96-484: George Norman Douglas (8 December 1868 – 7 February 1952) was a British writer, now best known for his 1917 novel South Wind . His travel books, such as Old Calabria (1915), were also appreciated for the quality of their writing. Norman Douglas was born in Thüringen, Austria (his surname was registered at birth as Douglass ). His mother was Vanda von Poellnitz. His father was John Sholto Douglas (1838–1874), manager of
192-441: A 10-year-old girl. H. M. Tomlinson , a contemporary of Douglas's, concluded his 1931 biography by saying that Douglas's kind of prose "is at present out of fashion". He found his writing "at times as ruthless in its irony as Swift 's" and "as warm and tender as Sterne 's". Peter Ackroyd describes Douglas's London Street Games as "a vivid memorial to the inventiveness and energy of London children, and an implicit testimony to
288-501: A Christian Horace, adapting Horatian meters to his own poetry and giving Horatian motifs a Christian tone. On the other hand, St Jerome , modelled an uncompromising response to the pagan Horace, observing: " What harmony can there be between Christ and the Devil? What has Horace to do with the Psalter? " By the early sixth century, Horace and Prudentius were both part of a classical heritage that
384-480: A bigger share of the spoils. One modern scholar has counted a dozen civil wars in the hundred years leading up to 31 BC, including the Third Servile War under Spartacus , eight years before Horace's birth. As the heirs to Hellenistic culture, Horace and his fellow Romans were not well prepared to deal with these problems: At bottom, all the problems that the times were stirring up were of a social nature, which
480-519: A ceremonial ode for the Centennial Games in 17 BC and also encouraged the publication of Odes 4, after which Horace's reputation as Rome's premier lyricist was assured. His Odes were to become the best received of all his poems in ancient times, acquiring a classic status that discouraged imitation: no other poet produced a comparable body of lyrics in the four centuries that followed (though that might also be attributed to social causes, particularly
576-404: A civil service position at the aerarium or Treasury, profitable enough to be purchased even by members of the ordo equester and not very demanding in its work-load, since tasks could be delegated to scribae or permanent clerks. It was about this time that he began writing his Satires and Epodes . He describes in glowing terms the country villa which his patron, Maecenas, had given him in
672-604: A cotton mill, who died in a hunting accident when Douglas was about six. He spent the first years of his life on the family estate, Villa Falkenhorst, in Thüringen. Douglas was brought up mainly at Tilquhillie , Deeside , his paternal home in Scotland. He was educated at Yarlet Hall and Uppingham School in England, and then at a Gymnasium in Karlsruhe . Douglas's paternal grandfather was
768-435: A difficult fit for Latin structure and syntax . Despite these traditional metres, he presented himself as a partisan in the development of a new and sophisticated style. He was influenced in particular by Hellenistic aesthetics of brevity, elegance and polish, as modelled in the work of Callimachus . As soon as Horace, stirred by his own genius and encouraged by the example of Virgil, Varius, and perhaps some other poets of
864-443: A focus on philosophical problems. The sophisticated and flexible style that he had developed in his Satires was adapted to the more serious needs of this new genre. Such refinement of style was not unusual for Horace. His craftsmanship as a wordsmith is apparent even in his earliest attempts at this or that kind of poetry, but his handling of each genre tended to improve over time as he adapted it to his own needs. Thus for example it
960-530: A hymn to John the Baptist, Ut queant laxis , composed in Sapphic stanzas . This hymn later became the basis of the solfege system ( Do, re, mi... )—an association with western music quite appropriate for a lyric poet like Horace, though the language of the hymn is mainly Prudentian. Lyons argues that the melody in question was linked with Horace's Ode well before Guido d'Arezzo fitted Ut queant laxis to it. However,
1056-446: A lesson to. Horace modelled these poems on the poetry of Archilochus . Social bonds in Rome had been decaying since the destruction of Carthage a little more than a hundred years earlier, due to the vast wealth that could be gained by plunder and corruption. These social ills were magnified by rivalry between Julius Caesar, Mark Antony and confederates like Sextus Pompey , all jockeying for
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#17328921369951152-472: A letter to his friend Quintius: "It lies on a range of hills, broken by a shady valley which is so placed that the sun when rising strikes the right side, and when descending in his flying chariot, warms the left. You would like the climate; and if you were to see my fruit trees, bearing ruddy cornils and plums, my oaks and ilex supplying food to my herds, and abundant shade to the master, you would say, Tarentum in its beauty has been brought near to Rome! There
1248-496: A model for their own verse letters and it also shaped Ovid's exile poetry. His influence had a perverse aspect. As mentioned before, the brilliance of his Odes may have discouraged imitation. Conversely, they may have created a vogue for the lyrics of the archaic Greek poet Pindar , due to the fact that Horace had neglected that style of lyric (see Influence and Legacy of Pindar ). The iambic genre seems almost to have disappeared after publication of Horace's Epodes . Ovid's Ibis
1344-434: A moment, my self-praise), and if I am to my friends a good friend, my father deserves all the credit... As it is now, he deserves from me unstinting gratitude and praise. I could never be ashamed of such a father, nor do I feel any need, as many people do, to apologize for being a freedman's son. Satires 1.6.65–92 He never mentioned his mother in his verses and he might not have known much about her. Perhaps she also had been
1440-420: A monument more durable than bronze ("Exegi monumentum aere perennius", Carmina 3.30.1). For one modern scholar, however, Horace's personal qualities are more notable than the monumental quality of his achievement: ... when we hear his name we don't really think of a monument. We think rather of a voice which varies in tone and resonance but is always recognizable, and which by its unsentimental humanity evokes
1536-458: A natural affinity with the moralising and diatribes of Cynicism . This often takes the form of allusions to the work and philosophy of Bion of Borysthenes but it is as much a literary game as a philosophical alignment. By the time he composed his Epistles , he was a critic of Cynicism along with all impractical and "high-falutin" philosophy in general. The Satires also include a strong element of Epicureanism , with frequent allusions to
1632-453: A number of Douglas's books and works by other English authors in his Lungarno series. Many of these books, notably the first edition of Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's Lover , would have been prosecuted for obscenity if they had been published in London. Douglas probably had a major hand in writing Orioli's autobiography, Adventures of a Bookseller . Further scandals led Douglas to leave Italy for
1728-420: A poem that one modern scholar considers the best memorial by any son to his father. The poem includes this passage: If my character is flawed by a few minor faults, but is otherwise decent and moral, if you can point out only a few scattered blemishes on an otherwise immaculate surface, if no one can accuse me of greed, or of prurience, or of profligacy, if I live a virtuous life, free of defilement (pardon, for
1824-458: A serious and vigorous opponent of wrong-doers, Horace aimed for comic effects and adopted the persona of a weak and ineffectual critic of his times (as symbolized for example in his surrender to the witch Canidia in the final epode). He also claimed to be the first to introduce into Latin the lyrical methods of Alcaeus ( Epistles 1.19.32–33) and he actually was the first Latin poet to make consistent use of Alcaic meters and themes: love, politics and
1920-539: A slave. Horace left Rome, possibly after his father's death, and continued his formal education in Athens, a great centre of learning in the ancient world, where he arrived at nineteen years of age, enrolling in The Academy . Founded by Plato , The Academy was now dominated by Epicureans and Stoics , whose theories and practices made a deep impression on the young man from Venusia. Meanwhile, he mixed and lounged about with
2016-561: A spokesman for the new regime. For some commentators, his association with the regime was a delicate balance in which he maintained a strong measure of independence (he was "a master of the graceful sidestep") but for others he was, in John Dryden 's phrase, "a well-mannered court slave". Horace can be regarded as the world's first autobiographer. In his writings, he tells far more about himself, his character, his development, and his way of life, than any other great poet of antiquity. Some of
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#17328921369952112-418: A very special blend of liking and respect. Yet for men like Wilfred Owen , scarred by experiences of World War I, his poetry stood for discredited values: My friend, you would not tell with such high zest To children ardent for some desperate glory, The Old Lie: Dulce et decorum est Pro patria mori. The same motto, Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori , had been adapted to the ethos of martyrdom in
2208-608: A young boy and later he poked fun at the jargon of mixed Greek and Oscan spoken in neighbouring Canusium . One of the works he probably studied in school was the Odyssia of Livius Andronicus , taught by teachers like the ' Orbilius ' mentioned in one of his poems. Army veterans could have been settled there at the expense of local families uprooted by Rome as punishment for their part in the Social War (91–88 BC) . Such state-sponsored migration must have added still more linguistic variety to
2304-640: Is a 1917 novel by British author Norman Douglas . It is Douglas's most famous book and his only success as a novelist. It is set on an imaginary island called Nepenthe, located off the coast of Italy in the Tyrrhenian Sea , a thinly fictionalized description of Capri 's residents and visitors. The narrative concerns twelve days during which Thomas Heard, a bishop returning to England from his diocese in Africa, yields his moral vigour to various influences. Philosophical hedonism pervades much of Douglas's writing, and
2400-446: Is a fountain too, large enough to give a name to the river which it feeds; and the Ebro itself does not flow through Thrace with cooler or purer stream. Its waters also are good for the head and useful for digestion. This sweet, and, if you will believe me, charming retreat keeps me in good health during the autumnal days." The remains of Horace's Villa are situated on a wooded hillside above
2496-555: Is chapter 4 of The Evolution of the Grand Tour: Anglo-Italian Cultural Relations since the Renaissance ), Edward Chaney wrote that "the true heir to the great tradition of the 'pedestrian tour' in our own [20th] century has been 'pagan-to-the-core' Norman Douglas. Having first visited the south of Italy with his brother in 1888, before he was 30 he had abandoned his pregnant Russian mistress and his job at
2592-415: Is clear in his Satires, even though the genre was unique to Latin literature. He brought to it a style and outlook suited to the social and ethical issues confronting Rome but he changed its role from public, social engagement to private meditation. Meanwhile, he was beginning to interest Octavian's supporters, a gradual process described by him in one of his satires. The way was opened for him by his friend,
2688-504: Is first attested in Odes 3.3 and 3.5. In the period 27–24 BC, political allusions in the Odes concentrated on foreign wars in Britain (1.35), Arabia (1.29) Hispania (3.8) and Parthia (2.2). He greeted Augustus on his return to Rome in 24 BC as a beloved ruler upon whose good health he depended for his own happiness (3.14). The public reception of Odes 1–3 disappointed him, however. He attributed
2784-510: Is generally agreed that his second book of Satires , where human folly is revealed through dialogue between characters, is superior to the first, where he propounds his ethics in monologues. Nevertheless, the first book includes some of his most popular poems. Horace developed a number of inter-related themes throughout his poetic career, including politics, love, philosophy and ethics, his own social role, as well as poetry itself. His Epodes and Satires are forms of 'blame poetry' and both have
2880-719: Is intended to be ambiguous. Ambiguity is the hallmark of the Epistles . It is uncertain if those being addressed by the self-mocking poet-philosopher are being honoured or criticised. Though he emerges as an Epicurean , it is on the understanding that philosophical preferences, like political and social choices, are a matter of personal taste. Thus he depicts the ups and downs of the philosophical life more realistically than do most philosophers. The reception of Horace's work has varied from one epoch to another and varied markedly even in his own lifetime. Odes 1–3 were not well received when first 'published' in Rome, yet Augustus later commissioned
2976-814: The Greek world had enabled his literary heroes to express themselves freely and his semi-retirement from the Treasury in Rome to his own estate in the Sabine hills perhaps empowered him to some extent also yet even when his lyrics touched on public affairs they reinforced the importance of private life. Nevertheless, his work in the period 30–27 BC began to show his closeness to the regime and his sensitivity to its developing ideology. In Odes 1.2, for example, he eulogized Octavian in hyperboles that echo Hellenistic court poetry. The name Augustus , which Octavian assumed in January of 27 BC,
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3072-473: The genre . The Odes display a wide range of topics. Over time, he becomes more confident about his political voice. Although he is often thought of as an overly intellectual lover, he is ingenious in representing passion. The "Odes" weave various philosophical strands together, with allusions and statements of doctrine present in about a third of the Odes Books 1–3, ranging from the flippant (1.22, 3.28) to
3168-792: The symposium . He imitated other Greek lyric poets as well, employing a 'motto' technique, beginning each ode with some reference to a Greek original and then diverging from it. The satirical poet Lucilius was a senator's son who could castigate his peers with impunity. Horace was a mere freedman's son who had to tread carefully. Lucilius was a rugged patriot and a significant voice in Roman self-awareness, endearing himself to his countrymen by his blunt frankness and explicit politics. His work expressed genuine freedom or libertas . His style included 'metrical vandalism' and looseness of structure. Horace instead adopted an oblique and ironic style of satire, ridiculing stock characters and anonymous targets. His libertas
3264-832: The 14th Laird of Tilquhillie. Douglas's maternal great-grandfather was General James Ochoncar Forbes , 17th Lord Forbes . He started in the diplomatic service in 1894 and from then until 1896 was based in St. Petersburg , but was placed on leave following a sexual scandal. In 1897 he bought a villa (Villa Maya) in Posillipo , a maritime suburb of Naples . The next year he married a cousin Elizabeth Louisa Theobaldina FitzGibbon (their mothers were sisters, daughters of Baron Ernst von Poellnitz). They had two children, Louis Archibald (Archie) and Robert Sholto (Robin), and Norman's first published book, Unprofessional Tales (1901),
3360-468: The 15 BC military victories of his stepsons, Drusus and Tiberius, yet it and the following letter were largely devoted to literary theory and criticism. The literary theme was explored still further in Ars Poetica , published separately but written in the form of an epistle and sometimes referred to as Epistles 2.3 (possibly the last poem he ever wrote). He was also commissioned to write odes commemorating
3456-633: The British Embassy in St Petersburg and purchased a villa at Posillipo. By then he had also published his first piece on the subject of southern Italy...." Douglas's most famous work, South Wind , is a fictionalised account of life in Capri, with controversial references to moral and sexual issues. It has been frequently reprinted. His travel books combine erudition, insight, whimsicality, and fine prose. These works include Siren Land (1911), Fountains in
3552-522: The Epicurean poet Lucretius . So for example the Epicurean sentiment carpe diem is the inspiration behind Horace's repeated punning on his own name ( Horatius ~ hora ) in Satires 2.6. The Satires also feature some Stoic , Peripatetic and Platonic ( Dialogues ) elements. In short, the Satires present a medley of philosophical programmes, dished up in no particular order—a style of argument typical of
3648-496: The Hellenistic thinkers were ill qualified to grapple with. Some of them censured oppression of the poor by the rich, but they gave no practical lead, though they may have hoped to see well-meaning rulers doing so. Philosophy was drifting into absorption in self, a quest for private contentedness, to be achieved by self-control and restraint, without much regard for the fate of a disintegrating community. Horace's Hellenistic background
3744-510: The Octavian regime yet, in the second book of Satires that soon followed, he continued the apolitical stance of the first book. By this time, he had attained the status of eques Romanus (Roman 'cavalryman', 'knight'), perhaps as a result of his work at the Treasury. Odes 1–3 were the next focus for his artistic creativity. He adapted their forms and themes from Greek lyric poetry of the seventh and sixth centuries BC. The fragmented nature of
3840-510: The Sand , described as "rambles amongst the oases of Tunisia " (1912), Old Calabria (1915), Together (Austria) (1923), Alone (Italy) (1921), and the short “One Day” (Greece) (1929). Reviewing Douglas's work in Italian Americana , John Paul Russo wrote: Douglas ... published three travel books of his walking tours of Italy: Siren Land , ... Old Calabria ... and Alone .... Scholars prefer
3936-571: The South of France in 1937. Following the collapse of France in 1940 Douglas left the Riviera and made a circuitous journey to London, where he lived from 1942 to 1946. He published the first edition of his Almanac in a tiny edition in Lisbon. He returned to Capri in 1946 and was made a citizen of the island. His circle of acquaintances included the writer Graham Greene , the composer Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji and
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4032-656: The acerbity of Lucillius and the gentler touch of Horace. Juvenal 's caustic satire was influenced mainly by Lucilius but Horace by then was a school classic and Juvenal could refer to him respectfully and in a round-about way as " the Venusine lamp ". Statius paid homage to Horace by composing one poem in Sapphic and one in Alcaic meter (the verse forms most often associated with Odes ), which he included in his collection of occasional poems, Silvae . Ancient scholars wrote commentaries on
4128-461: The ancient satirist Persius to comment: "as his friend laughs, Horace slyly puts his finger on his every fault; once let in, he plays about the heartstrings". His career coincided with Rome's momentous change from a republic to an empire. An officer in the republican army defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, he was befriended by Octavian's right-hand man in civil affairs, Maecenas , and became
4224-559: The area. According to a local tradition reported by Horace, a colony of Romans or Latins had been installed in Venusia after the Samnites had been driven out early in the third century. In that case, young Horace could have felt himself to be a Roman though there are also indications that he regarded himself as a Samnite or Sabellus by birth. Italians in modern and ancient times have always been devoted to their home towns, even after success in
4320-401: The assassination of Julius Caesar were soon to catch up with him. Marcus Junius Brutus came to Athens seeking support for the republican cause. Brutus was fêted around town in grand receptions and he made a point of attending academic lectures, all the while recruiting supporters among the young men studying there, including Horace. An educated young Roman could begin military service high in
4416-597: The biographical material contained in his work can be supplemented from the short but valuable "Life of Horace" by Suetonius (in his Lives of the Poets ). He was born on 8 December 65 BC in Apulia , in southern Italy . His home town, Venusia , lay on a trade route in the region of Apulia at the border with Lucania ( Basilicata ). Various Italic dialects were spoken in the area and this perhaps enriched his feeling for language. He could have been familiar with Greek words even as
4512-485: The blend of Greek and Roman elements adds a sense of detachment and universality. Horace proudly claimed to introduce into Latin the spirit and iambic poetry of Archilochus but (unlike Archilochus) without persecuting anyone ( Epistles 1.19.23–25). It was no idle boast. His Epodes were modelled on the verses of the Greek poet, as 'blame poetry', yet he avoided targeting real scapegoats . Whereas Archilochus presented himself as
4608-421: The civil wars to be the result of contentio dignitatis , or rivalry between the foremost families of the city, and he too seems to have accepted the principate as Rome's last hope for much needed peace. In 37 BC, Horace accompanied Maecenas on a journey to Brundisium , described in one of his poems as a series of amusing incidents and charming encounters with other friends along the way, such as Virgil. In fact
4704-451: The collection demonstrates a leaning towards stoic theory, it reveals no sustained thinking about ethics. Maecenas was still the dominant confidante but Horace had now begun to assert his own independence, suavely declining constant invitations to attend his patron. In the final poem of the first book of Epistles , he revealed himself to be forty-four years old in the consulship of Lollius and Lepidus i.e. 21 BC, and "of small stature, fond of
4800-530: The elite of Roman youth, such as Marcus, the idle son of Cicero , and the Pompeius to whom he later addressed a poem. It was in Athens too that he probably acquired deep familiarity with the ancient tradition of Greek lyric poetry, at that time largely the preserve of grammarians and academic specialists (access to such material was easier in Athens than in Rome, where the public libraries had yet to be built by Asinius Pollio and Augustus). Rome's troubles following
4896-423: The epic poet and the lyric poet are aligned with Stoicism and Epicureanism respectively, in a mood of bitter-sweet pathos. The first poem of the Epistles sets the philosophical tone for the rest of the collection: "So now I put aside both verses and all those other games: What is true and what befits is my care, this my question, this my whole concern." His poetic renunciation of poetry in favour of philosophy
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#17328921369954992-658: The first; Douglas and his aficionados, the third; but the common reader has decided upon the middle work as the masterpiece. Douglas's early pamphlets on Capri were revised in Capri (privately published, 1930). His last published work was A Footnote on Capri (1952). In 1928, Douglas published Some Limericks , an anthology of more-or-less obscene limericks with a mock-scholarly critical apparatus. This classic (of its kind) has been frequently republished, often without acknowledgment in pirate editions. A definitive edition has now been published. South Wind (novel) South Wind
5088-422: The food writer Elizabeth David . Douglas died in Capri, apparently after deliberately overdosing himself on drugs after a long illness (see Elisabeth Moor, An Impossible Woman: The Memories of Dottoressa Moor of Capri ). His last words are reputed to have been: "Get those fucking nuns away from me." The Latin inscription on his tombstone, from an ode by Horace , reads: Omnes eodem cogimur , "We are all driven to
5184-546: The free-born son of a prosperous 'coactor'. The term 'coactor' could denote various roles, such as tax collector, but its use by Horace was explained by scholia as a reference to 'coactor argentarius' i.e. an auctioneer with some of the functions of a banker, paying the seller out of his own funds and later recovering the sum with interest from the buyer. The father spent a small fortune on his son's education, eventually accompanying him to Rome to oversee his schooling and moral development. The poet later paid tribute to him in
5280-411: The island included the opium addict Jacques d'Adelswärd-Fersen . From 1912 to 1916 Douglas worked for The English Review . He met D. H. Lawrence through this connection. Douglas's novel They Went (1920) is a fantasy based on Breton folklore . D. H. Lawrence based a character in his novel Aaron's Rod (1922) on Douglas, which, according to Richard Aldington , led to a falling out between
5376-570: The journey was political in its motivation, with Maecenas en route to negotiate the Treaty of Tarentum with Antony, a fact Horace artfully keeps from the reader (political issues are largely avoided in the first book of satires). Horace was probably also with Maecenas on one of Octavian's naval expeditions against the piratical Sextus Pompeius, which ended in a disastrous storm off Palinurus in 36 BC, briefly alluded to by Horace in terms of near-drowning. There are also some indications in his verses that he
5472-441: The lack of success to jealousy among imperial courtiers and to his isolation from literary cliques. Perhaps it was disappointment that led him to put aside the genre in favour of verse letters. He addressed his first book of Epistles to a variety of friends and acquaintances in an urbane style reflecting his new social status as a knight. In the opening poem, he professed a deeper interest in moral philosophy than poetry but, though
5568-474: The last half of the ninth century, it was not uncommon for literate people to have direct experience of Horace's poetry. His influence on the Carolingian Renaissance can be found in the poems of Heiric of Auxerre and in some manuscripts marked with neumes , mysterious notations that may have been an aid to the memorization and discussion of his lyric meters. Ode 4.11 is neumed with the melody of
5664-446: The latter poet is uncanny: Archilochus lost his shield in a part of Thrace near Philippi, and he was deeply involved in the Greek colonization of Thasos , where Horace's die-hard comrades finally surrendered. Octavian offered an early amnesty to his opponents and Horace quickly accepted it. On returning to Italy, he was confronted with yet another loss: his father's estate in Venusia was one of many throughout Italy to be confiscated for
5760-460: The lyric meters of the Odes , including the scholarly poet Caesius Bassus . By a process called derivatio , he varied established meters through the addition or omission of syllables, a technique borrowed by Seneca the Younger when adapting Horatian meters to the stage. Horace's poems continued to be school texts into late antiquity. Works attributed to Helenius Acro and Pomponius Porphyrio are
5856-539: The lyrics of early Christian poets like Prudentius . These preliminary comments touch on a small sample of developments in the reception of Horace's work. More developments are covered epoch by epoch in the following sections. Horace's influence can be observed in the work of his near contemporaries, Ovid and Propertius . Ovid followed his example in creating a completely natural style of expression in hexameter verse, and Propertius cheekily mimicked him in his third book of elegies. His Epistles provided them both with
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#17328921369955952-514: The novel's discussion of moral and sexual issues caused considerable debate. The South Wind of the title is the Sirocco , which wreaks havoc with the islanders' sense of decency and morality. Much of the natural detail in the book is provided by Capri and other Mediterranean locations that Douglas knew well. The island's name Nepenthe denotes a drug of Egyptian origin (mentioned in the Odyssey ) which
6048-574: The parasitism that Italy was sinking into). In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, ode-writing became highly fashionable in England and a large number of aspiring poets imitated Horace both in English and in Latin. In a verse epistle to Augustus (Epistle 2.1), in 12 BC, Horace argued for classic status to be awarded to contemporary poets, including Virgil and apparently himself. In the final poem of his third book of Odes he claimed to have created for himself
6144-559: The period between the mid sixth century and the Carolingian revival . Horace's work probably survived in just two or three books imported into northern Europe from Italy. These became the ancestors of six extant manuscripts dated to the ninth century. Two of those six manuscripts are French in origin, one was produced in Alsace , and the other three show Irish influence but were probably written in continental monasteries ( Lombardy for example). By
6240-411: The poet Virgil, who had gained admission into the privileged circle around Maecenas, Octavian's lieutenant, following the success of his Eclogues . An introduction soon followed and, after a discreet interval, Horace too was accepted. He depicted the process as an honourable one, based on merit and mutual respect, eventually leading to true friendship, and there is reason to believe that his relationship
6336-597: The possibility of writing a film script based on it. In Dorothy Sayers 's 1926 detective novel Clouds of Witness , Lord Peter Wimsey goes through the possessions of a murdered man – a young British man living in Paris, whose morality had been put in question. Finding a copy of South Wind Wimsey remarks "Our young friend works out very true to type". In Robert McAlmon 's Being Geniuses Together , he mentions meeting Norman Douglas in Venice in 1924, by which time he says South Wind
6432-408: The public performance of his "Carmen saeculare" or "Century hymn" at a public festival orchestrated by Augustus. In it, Horace addresses the emperor Augustus directly with more confidence and proclaims his power to grant poetic immortality to those he praises. It is the least philosophical collection of his verses, excepting the twelfth ode, addressed to the dead Virgil as if he were living. In that ode,
6528-417: The ranks and Horace was made tribunus militum (one of six senior officers of a typical legion), a post usually reserved for men of senatorial or equestrian rank and which seems to have inspired jealousy among his well-born confederates. He learned the basics of military life while on the march, particularly in the wilds of northern Greece, whose rugged scenery became a backdrop to some of his later poems. It
6624-400: The realities confronting him. Archilochus and Alcaeus were aristocratic Greeks whose poetry had a social and religious function that was immediately intelligible to their audiences but which became a mere artifice or literary motif when transposed to Rome. However, the artifice of the Odes is also integral to their success, since they could now accommodate a wide range of emotional effects, and
6720-457: The remnants of a much larger body of Horatian scholarship. Porphyrio arranged the poems in non-chronological order, beginning with the Odes , because of their general popularity and their appeal to scholars (the Odes were to retain this privileged position in the medieval manuscript tradition and thus in modern editions also). Horace was often evoked by poets of the fourth century, such as Ausonius and Claudian . Prudentius presented himself as
6816-475: The river at Licenza , which joins the Aniene as it flows on to Tivoli. The Epodes belong to iambic poetry . Iambic poetry features insulting and obscene language; sometimes, it is referred to as blame poetry . Blame poetry , or shame poetry , is poetry written to blame and shame fellow citizens into a sense of their social obligations. Each poem normally has a archetype person Horace decides to shame, or teach
6912-432: The same end". Douglas was accused on numerous occasions of pederasty and child rape. In 1916, British prosecutors charged Douglas with sexually assaulting a sixteen-year-old boy, and in 1917 he was charged with indecent assault of two boys, one a 10-year-old and the other aged 12. Douglas was granted bail and fled the country for Capri, Italy. He was also forced to flee Florence in 1937 following allegations that he raped
7008-511: The same generation, had determined to make his fame as a poet, being by temperament a fighter, he wanted to fight against all kinds of prejudice, amateurish slovenliness, philistinism, reactionary tendencies, in short to fight for the new and noble type of poetry which he and his friends were endeavouring to bring about. In modern literary theory, a distinction is often made between immediate personal experience ( Urerlebnis ) and experience mediated by cultural vectors such as literature, philosophy and
7104-409: The satiric poet, and in Odes 2.10 even proposes Aristotle's golden mean as a remedy for Rome's political troubles. Many of Horace's poems also contain much reflection on genre, the lyric tradition, and the function of poetry. Odes 4, thought to be composed at the emperor's request, takes the themes of the first three books of "Odes" to a new level. This book shows greater poetic confidence after
7200-409: The settlement of veterans ( Virgil lost his estate in the north about the same time). Horace later claimed that he was reduced to poverty and this led him to try his hand at poetry. In reality, there was no money to be had from versifying. At best, it offered future prospects through contacts with other poets and their patrons among the rich. Meanwhile, he obtained the sinecure of scriba quaestorius ,
7296-415: The solemn (2.10, 3.2, 3.3). Epicureanism is the dominant influence, characterising about twice as many of these odes as Stoicism. A group of odes combines these two influences in tense relationships, such as Odes 1.7, praising Stoic virility and devotion to public duty while also advocating private pleasures among friends. While generally favouring the Epicurean lifestyle, the lyric poet is as eclectic as
7392-557: The streets which harboured and protected their play." John Sutherland reports that "Douglas's Mediterranean travel writing chimed with the public taste", and that "there was a time when, in smart literary conversations, Norman Douglas was regarded as one of the smartest things going. Part of that smartness was his keeping, for the whole of his long depraved life, one jump ahead of the law." In The Grand Tour and Beyond: British and American Travellers in Southern Italy, 1545–1960 (which
7488-532: The sun, prematurely grey, quick-tempered but easily placated". According to Suetonius, the second book of Epistles was prompted by Augustus, who desired a verse epistle to be addressed to himself. Augustus was in fact a prolific letter-writer and he once asked Horace to be his personal secretary. Horace refused the secretarial role but complied with the emperor's request for a verse letter. The letter to Augustus may have been slow in coming, being published possibly as late as 11 BC. It celebrated, among other things,
7584-520: The two writers. Douglas and Lawrence continued the feud through their responses to the memoirs of the American author Maurice Magnus . In the book Twentieth Century Authors Douglas stated that he disliked Marxism , Puritanism and "all kinds of set forms, including official Christianity ". During Douglas's years in Florence he was associated with the publisher and bookseller Pino Orioli , who published
7680-591: The victories of Drusus and Tiberius and one to be sung in a temple of Apollo for the Secular Games , a long-abandoned festival that Augustus revived in accordance with his policy of recreating ancient customs ( Carmen Saeculare ). Suetonius recorded some gossip about Horace's sexual activities late in life, claiming that the walls of his bedchamber were covered with obscene pictures and mirrors, so that he saw erotica wherever he looked. The poet died at 56 years of age, not long after his friend Maecenas, near whose tomb he
7776-419: The visual arts ( Bildungserlebnis ). The distinction has little relevance for Horace however since his personal and literary experiences are implicated in each other. Satires 1.5, for example, recounts in detail a real trip Horace made with Virgil and some of his other literary friends, and which parallels a Satire by Lucilius , his predecessor. Unlike much Hellenistic-inspired literature, however, his poetry
7872-600: The wider world, and Horace was no different. Images of his childhood setting and references to it are found throughout his poems. Horace's father was probably a Venutian taken captive by Romans in the Social War, or possibly he was descended from a Sabine captured in the Samnite Wars . Either way, he was a slave for at least part of his life. He was evidently a man of strong abilities however and managed to gain his freedom and improve his social position. Thus Horace claimed to be
7968-464: Was a minor classic. Apparently when sales continued for years afterwards, Douglas, to whom only a small amount was paid to begin with, received no further payments. Horace Quintus Horatius Flaccus ( Classical Latin : [ˈkʷiːntʊs (h)ɔˈraːtiʊs ˈfɫakːʊs] ; 8 December 65 BC – 27 November 8 BC), commonly known in the English-speaking world as Horace ( / ˈ h ɒr ɪ s / ),
8064-463: Was a rare attempt at the form but it was inspired mainly by Callimachus , and there are some iambic elements in Martial but the main influence there was Catullus . A revival of popular interest in the satires of Lucilius may have been inspired by Horace's criticism of his unpolished style. Both Horace and Lucilius were considered good role-models by Persius , who critiqued his own satires as lacking both
8160-453: Was capable of banishing grief or trouble from the mind. The novel was written in Capri and in London, and after its publication in June 1917 it went through seven editions rapidly, achieving startling large-scale success. Critics at the time complained about the lack of a well-constructed plot. The book was adapted for the stage in London in 1923 by Isabel C. Tippett, and Graham Greene considered
8256-525: Was genuinely friendly, not just with Maecenas but afterwards with Augustus as well. On the other hand, the poet has been unsympathetically described by one scholar as "a sharp and rising young man, with an eye to the main chance." There were advantages on both sides: Horace gained encouragement and material support, the politicians gained a hold on a potential dissident. His republican sympathies, and his role at Philippi, may have caused him some pangs of remorse over his new status. However, most Romans considered
8352-635: Was laid to rest. Both men bequeathed their property to Augustus, an honour that the emperor expected of his friends. The dating of Horace's works isn't known precisely and scholars often debate the exact order in which they were first 'published'. There are persuasive arguments for the following chronology: Horace composed in traditional metres borrowed from Archaic Greece , employing hexameters in his Satires and Epistles , and iambs in his Epodes , all of which were relatively easy to adapt into Latin forms . His Odes featured more complex measures, including alcaics and sapphics , which were sometimes
8448-443: Was not composed for a small coterie of admirers and fellow poets, nor does it rely on abstruse allusions for many of its effects. Though elitist in its literary standards, it was written for a wide audience, as a public form of art. Ambivalence also characterizes his literary persona, since his presentation of himself as part of a small community of philosophically aware people, seeking true peace of mind while shunning vices like greed,
8544-455: Was nothing like it in Greek or Roman literature. Occasionally poems had had some resemblance to letters, including an elegiac poem from Solon to Mimnermus and some lyrical poems from Pindar to Hieron of Syracuse . Lucilius had composed a satire in the form of a letter, and some epistolary poems were composed by Catullus and Propertius . But nobody before Horace had ever composed an entire collection of verse letters, let alone letters with
8640-431: Was struggling to survive the disorder of the times. Boethius , the last major author of classical Latin literature, could still take inspiration from Horace, sometimes mediated by Senecan tragedy. It can be argued that Horace's influence extended beyond poetry to dignify core themes and values of the early Christian era, such as self-sufficiency, inner contentment and courage. Classical texts almost ceased being copied in
8736-519: Was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus (also known as Octavian). The rhetorician Quintilian regarded his Odes as the only Latin lyrics worth reading: "He can be lofty sometimes, yet he is also full of charm and grace, versatile in his figures, and felicitously daring in his choice of words." Horace also crafted elegant hexameter verses ( Satires and Epistles ) and caustic iambic poetry ( Epodes ). The hexameters are amusing yet serious works, friendly in tone, leading
8832-418: Was the private freedom of a philosophical outlook, not a political or social privilege. His Satires are relatively easy-going in their use of meter (relative to the tight lyric meters of the Odes ) but formal and highly controlled relative to the poems of Lucilius, whom Horace mocked for his sloppy standards ( Satires 1.10.56–61) The Epistles may be considered among Horace's most innovative works. There
8928-502: Was there in 42 BC that Octavian (later Augustus ) and his associate Mark Antony crushed the republican forces at the Battle of Philippi . Horace later recorded it as a day of embarrassment for himself, when he fled without his shield, but allowance should be made for his self-deprecating humour. Moreover, the incident allowed him to identify himself with some famous poets who had long ago abandoned their shields in battle, notably his heroes Alcaeus and Archilochus . The comparison with
9024-511: Was well adapted to Augustus's plans to reform public morality, corrupted by greed—his personal plea for moderation was part of the emperor's grand message to the nation. Horace generally followed the examples of poets established as classics in different genres, such as Archilochus in the Epodes , Lucilius in the Satires and Alcaeus in the Odes , later broadening his scope for the sake of variation and because his models weren't actually suited to
9120-453: Was with Maecenas at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, where Octavian defeated his great rival, Antony. By then Horace had already received from Maecenas the famous gift of his Sabine farm , probably not long after the publication of the first book of Satires . The gift, which included income from five tenants, may have ended his career at the Treasury, or at least allowed him to give it less time and energy. It signalled his identification with
9216-477: Was written in collaboration with Elizabeth and first appeared under the pseudonym Normyx . However, the couple was divorced in 1903 because of Elizabeth's infidelity. Douglas then moved to Capri , began dividing his time between the Villa Daphne there and London, and became a more committed writer. Nepenthe, the fictional island setting of his novel South Wind (1917), is Capri in light disguise. His friends on
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