised an agency on the Tongue River . Yet federal policy prevented this from coming to fruition, partly because the United States had essentially stopped negotiating reservation treaties with tribes after 1868, preferring instead to use executive orders in such agreements. In 1878
8568-420: The United States and "bands" or "First Nations" in Canada). The Piegan were divided into the North Peigan in Alberta, and the South Peigan in Montana. The Confederacy had a territory that stretched from the North Saskatchewan River (called Ponoká'sisaahta ) along what is now Edmonton , Alberta, in Canada , to the Yellowstone River (called Otahkoiitahtayi ) of Montana in the United States , and from
8694-584: The United States government wanted peace with all Indian nations, and that the US leaders had successfully formed alliances with other Indian nations. The group camped together that night, and at dawn there was a scuffle as it was discovered that the Blackfoot were trying to steal guns and run off with their horses while the Americans slept. In the ensuing struggle, one warrior was fatally stabbed and another shot by Lewis and presumed killed. In subsequent years, American mountain men trapping in Blackfoot country generally encountered hostility. When John Colter ,
8820-460: The Wind River Basin as part of traditional Shoshone territory. Likewise, the Arapaho were familiar with the Wind River Basin, referring to the Wind River / Bighorn River as Hotee Niicie , meaning "mountain sheep river", in reference to the numerous herds of the species in the area. By the middle 1800s, the Crow were largely dominant in the Wind River Valley and Absaroka Range, using the area as winter range, and fighting with Shoshones who came into
8946-536: The Wind River Reservation resides, provides opportunities for visitors to see and participate in important cultural experiences. Scheduled powwows are available to attend by the public. There are three larger celebrations throughout the year in Wind River Country, including the Eastern Shoshone Powwow in June, the Ethete Celebration in July, and the Northern Arapaho Powwow in September. These ceremonies are an important aspect of Native American culture, that involve feasting, singing and dancing. An important aspect of
9072-557: The Wind River area. The powerful and numerous Lakota were the last to push west in response to American expansion, bumping up against the earlier-migrating tribes, and then moving farther west into the Rocky Mountains. By the mid-1800s, all of these tribes would make incursions into the now-contested Wind River valley. Shoshone place names include dozens in the Bighorn Basin, demonstrating a detailed knowledge of lands further east than
9198-400: The Wind River to the United States and opened to white settlement. The Riverton Reclamation Project and the city of Riverton developed on some of this land. Instead of a lump-sum payment or upfront purchase, the cession required the United States to pay the tribes for each area of land settled upon. Seeing that large parts of the ceded area were never taken up by settlers, the ceded portion of
9324-503: The ages of 20 and 29. Of the 88 attempts, alcohol was involved in 47 cases, with 46 male and 42 females attempting suicide. Many events were created to attempt to stop this suicide epidemic that hit the reservation. Parents and elder community members closed bingo nights for children and hosted recreational activities instead. The schools extended hours for learning centers and gymnasiums. An alcohol treatment program began holding weekly alcohol-free teen dances, which were very popular and had
9450-399: The already unsettled conditions facing the Blackfoot by camping near them. They tried to spread discontent with the government and gain a powerful ally. The North-West Rebellion was made up mostly of Métis, Assiniboine (Nakota) and Plains Cree , who all fought against European encroachment and destruction of Bison herds. The Plains Cree were one of the Blackfoot's most hated enemies; however,
9576-416: The area due to geopolitical forces, as well as for food resources; trapper records after 1800 describe huge herds of tens of thousands of stampeding bison in the Wind River Basin, raising massive clouds of dust on the horizon. The Shoshone largely controlled much of what is now western Wyoming in the 1700s, because they were the first of the northern tribes to secure horses from the Spanish and traders in
9702-531: The area. Crow Chief Arapooish mentioned the Wind River Valley as a preferred wintering ground with salt bush and cottonwood bark for horse forage in a speech recorded in the 1830s and published in Washington Irving 's Adventures of Captain Bonneville . Meanwhile, Washakie and his people avoided the Crow treaty lands in the Wind River Valley in the 1850s, preferring to hunt away from the emigrant trails and
9828-643: The brutality of the Marias Massacre discouraged the Blackfoot from engaging in wars against Canada and the United States. When the Lakota , together with their Cheyenne and Arapaho allies, were fighting the United States Army, they sent runners into Blackfoot territory, urging them to join the fight. Crowfoot , one of the most influential Blackfoot chiefs, dismissed the Lakota messengers. He threatened to ally with
9954-445: The buffalo moved out onto the grasslands to forage on new spring growth. The Blackfoot did not follow immediately, for fear of late blizzards . As dried food or game became depleted, the bands would split up and begin to hunt the buffalo. In midsummer, when the chokecherries ripened, the people regrouped for their major ceremony, the Okan ( Sun Dance ). This was the only time of year when
10080-633: The buffalo, preparing dried meat, and combining it for nutrition and flavor with dried fruits into pemmican , to last them through winter and other times when hunting was poor. At the end of the fall, the Blackfoot would move to their winter camps. The women worked the buffalo and other game skins for clothing, as well as to reinforce their dwellings; other elements were used to make warm fur robes, leggings, cords and other needed items. Animal sinews were used to tie arrow points and lances to throwing sticks, or for bridles for horses. The Niitsitapi maintained this traditional way of life based on hunting bison, until
10206-446: The buffalo, the Niitsitapi were forced to depend on the United States government for food supplies. In 1855, the Niitsitapi chief Lame Bull made a peace treaty with the United States government. The Lame Bull Treaty promised the Niitsitapi $ 20,000 annually in goods and services in exchange for their moving onto a reservation. In 1860, very few buffalo were left, and the Niitsitapi became completely dependent on government supplies. Often
10332-400: The closest alternate agency for distributing rations, despite the fact that the Shoshone held treaty rights to decide what other tribes they were willing to admit to the reservation under the Fort Bridger Treaty Council of 1868 . The supposedly temporary placement of the Arapaho at Fort Washakie Agency became permanent because the United States government never took further action to relocate
10458-876: The common language of Blackfoot , one of the Algonquian languages family. The three were the Piikáni (historically called "Piegan Blackfeet" in English-language sources), the Káínaa (called "Bloods"), and the Siksikáwa ("Blackfoot"). They later allied with the unrelated Tsuu T'ina ("Sarcee"), who became merged into the Confederacy and, (for a time) with the Atsina, or A'aninin ( Gros Ventre ). Each of these highly decentralized peoples were divided into many bands , which ranged in size from 10 to 30 lodges , or about 80 to 240 persons. The band
10584-472: The disease and eventually 6,000 died, marking an end to their dominance among tribes over the Plains. The Hudson's Bay Company did not require or help their employees get vaccinated; the English doctor Edward Jenner had developed a technique 41 years before but its use was not yet widespread. Like many other Great Plains Indian nations, the Niitsitapi often had hostile relationships with white settlers. Despite
10710-617: The dominating Plains Cree (called Asinaa ) and Assiniboine (called Niitsísinaa – "Original Cree"). These included the Stoney (called Saahsáísso'kitaki or Sahsi-sokitaki – ″Sarcee trying to cut″), Saulteaux (or Plains Ojibwe ), and Métis to the north, east and southeast. With the expansion of the Nehiyaw-Pwat to the north, west and southwest, they integrated larger groups of Iroquois , Chipewyan , Danezaa ( Dunneza – 'The real (prototypical) people'), Ktunaxa, Flathead, and later Gros Ventre (called atsíína – "Gut People" or "like
10836-422: The early 21st century, the media reported problems of reservation poverty and unemployment, resulting in associated crime and a high rate of drug abuse . In 2012, The New York Times released an article titled "Brutal Crimes Grip an Indian Reservation". According to this article, written by Timothy Williams, an Iraq war strategy, "the surge", was used to attempt to fight crime, taking hundreds of officers from
10962-466: The fall, the people would gradually shift to their wintering areas. The men would prepare the buffalo jumps and pounds for capturing or driving the bison for hunting. Several groups of people might join at particularly good sites, such as Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump . As the buffalo were naturally driven into the area by the gradual late summer drying off of the open grasslands, the Blackfoot would carry out great communal buffalo kills. The women processed
11088-451: The four nations would assemble. The gathering reinforced the bonds among the various groups and linked individuals with the nations. Communal buffalo hunts provided food for the people, as well as offerings of the bulls' tongues (a delicacy) for the ceremonies. These ceremonies are sacred to the people. After the Okan , the people again separated to follow the buffalo. They used the buffalo hides to make their dwellings and temporary tipis. In
11214-426: The government recognized it had wrongly given Shoshone land and resources to the Arapaho. A subsequent land deal then officially solidified Arapaho claim as half-owners of tribal lands and resources on the Shoshone Indian Reservation, which was officially renamed the Wind River Indian Reservation. This complicated history of the Arapaho arrival on the reservation continues to affect intertribal relations and politics on
11340-791: The grasslands. The Cree and Assiniboine continued horse raiding against the Gros Ventre (in Cree: Pawistiko Iyiniwak – "Rapids People" – "People of the Rapids"), allies of the Niitsitapi. The Gros Ventres were also known as Niya Wati Inew , Naywattamee ("They Live in Holes People"), because their tribal lands were along the Saskatchewan River Forks (the confluence of North and South Saskatchewan River). They had to withstand attacks of enemies with guns. In retaliation for Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) supplying their enemies with weapons,
11466-504: The horse from other Plains tribes, probably by the early eighteenth century, which gave them expanded range and mobility, as well as advantages in hunting. The basic social unit of the Niitsitapi above the family was the band , varying from about 10 to 30 lodges, about 80 to 241 people. This size group was large enough to defend against attack and to undertake communal hunts, but was also small enough for flexibility. Each band consisted of
11592-672: The hostilities, the Blackfoot stayed largely out of the Great Plains Indian Wars, neither fighting against nor scouting for the United States army. One of their friendly bands, however, was attacked by mistake and nearly destroyed by the US Army in the Marias Massacre on 23 January 1870, undertaken as an action to suppress violence against settlers. A friendly relationship with the North-West Mounted Police and learning of
11718-436: The hunters could get close to the herd. When close enough, the hunters would attack with arrows or spears to kill wounded animals. The people used virtually all parts of the body and skin. The women prepared the meat for food: by boiling, roasting or drying for jerky . This processed it to last a long time without spoiling, and they depended on bison meat to get through the winters. The winters were long, harsh, and cold due to
11844-560: The introduction of horses, the Niitsitapi needed other ways to get in range. The buffalo jump was one of the most common ways. The hunters would round up the buffalo into V-shaped pens, and drive them over a cliff (they hunted pronghorn antelopes in the same way). Afterwards the hunters would go to the bottom and take as much meat as they could carry back to camp. They also used camouflage for hunting. The hunters would take buffalo skins from previous hunting trips and drape them over their bodies to blend in and mask their scent. By subtle moves,
11970-403: The lack of trees in the Plains, so people stockpiled meat in summer. As a ritual, hunters often ate the bison heart minutes after the kill. The women tanned and prepared the skins to cover the tepees. These were made of log poles, with the skins draped over it. The tepee remained warm in the winter and cool in the summer, and was a great shield against the wind. The women also made clothing from
12096-413: The lead investigators on the homicide. The reservation has six officers who are responsible for patrolling an area about the size of Rhode Island . Two teenage boys were arrested in connection with the girls' deaths. One boy had given them his grandmother's methadone, saying that the girls were already high and he wanted to help them, because they didn't want to go home and have their parents see them. In
12222-454: The linguistically-related Gros Ventres at the agency on the Milk River in Montana , but left after a smallpox epidemic. Further, Arapaho priest and leader Weasel Bear had a vision that the Arapaho would find a permanent home closer to the Rocky Mountains, and not on the Great Plains. The Arapaho way of life had historically included significant use of mountain hunting grounds, especially in
12348-575: The most powerful Indian tribes on the Plains in the late 18th century, earning themselves the name "The Lords of the Plains." Niitsitapi stories trace their residence and possession of their plains territory to "time immemorial." The Niitsitapi main source of food on the plains was the American bison (buffalo), the largest mammal in North America, standing about 6 + 1 ⁄ 2 feet (2.0 m) tall and weighing up to 2,000 pounds (910 kg). Before
12474-659: The near extirpation of the bison by 1881 forced them to adapt their ways of life in response to the encroachment of the European settlers and their descendants. In the United States, they were restricted to land assigned in the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 . Nearly three decades later, they were given a distinct reservation in the Sweetgrass Hills Treaty of 1887. In 1877, the Canadian Niitsitapi signed Treaty 7 and settled on reserves in southern Alberta. This began
12600-515: The needy. An individual's wealth rose with the number of horses accumulated, but a man did not keep an abundance of them. The individual's prestige and status was judged by the number of horses that he could give away. For the Indians who lived on the Plains, the principal value of property was to share it with others. After driving the hostile Shoshone and Arapaho from the Northwestern Plains,
12726-642: The only casinos in Wyoming. The Shoshone has the longest prehistory in the area. Archaeologists have found evidence that unique aspects of the Tukudika Mountain Shoshone or Sheepeater material culture such as soapstone bowls were in use in this region from the early 1800s going back 1,000 to 3,000 years or more. People descended from the Mountain Shoshone band continue to live on the Wind River Indian Reservation. The Dinwoody petroglyph style
12852-810: The only group who chose to settle in Montana. The other three Blackfoot-speaking peoples and the Sarcee are located in Alberta. Together, the Blackfoot-speakers call themselves the Niitsítapi (the "Original People"). After leaving the Confederacy, the Gros Ventres also settled on a reservation in Montana. When these peoples were forced to end their nomadic traditions, their social structures changed. Tribal nations, which had formerly been mostly ethnic associations, were institutionalized as governments (referred to as "tribes" in
12978-404: The plains and traditional Shoshone territory of the middle Rocky Mountains. The earliest of these midwestern, Missouri River, and Great Lakes tribes to migrate to the Great Plains include the Crow, Cheyenne, and Arapaho, though some sources say the Arapaho potentially occupied the Great Plains for 1,000 years. Most of these tribes were initially located on the Great Plains farther north and east of
13104-487: The population of Fremont County as 40,237. According to the 2010 census, only 26,490 people now live on the reservation, with about 15,000 of the residents being non-Indians on ceded lands and the town of Riverton . Tribal headquarters are located at Fort Washakie . The Shoshone Rose Casino (Eastern Shoshone) and the Wind River Hotel and Casino, Little Wind Casino, and 789 Smoke Shop and Casino (all Northern Arapaho) are
13230-488: The powwow is showcasing the regalia of the dancers. Each piece is personally significant to the dancer, uniquely handmade, utilizing feathers, shells, bones, beadwork and sometimes family heirlooms. The dances performed are traditional dances, unique to the tribe they belong to, as is the music. The spectacle is described on the Wind River Country's tourism website, telling prospective visitors, "If you close your eyes for
13356-432: The reservation community also suffers from the legacy of settler colonialism , dispossession from land, forced assimilation and cultural destruction, family disruption, environmental extraction and degradation, disenfranchisement , and inter-generational poverty. Though media portrayals produced by outsiders frequently note these disparities, tribal members have publicly objected to such narratives, noting that they are not
13482-439: The reservation today. Over time, intermarriage between members of the two tribes has occurred, building connections between members of the historically-enemy tribes and encouraging political cooperation. Yet efforts to maintain and exert independent sovereignty of each tribe remain a major dynamic on the reservation. In the 1970s and 1980s, oil and gas operators on the Wind River Indian Reservation were found to be stealing oil from
13608-696: The reservation was later restored to the Eastern Shoshone and Northern Arapaho tribes. In the winter of 1878–79, the United States Army escorted the Northern Arapaho to the Sweetwater Valley near Independence Rock and then temporarily placed them at the Shoshone's Fort Washakie Agency to receive rations. This decision to place the Arapaho in close proximity with their historic enemies the Shoshone has had significant historical and political consequences. The former Arapaho and Cheyenne reservation under
13734-698: The reservation's situation has gotten to the point where the Public Health Service can only fund things that require emergency care. The lack of funding has resulted in fewer surgeries and medical procedures. The Fort Washakie Health Center is only working with slightly more than half of its needed funding, according to Richard Brannan, chief executive officer of the Indian Health Service. Blackfoot Confederacy The Blackfoot Confederacy , Niitsitapi , or Siksikaitsitapi ( ᖹᐟᒧᐧᒣᑯ , meaning "the people" or " Blackfoot-speaking real people" ),
13860-486: The reservation, including in the tribal roadless area that encompasses part of the dramatic Wind River Range. Hikers and mountaineers seeking the closest approach to Gannett Peak can hire a guide to drive into a trailhead. The reservation licenses contractors in Thermopolis to offer whitewater rafting and fishing outfitting in the spectacular Wind River Canyon . The Wind River Country, the wide expansion of land on which
13986-510: The reservation. They were found in the bedroom of a small home in Beaver Creek, which is a low-income tribal housing community. They had overdosed on methadone , a painkiller which is used to wean heroin addicts off of heroin. No one knows how they received the painkillers, which is why the coroner ruled their deaths homicides . The reservation has a very thin police force, which led to the FBI being
14112-400: The skins, such as robes and moccasins, and made soap from the fat. Both men and women made utensils, sewing needles and tools from the bones, using tendon for fastening and binding. The stomach and bladder were cleaned and prepared for use for storing liquids. Dried bison dung was fuel for the fires. The Niitsitapi considered the animal sacred and integral to their lives. Up until around 1730,
14238-481: The tribe. The Arapaho held out hope for a reservation of their own until 1890, when Gen. Crook died. In late-1800s dealings including land cessions, the government repeatedly acted as if the Arapaho were a party of their reservation and its resources by including them in cession discussions like the sale of the Thermopolis Hot Springs . This was despite Shoshone protests (which were later held up in court) that
14364-468: The two nations made peace when Crowfoot adopted Poundmaker , an influential Cree chief and great peacemaker, as his son. Although he refused to fight, Crowfoot had sympathy for those with the rebellion, especially the Cree led by such notable chiefs as Poundmaker, Big Bear , Wandering Spirit and Fine-Day . When news of continued Blackfoot neutrality reached Ottawa, Lord Lansdowne , the governor general, expressed his thanks to Crowfoot again on behalf of
14490-601: The west side and another 500,000 acres (2,000 km ) on the north of the reservation. The Northern Arapaho established a bison herd in 2019. Facilities for tourism include hotels located at the Wind River Casino and the Shoshone Rose Casino. There are numerous cultural centers and interpretive displays at the Eastern Shoshone Cultural Center and library at Fort Washakie School, as well as
14616-649: The west-central portion of the U.S. state of Wyoming , is shared by two Native American tribes, the Eastern Shoshone ( Shoshoni : Gweechoon Deka , meaning: "buffalo eaters" ) and the Northern Arapaho ( Arapaho : hoteiniiciiheheʼ ). Roughly 60 mi (97 km) east to west by 50 mi (80 km) north to south, the Indian reservation is located in the Wind River Basin , and includes portions of
14742-520: The whole story of life in reservation communities. High Country News tribal desk editor Tristan Ahtone ( Kiowa ) used Wind River media coverage by the New York Times , CNN, and Business Insider as examples of simplistic negative narratives that future journalists can work to disrupt through accurate portrayals of Native American realities, both good and bad. In 2009, three young Native American girls (13, 14, and 15 years of age) were murdered on
14868-402: Was an ideal organization for a hunting people on the northwestern Great Plains . During the summer, the people assembled for nation gatherings. In these large assemblies, warrior societies played an important role for the men. Membership into these societies was based on brave acts and deeds. For almost half the year in the long northern winter, the Niitsitapi lived in their winter camps along
14994-406: Was called Blackfoot or Siksika. The name is said to have come from the color of the peoples' moccasins , made of leather. They had typically dyed or painted the soles of their moccasins black. One legendary story claimed that the Siksika walked through ashes of prairie fires, which in turn colored the bottoms of their moccasins black. Due to language and cultural patterns, anthropologists believe
15120-531: Was changed to honor United States ally and Shoshone Chief Washakie in 1878. The fort continued to serve as a military post until the US abandoned it in 1909. By that time, a community had developed around the fort. Sacagawea , a guide with the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804–06, was later interred here. Her son Jean Baptiste Charbonneau , who was a child on the expedition, has a memorial stone in Fort Washakie but
15246-458: Was constructed to support farming and ranching in the arid region. The Arapaho constructed a flour mill near Fort Washakie. Separately, under the Dawes Act , communal tribal land was allotted to individual households, which could later be sold to non-tribal members, further diminishing the tribal land base. In 1904 the Eastern Shoshone and Northern Arapaho ceded a portion of the reservation north of
15372-508: Was interred in Danner, Oregon . A government school and hospital operated for many years east of Fort Washakie; Arapaho children were sent here to board during the school year. St. Michael's at Ethete was constructed in 1917–1920. The village of Arapahoe was originally established as a US sub-agency to distribute rations to the Arapaho . At one time it also operated a large trading post. Irrigation
15498-522: Was killed in a raid by enemy tribes, and the Oglala Lakota leader Hump, a mentor of Crazy Horse , was killed fighting the Shoshone in the Wind River Basin. Intertribal conflicts occurred several times in the 1860s and 1870s in the Wind River region. The Arapaho briefly stayed in the Wind River valley in 1870, but left after miners and Shoshones attacked and killed tribal members and Black Bear , one of their leaders, as they moved lodges. At another event,
15624-491: Was that only 8 of 12 American Indians said that alcohol is a very serious problem on the reservation, while 11 of 12 Whites said the same. In an article in the Casper Star-Tribune , of the 79 deaths from 2004, a quarter of the deaths were attributed to alcoholic cirrhosis and half were alcoholic deaths due to car crashes and homicide connected to drugs. According to Cathy Keene, local director for Indian Health Services,
15750-450: Was the basic unit of organization for hunting and defence. The Confederacy occupied a large territory where they hunted and foraged; in the 19th century it was divided by the current Canada–US international border. But during the late nineteenth century, both governments forced the peoples to end their nomadic traditions and settle on " Indian reserves " (Canadian terminology) or " Indian reservations " (US terminology). The South Peigan are
15876-438: Was the limit of the now warring tribal alliances. Blackfoot war parties would ride hundreds of miles on raids. A boy on his first war party was given a silly or derogatory name. But after he had stolen his first horse or killed an enemy, he was given a name to honor him. Warriors would strive to perform various acts of bravery called counting coup , in order to move up in social rank. The coups in order of importance were: taking
#738261