167-469: Nikolay Alexeyevich Nekrasov (Russian: Никола́й Алексе́евич Некра́сов , IPA: [nʲɪkɐˈlaj ɐlʲɪkˈsʲejɪvʲɪtɕ nʲɪˈkrasəf] , 10 December [ O.S. 28 November] 1821 – 8 January 1878 [ O.S. 27 December 1877]) was a Russian poet, writer, critic and publisher, whose deeply compassionate poems about the Russian peasantry made him a hero of liberal and radical circles in
334-405: A biographer. It is only these poems that the nature of their tempestuous relationship could be judged by. There was a correspondence between them, but in a fit of rage Panayeva destroyed all letters ("Now, cry! Cry bitterly, you won’t be able to re-write them," – Nekrasov reproached her in a poem called "The Letters"). Several verses of this cycle became musical romances, one of them, "Forgive! Forget
501-520: A brilliant general, outstanding scientist, rich merchant, should he have put his heart to it," argued Nikolai Mikhaylovsky , praising Nekrasov's stubbornness in pursuing his own way. In February 1840 Nekrasov published his first collection of poetry Dreams and Sounds , using initials "N. N." following the advice of his patron Vasily Zhukovsky who suggested the author might feel ashamed of his childish exercises in several years' time. The book, reviewed favourably by Pyotr Pletnyov and Ksenofont Polevoy ,
668-623: A calendar change, respectively. Usually, they refer to the change from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar as enacted in various European countries between 1582 and 1923. In England , Wales , Ireland and Britain's American colonies , there were two calendar changes, both in 1752. The first adjusted the start of a new year from 25 March ( Lady Day , the Feast of the Annunciation ) to 1 January,
835-535: A change which Scotland had made in 1600. The second discarded the Julian calendar in favour of the Gregorian calendar, skipping 11 days in the month of September to do so. To accommodate the two calendar changes, writers used dual dating to identify a given day by giving its date according to both styles of dating. For countries such as Russia where no start-of-year adjustment took place, O.S. and N.S. simply indicate
1002-530: A coincidence in Byron's chartering the Hercules . The vessel was launched only a few miles south of Seaham Hall , where in 1815 Byron had married Annabella Milbanke. Between 1815 and 1823 the vessel was in service between England and Canada. Suddenly in 1823, the ship's Captain decided to sail to Genoa and offer the Hercules for charter. After taking Byron to Greece, the ship returned to England, never again to venture into
1169-407: A considerable sum of money (10,5 thousand rubles). In 1870 Nekrasov met and fell in love with 19-year-old Fyokla Anisimovna Viktorova, a country girl for whom he invented another name, Zinaida Nikolayevna (the original one was deemed too 'simple'). Educated personally by her lover, she soon learned many of his poems by heart and became in effect his literary secretary. Zina was treated respectfully by
1336-501: A crow, and a falcon; and all these, except the horses, walk about the house, which every now and then resounds with their unarbitrated quarrels, as if they were the masters of it... . [P.S.] I find that my enumeration of the animals in this Circean Palace was defective ... . I have just met on the grand staircase five peacocks, two guinea hens, and an Egyptian crane. I wonder who all these animals were before they were changed into these shapes. In 1821, Byron left Ravenna and went to live in
1503-527: A deformed right foot; his mother once retaliated and, in a fit of temper, referred to him as "a lame brat". However, Byron's biographer, Doris Langley Moore , in her 1974 book Accounts Rendered , paints a more sympathetic view of Mrs Byron, showing how she was a staunch supporter of her son and sacrificed her own precarious finances to keep him in luxury at Harrow and Cambridge. Langley-Moore questions 19th-century biographer John Galt 's claim that she over-indulged in alcohol. Byron's mother-in-law, Judith Noel,
1670-519: A duel; over time, in subsequent editions, it became a mark of prestige to be the target of Byron's pen. After his return from travels he entrusted R. C. Dallas, as his literary agent, with the publication of his poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage , which Byron thought to be of little account. The first two cantos of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage were published in 1812 and were received with critical acclaim. In Byron's own words, "I awoke one morning and found myself famous." He followed up this success with
1837-565: A fever and died in Missolonghi on 19 April. His physician at the time, Julius van Millingen , son of Dutch–English archaeologist James Millingen , was unable to prevent his death. It has been said that if Byron had lived and had gone on to defeat the Ottomans, he might have been declared King of Greece . However, modern scholars have found such an outcome unlikely. The British historian David Brewer wrote that in one sense, Byron failed to persuade
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#17328761458612004-421: A great innovator who came first to destroy, only then to create: "He was essentially a rebel against all the stock in trade of 'poetic poetry' and the essence of his best work is precisely the bold creation of a new poetry unfettered by traditional standards of taste," Mirsky wrote in 1925. Old Style and New Style dates Old Style ( O.S. ) and New Style ( N.S. ) indicate dating systems before and after
2171-525: A homeless shelter. Things turned for the better when he started to give private lessons and contribute to the Literary Supplement to Russky Invalid , all the while compiling ABC-books and versified fairytales for children and vaudevilles , under the pseudonym Perepelsky. In October 1838 Nekrasov debuted as a published poet: his "Thought" (Дума) appeared in Syn Otechestva . In 1839 he took exams at
2338-511: A house on the coast and had a schooner built. Byron decided to have his own yacht, and engaged Trelawny's friend, Captain Daniel Roberts , to design and construct the boat. Named the Bolivar , it was later sold to Charles John Gardiner, 1st Earl of Blessington , and Marguerite, Countess of Blessington , when Byron left for Greece in 1823. Byron attended the beachside cremation of Shelley, which
2505-403: A large number of changes to the manuscript, and provided the reasoning for some of them. Dallas also stated that Byron had originally intended to prefix an argument to this poem, which Dallas quoted. Although it was published anonymously, that April R. C. Dallas wrote that "you are already pretty generally known to be the author". The work so upset some of his critics that they challenged Byron to
2672-545: A legal separation. Their separation was made legal in a private settlement in March 1816. The scandal of the separation, the rumours about Augusta, and ever-increasing debts forced him to leave England in April 1816, never to return. After this break-up of his domestic life, and by pressure on the part of his creditors, which led to the sale of his library, Byron left England, and never returned. (Despite his dying wishes, however, his body
2839-454: A letter dated "12/22 Dec. 1635". In his biography of John Dee , The Queen's Conjurer , Benjamin Woolley surmises that because Dee fought unsuccessfully for England to embrace the 1583/84 date set for the change, "England remained outside the Gregorian system for a further 170 years, communications during that period customarily carrying two dates". In contrast, Thomas Jefferson , who lived while
3006-508: A letter: Lord Byron gets up at two. I get up, quite contrary to my usual custom ... at 12. After breakfast we sit talking till six. From six to eight we gallop through the pine forest which divide Ravenna from the sea; we then come home and dine, and sit up gossiping till six in the morning. I don't suppose this will kill me in a week or fortnight, but I shall not try it longer. Lord B.'s establishment consists, besides servants, of ten horses, eight enormous dogs, three monkeys, five cats, an eagle,
3173-640: A poem. In 1863, while still with Panayeva, Nekrasov met the French actress Celine Lefresne, who was at the time performing at the Mikhaylovsky Theatre with her troupe. She became his lover; Nekrasov, when in France, stayed in her Paris flat several times; she made a visit to Karabikha in 1867. Celine was a kindred spirit and made his journeys abroad a joy, although her attitude towards him has been described as 'dry'. Nekrasov helped Celine financially and bequeathed her
3340-659: A project he initiated of a grammar of Classical Armenian for English speakers, where he included quotations from classical and modern Armenian . Byron later helped to compile the English Armenian Dictionary ( Barraran angleren yev hayeren , 1821) and wrote the preface, in which he explained Armenian oppression by the Turkish pashas and the Persian satraps and the Armenian struggle of liberation. His two main translations are
3507-645: A prolific author and started to produce satires ("The Talker", "The States Official") and vaudevilles ("The Actor", "The Petersburg Money-lender"), for this publication and Literaturnaya Gazeta . Nekrasov's fondness for theater prevailed through the years, and his best poems ( Russian Women , The Railway , The Contemporaries , Who Is Happy in Russia? ) all had a distinct element of drama to them. In October 1841 Nekrasov started contributing to Andrey Krayevsky 's Otechestvennye Zapiski (which he did until 1846), writing anonymously. The barrage of prose he published in
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#17328761458613674-514: A series of elegies, in his memory. In later years, he described the affair as "a violent, though pure love and passion". This statement, however, needs to be read in the context of hardening public attitudes toward homosexuality in England and the severe sanctions (including public hanging) imposed upon convicted or even suspected offenders. The liaison, on the other hand, may well have been "pure" out of respect for Edleston's innocence, in contrast to
3841-878: A start-of-year adjustment works well with little confusion for events before the introduction of the Gregorian calendar. For example, the Battle of Agincourt is well known to have been fought on 25 October 1415, which is Saint Crispin's Day . However, for the period between the first introduction of the Gregorian calendar on 15 October 1582 and its introduction in Britain on 14 September 1752, there can be considerable confusion between events in Continental Western Europe and in British domains. Events in Continental Western Europe are usually reported in English-language histories by using
4008-413: A sudden your whole existence gets filled with the meaning; the feeling that you're an orphan needed by nobody, is gone", wrote Nekrasov to Lev Tolstoy, explaining this poem's idea. In the late 1860s Nekrasov published several important satires. The Contemporaries (Современники, 1865), a swipe at the rising Russian capitalism and its immoral promoters, is considered by Vladimir Zhdanov as being on par with
4175-399: A suitable marriage, considering – amongst others – Annabella Millbanke . However, in 1813 he met for the first time in four years his half-sister, Augusta Leigh . Rumours of incest surrounded the pair; Augusta's daughter Medora (b. 1814) was suspected to have been Byron's child. To escape from growing debts and rumours, Byron pressed in his determination to marry Annabella, who was said to be
4342-437: A tiny coffin, Ivan Turgenev wrote in a letter to Belinsky (14 November): "Please tell Nekrasov that... [it] drove me totally mad, I repeat it day and night and have learnt it by heart." According to literary historian D.S. Mirsky, the early verse beginning 'Whether I ride the dark street through the night...', is "truly timeless... recognized by many (including Grigoryev and Rozanov ) as something so much more important than just
4509-469: A traditional Russian folk song, is regarded Nekrasov's masterpiece. Nikolai Nekrasov is considered one of the greatest Russian poets of the 19th century, alongside Alexander Pushkin and Mikhail Lermontov. In the 1850s and 1860s, Nekrasov (backed by two of his younger friends and allies, Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov) became the leader of a politicized, social justice-oriented trend in Russian poetry (evolved from
4676-573: A verse – the tragic tale of a doomed love balancing on the verge of starvation and moral fall". The Poems by N. Nekrasov , published in October 1856, made their author famous. Divided into four parts and opening with the manifest-like "The Poet and the Citizen" (Поэт и гражданин), it was organized into an elaborate tapestry, parts of it interweaved to form vast poetic narratives (like On the Street cycle). Part one
4843-545: A woman in a society foreign to such experiments. The Panayevs' home soon became the unofficial Sovremennik ' headquarters. In tandem with Panayeva (who used the pseudonym N. N. Stanitsky) Nekrasov wrote two huge novels, Three Countries of the World (1848–1849) and The Dead Lake (1851). Dismissed by many critics as little more than a ploy serving to fill the gaps in Sovremennik left by censorial cuts and criticised by some of
5010-494: A wounded heart, and this wound that never healed served as a source for his passionate, suffering verse for the rest of his life," the latter wrote. In September 1832 Nekrasov joined the Yaroslavl Gymnasium but quit it prematurely. The reasons for this might have been the alleged trouble with tutors whom he wrote satires on (no archive documents confirm this) as well as Alexey Sergeyevich's insistence that his son should join
5177-554: A year after the birth of their third child, the poet's half-sister Augusta Mary . Though Amelia died from a wasting illness, probably tuberculosis, the press reported that her heart had been broken out of remorse for leaving her husband. Much later, 19th-century sources blamed Jack's own "brutal and vicious" treatment of her. Jack would then marry Catherine Gordon of Gight on 13 May 1785, by all accounts only for her fortune. To claim his second wife's estate in Scotland, Byron's father took
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5344-425: Is 9 February 1649, the date by which his contemporaries in some parts of continental Europe would have recorded his execution. The O.S./N.S. designation is particularly relevant for dates which fall between the start of the "historical year" (1 January) and the legal start date, where different. This was 25 March in England, Wales, Ireland and the colonies until 1752, and until 1600 in Scotland. In Britain, 1 January
5511-482: Is an outright communist ... He's openly crying out for the revolution," reported Faddey Bulgarin in his letter to the Russian secret police chief in 1846. Liberal detractors ( Vasily Botkin , Alexander Druzhinin , Ivan Turgenev among them) were horrified by the way "ugly, anti-social things creep into his verse," as Boris Almazov has put it, and the 'antipoetic' style of his verse (Grigoryev, Rozanov). "The way he pushes such prosaic subject matter down into poetic form,
5678-409: Is his last, unfinished epic Who Is Happy in Russia? (Кому на Руси жить хорошо?, 1863–1876), telling the story of seven peasants who set out to ask various elements of the rural population if they are happy, to which the answer is never satisfactory. The poem, noted for its rhyme scheme ("several unrhymed iambic tetrameters ending in a Pyrrhic are succeeded by a clausule in iambic trimeter") resembling
5845-445: Is just unthinkable," Almazov wrote in 1852. "Nekrasov most definitely is not an artist," insisted Stepan Dudyshkin in 1861. Attacks from the right and the center-right caused Nekrasov's reputation no harm and "only strengthened [his] position as a spiritual leader of the radical youth," as Korney Chukovsky maintained. More damage has been done (according to the same author) by those of his radical followers who, while eulogizing 'Nekrasov
6012-518: Is universal. Hardly Pushkin's first poems, or Revizor , or Dead Souls could be said to have enjoyed such success as your book," wrote Chernyshevsky on 5 November to Nekrasov who was abroad at the time, receiving medical treatment. "Nekrasov's poems… brandish like fire," wrote Turgenev. "Nekrasov is an idol of our times, a worshipped poet, he is now bigger than Pushkin," wrote memoirist Elena Stakensneider. Upon his return in August 1857, Nekrasov moved into
6179-721: The Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians , two chapters of Movses Khorenatsi 's History of Armenia , and sections of Nerses of Lambron 's Orations . He also translated into English those sections of the Armenian Bible that are not present in the English Bible. His fascination was so great that he even considered using the Armenian version of the story of Cain for his play of the same name . Byron's interest in Armenian studies contributed to
6346-558: The Gight estate in Aberdeenshire , Scotland. Byron's paternal grandparents were Vice Admiral John Byron and Sophia Trevanion. Having survived a shipwreck as a teenage midshipman, Byron's grandfather set a new speed record for circumnavigating the globe. After he became embroiled in a tempestuous voyage during the American War of Independence , he became nicknamed 'Foul-Weather Jack' Byron by
6513-717: The Greek War of Independence to fight the Ottoman Empire , for which Greeks revere him as a folk hero . He died leading a campaign in 1824, at the age of 36, from a fever contracted after the first and second sieges of Missolonghi. His one child conceived within marriage, Ada Lovelace , was a founding figure in the field of computer programming based on her notes for Charles Babbage 's Analytical Engine . Byron's extramarital children include Allegra Byron , who died in childhood, and possibly Elizabeth Medora Leigh , daughter of his half-sister Augusta Leigh. George Gordon Byron
6680-1102: The Levant ; he had read about the Ottoman and Persian lands as a child, was attracted to Islam (especially Sufi mysticism ), and later wrote, "With these countries, and events connected with them, all my really poetical feelings begin and end." Byron began his trip in Portugal , from where he wrote a letter to his friend Mr Hodgson in which he describes what he had learned of the Portuguese language: mainly swear words and insults. Byron particularly enjoyed his stay in Sintra , which he later described in Childe Harold's Pilgrimage as "glorious Eden". From Lisbon he travelled overland to Seville , Jerez de la Frontera , Cádiz , and Gibraltar , and from there by sea to Sardinia, Malta , Albania and Greece . The purpose of Byron's and Hobhouse's travel to Albania
6847-544: The Ravenna Diary and My Dictionary and Recollections . Around this time he received visits from Percy Bysshe Shelley , as well as from Thomas Moore , to whom he confided his autobiography or "life and adventures", which Moore, Hobhouse, and Byron's publisher, John Murray , burned in 1824, a month after Byron's death. Of Byron's lifestyle in Ravenna we know more from Shelley, who documented some of its more colourful aspects in
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7014-592: The Russian Empire and the very beginning of Soviet Russia . For example, in the article "The October (November) Revolution", the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the format of "25 October (7 November, New Style)" to describe the date of the start of the revolution. The Latin equivalents, which are used in many languages, are, on the one hand, stili veteris (genitive) or stilo vetere (ablative), abbreviated st.v. , and meaning "(of/in) old style" ; and, on
7181-578: The Saint Petersburg University 's Eastern languages faculty, failed and joined the philosophy faculty as a part-time student where he studied, irregularly, until July 1841. Years later detractors accused Nekrasov of mercantilism ("A million was his demon," wrote Dostoyevsky). But, "for eight years (1838–1846) this man lived on the verge of starvation... should he have backstepped, made peace with his father, he'd have found himself again in total comfort," Yakubovish noted. "He might have easily become
7348-521: The Tuscan city of Pisa , to which Teresa had also relocated. From 1821 to 1822, Byron finished Cantos 6–12 of Don Juan at Pisa, and in the same year he joined with Leigh Hunt and Shelley in starting a short-lived newspaper, The Liberal , in whose first number The Vision of Judgment appeared. For the first time since his arrival in Italy, Byron found himself tempted to give dinner parties; his guests included
7515-478: The "Leviathan". In the mid-1840s Nekrasov compiled, edited and published two influential almanacs, The Physiology of Saint Petersburg (1845) and Saint Petersburg Collection (1846), the latter featuring Fyodor Dostoyevsky 's first novel, Poor Folk . Gathering the works of several up and coming authors (Ivan Turgenev, Dmitry Grigorovich , Vladimir Dal , Ivan Panayev, Alexander Hertzen , Fyodor Dostoyevsky among them), both books were instrumental in promoting
7682-403: The (probably) more sexually overt relations experienced at Harrow School. The poem "The Cornelian" was written about the cornelian that Byron had received from Edleston. Byron spent three years at Trinity College, engaging in boxing, horse riding, gambling, and sexual escapades. While at Cambridge , he also formed lifelong friendships with men such as John Cam Hobhouse , who initiated him into
7849-469: The 19th century, a practice that the author Karen Bellenir considered to reveal a deep emotional resistance to calendar reform. Byron George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron , FRS (22 January 1788 – 19 April 1824) was a British poet and peer . He is one of the major figures of the Romantic movement , and is regarded as being among the greatest of British poets. Among his best-known works are
8016-505: The 21-year-old Countess Guiccioli , who found her first love in Byron; he asked her to elope with him. After considering migrating to Venezuela or to the Cape Colony , Byron finally decided to leave Venice for Ravenna . Because of his love for the local aristocratic, young, newly married Teresa Guiccioli, Byron lived in Ravenna from 1819 to 1821. Here he continued Don Juan and wrote
8183-532: The 4th century , had drifted from reality . The Gregorian calendar reform also dealt with the accumulated difference between these figures, between the years 325 and 1582, by skipping 10 days to set the ecclesiastical date of the equinox to be 21 March, the median date of its occurrence at the time of the First Council of Nicea in 325. Countries that adopted the Gregorian calendar after 1699 needed to skip an additional day for each subsequent new century that
8350-579: The Boyne was commemorated with smaller parades on 1 July. However, both events were combined in the late 18th century, and continue to be celebrated as " The Twelfth ". Because of the differences, British writers and their correspondents often employed two dates, a practice called dual dating , more or less automatically. Letters concerning diplomacy and international trade thus sometimes bore both Julian and Gregorian dates to prevent confusion. For example, Sir William Boswell wrote to Sir John Coke from The Hague
8517-455: The British Isles and colonies converted to the Gregorian calendar, instructed that his tombstone bear his date of birth by using the Julian calendar (notated O.S. for Old Style) and his date of death by using the Gregorian calendar. At Jefferson's birth, the difference was eleven days between the Julian and Gregorian calendars and so his birthday of 2 April in the Julian calendar is 13 April in
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#17328761458618684-410: The British colonies, changed the start of the year from 25 March to 1 January, with effect from "the day after 31 December 1751". (Scotland had already made this aspect of the changes, on 1 January 1600.) The second (in effect ) adopted the Gregorian calendar in place of the Julian calendar. Thus "New Style" can refer to the start-of-year adjustment , to the adoption of the Gregorian calendar , or to
8851-552: The Cambridge Whig Club, which endorsed liberal politics, and Francis Hodgson , a Fellow at King's College, with whom he corresponded on literary and other matters until the end of his life. While not at school or college, Byron lived at his mother's residence, Burgage Manor in Southwell, Nottinghamshire . While there, he cultivated friendships with Elizabeth Bridget Pigot and her brother John, with whom he staged two plays for
9018-576: The Front Door" (Размышления у парадного подъезда, 1858), was banned in Russia and appeared in Hertzen's Kolokol in January 1860. Among others were "The Unhappy Ones" (Несчастные, 1856), "Silence" (Тишина, 1857) and "The Song for Yeryomushka" (Песня Еремушке, 1859), the latter turned into a revolutionary hymn by the radical youth. Nekrasov responded to the 1861 land reform with Korobeiniki (Коробейники, 1861),
9185-748: The Gogol-founded natural school in prose) and exerted a strong influence upon the young radical intelligentsia. "What prompted the Russian student's inclination to 'merge with the people' was not Western Socialism, but the Narodnik-related poetry of Nekrasov, which was immensely popular among the young people," argued the revolutionary poet Nikolai Morozov . In 1860 the so-called 'Nekrasov school' in Russian poetry started to take shape, uniting realist poets like Dmitry Minayev , Nikolai Dobrolyubov, Ivan Nikitin and Vasily Kurochkin , among others. Chernyshevsky praised Nekrasov for having started "a new period in
9352-745: The Greek cause. In today's money, Byron would have been a millionaire many times over. News that a fabulously wealthy British aristocrat, known for his financial generosity, had arrived in Greece made Byron the object of much solicitation in that desperately poor country. Byron wrote to his business agent in England, "I should not like to give the Greeks but a half helping hand", saying he would have wanted to spend his entire fortune on Greek freedom. Byron found himself besieged by various people, both Greek and foreign, who tried to persuade him to open his pocketbook for support. By
9519-612: The Gregorian calendar. For example, the Battle of Blenheim is always given as 13 August 1704. However, confusion occurs when an event involves both. For example, William III of England arrived at Brixham in England on 5 November (Julian calendar), after he had set sail from the Netherlands on 11 November (Gregorian calendar) 1688. The Battle of the Boyne in Ireland took place a few months later on 1 July 1690 (Julian calendar). That maps to 11 July (Gregorian calendar), conveniently close to
9686-466: The Gregorian calendar. Similarly, George Washington is now officially reported as having been born on 22 February 1732, rather than on 11 February 1731/32 (Julian calendar). The philosopher Jeremy Bentham , born on 4 February 1747/8 (Julian calendar), in later life celebrated his birthday on 15 February. There is some evidence that the calendar change was not easily accepted. Many British people continued to celebrate their holidays "Old Style" well into
9853-446: The Hon. Lady Milbanke, died in 1822, and her will required that he change his surname to "Noel" in order to inherit half of her estate. He accordingly obtained a Royal Warrant , enabling him to "take and use the surname of Noel only" and to "subscribe the said surname of Noel before all titles of honour". From that point, he signed himself "Noel Byron" (the usual signature of a peer being merely
10020-642: The John Murray archive contain evidence of a previously unremarked if short-lived romantic relationship with a younger boy at Harrow, John Thomas Claridge . In the following autumn he entered Trinity College, Cambridge , where he met and formed a close friendship with the younger John Edleston. About his "protégé" he wrote, "He has been my almost constant associate since October, 1805, when I entered Trinity College. His voice first attracted my attention, his countenance fixed it, and his manners attached me to him for ever." After Edleston's death, Byron composed Thyrza ,
10187-430: The Julian and Gregorian dating systems respectively. The need to correct the calendar arose from the realisation that the correct figure for the number of days in a year is not 365.25 (365 days 6 hours) as assumed by the Julian calendar but slightly less (c. 365.242 days). The Julian calendar therefore has too many leap years . The consequence was that the basis for the calculation of the date of Easter , as decided in
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#173287614586110354-564: The Julian calendar had added since then. When the British Empire did so in 1752, the gap had grown to eleven days; when Russia did so (as its civil calendar ) in 1918, thirteen days needed to be skipped. In the Kingdom of Great Britain and its possessions, the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 introduced two concurrent changes to the calendar. The first, which applied to England, Wales, Ireland and
10521-510: The Julian date of the subsequent (and more decisive) Battle of Aughrim on 12 July 1691 (Julian). The latter battle was commemorated annually throughout the 18th century on 12 July, following the usual historical convention of commemorating events of that period within Great Britain and Ireland by mapping the Julian date directly onto the modern Gregorian calendar date (as happens, for example, with Guy Fawkes Night on 5 November). The Battle of
10688-464: The Mediterranean. The Hercules was aged 37 when, on 21 September 1852, she went aground near Hartlepool , 25 miles south of Sunderland , the place where her keel had been laid in 1815. Byron's "keel was laid" nine months before his official birth date, 22 January 1788. Therefore in ship years, he was also 37 when he died in Missolonghi. Byron initially stayed on the island of Kefalonia , where he
10855-569: The Ottoman captain mistook Byron's boat for a fireship. To avoid the Ottoman Navy, which he encountered several times on his voyage, Byron was forced to take a roundabout route and only reached Missolonghi on 5 January 1824. After arriving in Missolonghi , Byron joined forces with Alexandros Mavrokordatos , a Greek politician with military power. Byron moved to the second floor of a two-story house and
11022-632: The Ottomans. At the same time, other leaders of the Greek factions like Petrobey Mavromichalis and Theodoros Kolokotronis wrote letters to Byron telling him to disregard all of the Roumeliot leaders and to come to their respective areas in the Peloponnese. This drove Byron to distraction; he complained that the Greeks were hopelessly disunited and spent more time feuding with each other than trying to win independence. Byron's friend Edward John Trelawny had aligned himself with Androutsos, who ruled Athens, and
11189-635: The Podolia Governorate," Korney Chukovsky asserted in 1967. Pyotr Yakubovich argued that the records might have been tampered with so as to conceal the fact that the girl had been indeed taken from Poland without her parents' consent (Nekrasov in his autobiography states as much). D.S.Mirsky came up with another way of explaining this discrepancy by suggesting that Nekrasov "created the cult of his mother, imparted her with improbable qualities and started worshipping her after her death." In January 1823 Alexey Nekrasov, ranked army major, retired and moved
11356-522: The Revolutionary' insisted that "one is obliged to read him... in spite of occasional faults of the form" and his "inadequacy in terms of the demands of esthetic taste." According to one school of thought (formulated among others by Vasily Rosanov in his 1916 essay), Nekrasov in the context of the Russian history of literature was an "alien... who came from nowhere" and grew into a destructive 'anti-Pushkin' force to crash with his powerful, yet artless verse
11523-482: The Romagna under the condition that his daughter return to him, without Byron. At the same time that the philhellene, Edward Blaquiere, was attempting to recruit him, Byron was confused as to what he was supposed to do in Greece, writing: "Blaquiere seemed to think that I might be of some use—even here ;—though what he did not exactly specify". With the assistance of his banker and Captain Daniel Roberts , Byron chartered
11690-476: The Russian intelligentsia of the mid-nineteenth century, particularly as represented by Vissarion Belinsky and Nikolay Chernyshevsky . He is credited with introducing into Russian poetry ternary meters and the technique of dramatic monologue ( On the Road , 1845). As the editor of several literary journals, notably Sovremennik , Nekrasov was also singularly successful and influential. Nikolay Alexeyevich Nekrasov
11857-482: The Shelleys, Edward Ellerker Williams , Thomas Medwin , John Taaffe, and Edward John Trelawny ; and "never", as Shelley said, "did he display himself to more advantage than on these occasions; being at once polite and cordial, full of social hilarity and the most perfect good humour; never diverging into ungraceful merriment, and yet keeping up the spirit of liveliness throughout the evening." Shelley and Williams rented
12024-520: The Souliotes as he was unhappy with Mavrokordatos's leadership, which led to a brief bout of inter-Greek fighting before Karaiskakis was chased away by 6 April. When the famous Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen heard about Byron's heroics in Greece, he voluntarily resculpted his earlier bust of Byron in Greek marble. Mavrokordatos and Byron planned to attack the Turkish-held fortress of Lepanto , at
12191-453: The Street , 1850, "The Cabman", 1855). Part of it, the "St. Petersburg Corners", featured in the Physiology of St. Petersburg , was treated later as an independent novelette, an exponent of the " natural school " genre. In November 1846 Panayev and Nekrasov acquired a popular magazine Sovremennik which had been founded by Alexander Pushkin but lost momentum under Pyotr Pletnyov . Much of
12358-680: The Suliotes for the good of Greece—and their own—I have come to the following resolution—I will have nothing more to do with the Suliotes—they may go to the Turks or the devil...they may cut me into more pieces than they have dissensions among them, sooner than change my resolution". At the same time, Guiccioli's brother, Pietro Gamba, who had followed Byron to Greece, exasperated Byron with his incompetence as he continually made expensive mistakes. For example, when asked to buy some cloth from Corfu, Gamba ordered
12525-453: The Thief and Doctor Krupov . One of the young authors discovered by Nekrasov was Leo Tolstoy who debuted in Sovremennik with his trilogy Childhood , Boyhood and Youth . Nekrasov managed to save the magazine during the 'Seven years of darkness' period (1848–1855) when it was balancing on the verge of closure and he himself was under the secret police' surveillance. In order to fill up
12692-402: The World". Banned by censors, it soon started spreading in hand-written copies all over Russia. Already in 1875 the high-profile concilium led by Nikolay Sklifosovsky had diagnosed the intestinal cancer . In February 1877 groups of radical students started to arrive to Yalta from all over the country to provide moral support for the dying man. Painter Ivan Kramskoy came to stay and work upon
12859-481: The additional surname "Gordon", becoming "John Byron Gordon", and occasionally styled himself "John Byron Gordon of Gight ". Byron's mother had to sell her land and title to pay her new husband's debts, and in the space of two years, the large estate, worth some £23,500, had been squandered, leaving the former heiress with an annual income in trust of only £150. In a move to avoid his creditors, Catherine accompanied her husband to France in 1786, but returned to England at
13026-537: The best of Saltykov-Shchedrin's work. The latter too praised the poem for its power and realism. In 1865 the law was passed abolishing preliminary censorship but toughening punitive sanctions. Nekrasov lambasted this move in his satirical cycle Songs of the Free Word (Песни свободного слова), the publication of which caused more trouble for Sovremennik . In 1867 Nekrasov started his Poems for Russian Children cycle, concluded in 1873. Full of humour and great sympathy for
13193-737: The birth of their illegitimate child Allegra , who died at the age of 5 under the care of Byron later in life. Several times Byron went to see Germaine de Staël and her Coppet group , which turned out to be a valid intellectual and emotional support to Byron at the time. Kept indoors at the Villa Diodati by the "incessant rain" of "that wet, ungenial summer" over three days in June, the five turned to reading fantastical stories, including Fantasmagoriana , and then devising their own tales. Mary Shelley produced what would become Frankenstein, or The Modern Prometheus , and Polidori produced The Vampyre ,
13360-604: The brig Hercules to take him to Greece. When Byron left Genoa, it caused "passionate grief" from Guiccioli, who wept openly as he sailed away. The Hercules was forced to return to port shortly afterwards. When it set sail for the final time, Guiccioli had already left Genoa. On 16 July, Byron left Genoa, arriving at Kefalonia in the Ionian Islands on 4 August. His voyage is covered in detail in Donald Prell 's Sailing with Byron from Genoa to Cephalonia . Prell also wrote of
13527-527: The butt of their humour. The Napoleonic Wars forced Byron to avoid touring in most of Europe; he instead turned to the Mediterranean . His journey enabled him to avoid his creditors and to meet up with a former love, Mary Chaworth (the subject of his poem "To a Lady: On Being Asked My Reason for Quitting England in the Spring"). Another reason for choosing to visit the Mediterranean was probably his curiosity about
13694-540: The city, Byron and Lieutenant Ekenhead, of Salsette ' s Marines, swam the Hellespont . Byron commemorated this feat in the second canto of Don Juan . He returned to England from Malta in July 1811 aboard HMS Volage . After the publication of the first two cantos of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (1812), Byron became a celebrity. "He rapidly became the most brilliant star in the dazzling world of Regency London. He
13861-498: The clarity of mind, seemingly refusing to believe the end was near," remembered Dostoyevsky. Nikolai Alekseyevich Nekrasov died on 8 January 1878. Four thousand people came to the funeral and the procession leading to the Novodevichy Cemetery turned into a political rally. Fyodor Dostoyevsky delivered a keynote eulogy, calling Nekrasov the greatest Russian poet since Alexander Pushkin and Mikhail Lermontov . One section of
14028-463: The colleagues (Vasily Botkin regarded such a manufacture as 'humiliating for literature'), in retrospect they are seen as uneven but curious literary experiments not without their artistic merits. Nekrasov's poems dedicated to and inspired by Avdotya formed the Panayeva Cycle which amounted "in its entirety... to a long poem telling the passionate, often painful and morbid love story," according to
14195-486: The combination of the two. It was through their use in the Calendar Act that the notations "Old Style" and "New Style" came into common usage. When recording British history, it is usual to quote the date as originally recorded at the time of the event, but with the year number adjusted to start on 1 January. The latter adjustment may be needed because the start of the civil calendar year had not always been 1 January and
14362-442: The couple quickly separated. Catherine regularly experienced mood swings and bouts of melancholy, which could be partly explained by her husband's continuously borrowing money from her. As a result, she fell even further into debt to support his demands. One of these loans enabled him to travel to Valenciennes , France, where he died of a "long & suffering illness" – probably tuberculosis – in 1791. When Byron's great-uncle, who
14529-504: The crowd, the followers of Chernyshevsky (with Georgy Plekhanov as one of their leaders), chanted "No, he was greater!" Members of Zemlya i Volya , alongside other radical groups (with wreaths "From the Socialists"), were also present. "His funeral was one of the most striking demonstrations of popularity ever accorded to a Russian writer," according to Mirsky. Nikolai Nekrasov met the already married Avdotya Panayeva in 1842 when she
14696-405: The darkness of delusion..." (Когда из мрака заблужденья..., 1845), arguably the first poem in Russia about the plight of a woman driven to prostitution by poverty, brought Chernyshevsky to tears. Of "Whether I ride the dark street though the night..." (Еду ли ночью по улице темной..., 1847), another harrowing story of a broken family, dead baby and a wife having to sell her body to procure money for
14863-409: The days of the fall..." (Прости! Не помни дней паденья...) has been set to music by no less than forty Russian composers, starting with Cesar Cui in 1859, and including Rimsky-Korsakov and Tchaikovsky . In 1849 Panayeva gave birth to a son, but the boy soon died. Another death, of Ivan Panayev in 1862, drove the couple still further apart. The main reason for Panayeva's final departure, though,
15030-570: The early 1840s was, admittedly, worthless, but several of his plays (notably, No Hiding a Needle in a Sack ) were produced at the Alexandrinsky Theatre to some commercial success. In 1842 (a year after his mother's death) Nekrasov returned to Greshnevo and made peace with his father who was now quite proud of his son's achievements. In 1843 Nekrasov met Vissarion Belinsky and entered his circle of friends which included Ivan Turgenev , Ivan Panayev and Pavel Annenkov . Belinsky, obsessed with
15197-509: The early 1860 were "Peasant Children" (Крестьянские дети, 1861), highlighting moral values of the Russian peasantry, and "A Knight for an Hour" (Рыцарь на час, 1862), written after the author's visit to his mother's grave. "Orina, the Soldier's Mother" (Орина, мать солдатская, 1863) glorified the motherly love that defies death itself, while The Railway (Железная дорога, 1964), condemning the Russian capitalism "built upon peasant's bones," continued
15364-614: The end of 1787 to give birth to her son. Byron was born in January 1788, and christened at St Marylebone Parish Church . His father appears to have wished to call his son 'William', but as he remained absent, Byron's mother named him after her own father, George Gordon of Gight, who was a descendant of James I of Scotland and who had died by suicide some years earlier, in 1779. Byron's mother moved back to Aberdeenshire in 1790, and Byron spent part of his childhood there. His father soon joined them in their lodgings in Queen Street, but
15531-505: The end of March 1824, the so-called "Byron brigade" of 30 philhellene officers and about 200 men had been formed, paid for entirely by Byron. Leadership of the Greek cause in the Roumeli region was divided between two rival leaders: a former Klepht (bandit), Odysseas Androutsos ; and a wealthy Phanariot Prince, Alexandros Mavrokordatos . Byron used his prestige to attempt to persuade the two rival leaders to come together to focus on defeating
15698-533: The end of the following December, 1661/62 , a form of dual dating to indicate that in the following twelve weeks or so, the year was 1661 Old Style but 1662 New Style. Some more modern sources, often more academic ones (e.g. the History of Parliament ) also use the 1661/62 style for the period between 1 January and 24 March for years before the introduction of the New Style calendar in England. The Gregorian calendar
15865-488: The entertainment of the community. During this time, with the help of Elizabeth Pigot, who copied many of his rough drafts, he was encouraged to write his first volumes of poetry. Fugitive Pieces was printed by Ridge of Newark, which contained poems written when Byron was only 17. However, it was promptly recalled and burned on the advice of his friend the Reverend J. T. Becher, on account of its more amorous verses, particularly
16032-544: The family estate through it) was put to the service too, and as a member of the English Club Nekrasov made a lot of useful acquaintances. In 1854 Nekrasov invited Nikolai Chernyshevsky to join Sovremennik , in 1858 Nikolai Dobrolyubov became one of its major contributors. This led to the inevitable radicalisation of the magazine and the rift with its liberal flank. In 1859 Dobrolyubov's negative review outraged Turgenev and led to his departure from Sovremennik . But
16199-632: The family to his estate in Greshnevo , Yaroslavl province , near the Volga River, where young Nikolai spent his childhood years with his five siblings, brothers Andrey (b. 1820), Konstantin (b. 1824) and Fyodor (b. 1827), sisters Elizaveta (b. 1821) and Anna (b. 1823). This early retirement from the army, as well as his job as a provincial inspector, caused Aleksey Sergeyevich much frustration resulting in drunken rages against both his peasants and his wife. Such experiences traumatized Nikolai and later determined
16366-423: The gaps caused by censorial interference he started to produce lengthy picturesque novels ( Three Countries of the World , 1848–1849, The Dead Lake , 1851), co-authored by Avdotya Panayeva , his common-law wife . His way of befriending censors by inviting them to his weekly literary dinners proved to be another useful ploy. Gambling (a habit shared by male ancestors on his father's side; his grandfather lost most of
16533-411: The gymnasium was poor, but it was there that Nekrasov's interest in poetry grew: he admired Byron and Pushkin , notably the latter's "Ode to Freedom". According to some sources he was then 'sent' to Saint Petersburg by his father, but Nekrasov in his autobiography maintained that it was his own decision to go, and that his brother Andrey assisted him in trying to persuade their father to procure all
16700-462: The history of Russian poetry." Nekrasov was credited with being the first editor of Fyodor Dostoevsky , whose debut novel Poor Folk made its way into the St. Petersburg Collection which, along with its predecessor, 1845's The Physiology of Saint Petersburg , played a crucial role in promoting realism in Russian literature. A long-standing editor and publisher of Sovremennik , Nekrasov turned it into
16867-799: The ideas of the French Socialists , found a great sympathizer in Nekrasov for whom horrors of serfdom in his father's estate were still a fresh memory. "On the Road" (1845) and "Motherland" (1846), two of Nekrasov's early realistic poems, delighted Belinsky. The poet claimed later that those early conversations with Belinsky changed his life and commemorated the critic in several poems ("In the Memory of Belinsky", 1853; "V.G.Belinsky", 1855; "Scenes from The Bear Hunt", 1867). Before his death in 1848, Belinsky granted Nekrasov rights to publish various articles and other material originally planned for an almanac, to be called
17034-517: The influx of young radical authors continued: Nikolai Uspensky , Fyodor Reshetnikov , Nikolai Pomyalovsky , Vasily Sleptsov , Pyotr Yakubovich , Pavel Yakushkin , Gleb Uspensky soon entered the Russian literary scene. In 1858 Nekrasov and Dobrolyubov founded Svistok (Whistle), a satirical supplement to Sovremennik . The first two issues (in 1859) were compiled by Dobrolyubov, from the third (October 1858) onwards Nekrasov became this publication's editor and regular contributor. In June 1862, after
17201-499: The latter based upon the real life stories of Ekaterina Trubetskaya and Maria Volkonskaya , who followed their Decembrist husbands to their exile in Siberia. In the 1870s the general tone of Nekrasov's poetry changed: it became more declarative, over-dramatized and featured the recurring image of poet as a priest, serving "the throne of truth, love and beauty." Nekrasov's later poetry is the traditionalist one, quoting and praising giants of
17368-452: The leading Russian literary publication of its time, thus continuing the legacy of Pushkin, its originator. During its 20 years of steady and careful literary policy, Sovremennik served as a cultural forum for all the major Russian writers, including Dostoevsky, Ivan Turgenev , and Leo Tolstoy , as well as Nekrasov's own poetry and prose. His years at the helm of Sovremennik , though, were marred by controversy. According to Mirsky, "Nekrasov
17535-661: The lengthy narratives Don Juan and Childe Harold's Pilgrimage ; many of his shorter lyrics in Hebrew Melodies also became popular. Byron was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge , before he travelled extensively in Europe. He lived for seven years in Italy, in Venice , Ravenna , and Pisa after he was forced to flee England due to threats of lynching . During his stay in Italy, he would frequently visit his friend and fellow poet Percy Bysshe Shelley . Later in life, Byron joined
17702-708: The life of the Tsar, Nekrasov, so as to save Sovremennik from closure, wrote the "Ode to Osip Komissarov" (the man who saved the monarch's life by pushing Karakozov aside) to read it publicly in the English Club. His another poetic address greeted Muravyov the Hangman , a man responsible for the brutal suppression of the 1863 Polish Uprising , who was now in charge of the Karakozov case. Both gestures proved to be futile and in May 1866 Sovremennik
17869-482: The likely heiress of a rich uncle. They married on 2 January 1815, and their daughter, Ada , was born in December of that year. However, Byron's continuing obsession with Augusta Leigh (and his continuing sexual escapades with actresses such as Charlotte Mardyn and others) made their marital life a misery. Annabella considered Byron insane, and in January 1816 she left him, taking their daughter, and began proceedings for
18036-707: The line of protest hymns started in the mid-1840s. "Grandfather Frost the Red Nose" (Мороз, Красный нос, 1864), a paean to the Russian national character, went rather against the grain with the general mood of the Russian intelligentsia of the time, steeped in soul-searching after the brutal suppression of the Polish Uprising of 1863 by the Imperial forces. "Life, this enigma you've been thrown into, each day draws you nearer to demolition, frightens you and seems maddeningly unfair. But then you notice that somebody needs you, and all of
18203-539: The military academy. The biographer Vladimir Zhdanov also mentions the father's unwillingness to pay for his children's education; he certainly was engaged at some point in a long-drawn correspondence with the gymnasium authorities on this matter. Finally, in July 1837 he took two of his elder sons back home, citing health problems as a reason, and Nikolai had to spend a year in Greshnevo, doing nothing besides accompanying his father in his expeditions. The quality of education in
18370-485: The mouth of the Gulf of Corinth . Byron employed a fire master to prepare artillery, and he took part of the rebel army under his own command despite his lack of military experience. Before the expedition could sail, on 15 February 1824, he fell ill, and bloodletting weakened him further. He made a partial recovery, but in early April he caught a cold; the therapeutic bleeding insisted on by his doctors exacerbated it. He contracted
18537-505: The mutinous Albanian officers who were offering to surrender Navpaktos to Byron and arranged to have some of the arrears paid out to the rest of the garrison. Byron never led the attack on Navpaktos because the Souliotes kept demanding that Byron pay them more and more money before they would march; Byron grew tired of their blackmail and sent them all home on 15 February 1824. Byron wrote in a note to himself: "Having tried in vain at every expense, considerable trouble—and some danger to unite
18704-477: The name of the peerage, in this case simply "Byron"). Some have speculated that he did this so that his initials would read "N.B.", mimicking those of his hero, Napoleon Bonaparte . Lady Byron eventually succeeded to the Barony of Wentworth , becoming "Lady Wentworth". Byron received his early formal education at Aberdeen Grammar School in 1798 until his move back to England as a 10-year-old. In August 1799 he entered
18871-561: The new flat in the Krayevsky's house on Liteiny Lane in Saint Petersburg where he resided since then for the rest of his life. The 1861 Manifest left Nekrasov unimpressed. "Is that freedom? More like a fake, a jibe at peasants," he said, reportedly, to Chernyshevsky on 5 March, the day of the Manifest's publication. His first poetic responses to the reform were "Freedom" ("I know, instead of
19038-652: The new wave of realism in Russian literature. Several Nekrasov's poems found their way into the First of April compilation of humour he published in April 1846. Among the curiosities featured there was the novel The Danger of Enjoying Vain Dreams , co-authored by Nekrasov, Grigorovich and Dostoyevsky. Among the work of fiction written by Nekrasov in those years was his unfinished autobiographical novel The Life and Adventures of Tikhon Trostnikov (1843–1848); some of its motifs would be found later in his poetry ("The Unhappy Ones", 1856; On
19205-762: The night in his gondola ; when he asked her to leave the house, she threw herself into the Venetian canal. In 1816, Byron visited San Lazzaro degli Armeni in Venice, where he acquainted himself with Armenian culture with the help of the monks belonging to the Mechitarist Order . With the help of Father Pascal Aucher (Harutiun Avkerian), he learned the Armenian language and attended many seminars about language and history. He co-authored Grammar English and Armenian in 1817, an English textbook written by Aucher and corrected by Byron, and A Grammar Armenian and English in 1819,
19372-485: The old nets they'd invented some new ones...") and Korobeiniki (1861). The latter was originally published in the Red Books series started by Nekrasov specifically for the peasant readership. These books were distributed by 'ophens', vagrant traders, not unlike the korobeinikis Tikhonych and Ivan, the two heroes of the poem. After the second issue the series were banned by censors. In 1861 Nekrasov started campaigning for
19539-452: The other, stili novi or stilo novo , abbreviated st.n. and meaning "(of/in) new style". The Latin abbreviations may be capitalised differently by different users, e.g., St.n. or St.N. for stili novi . There are equivalents for these terms in other languages as well, such as the German a.St. (" alter Stil " for O.S.). Usually, the mapping of New Style dates onto Old Style dates with
19706-463: The past, like Pushkin and Schiller, trading political satire and personal drama for elegiac musings. In poems like "The Morning" (Утро, 1873) and "The Frightful Year" (Страшный год, 1874) Nekrasov sounds like a precursor to Alexander Blok , according to biographer Yuri Lebedev. The need to rise above the mundane in search for universal truths forms the leitmotif of the lyric cycle Last Songs (Последние песни, 1877). Among Nekrasov's most important works
19873-631: The peasant youth, "Grandfather Mazay and the Hares" (Дедушка Мазай и зайцы) and "General Stomping-Bear" (Генерал Топтыгин) up to this day remain the children's favourites in his country. The rise of the Narodniks in the early 1870s coincided with the renewal of interest in the Decembrist revolt in Russia. It was reflected in first Grandfather (Дедушка, 1870), then in a dilogy called Russian Women ("Princess Trubetskaya", 1872; "Princess M.N. Volkonskaya, 1873),
20040-576: The poem To Mary . Hours of Idleness , a collection of many of the previous poems, along with more recent compositions, was the culminating book. The savage, anonymous criticism it received (now known to be the work of Henry Peter Brougham ) in the Edinburgh Review prompted Byron to compose his first major satire, English Bards and Scotch Reviewers (1809). Byron put it into the hands of his relative R. C. Dallas , and asked him to "...get it published without his name." Alexander Dallas suggested
20207-582: The poem's last two cantos, as well as four equally celebrated "Oriental Tales": The Giaour , The Bride of Abydos , The Corsair , and Lara . About the same time, he began his intimacy with his future biographer, Thomas Moore . Byron racked up numerous debts as a young man, owing to what his mother termed a "reckless disregard for money". She lived at Newstead during this time, in fear of her son's creditors. He had planned to spend some time in 1808 cruising with his cousin George Bettesworth , who
20374-589: The poet has become for the revolutionary underground. For many years Nikolai Nekrasov suffered from a chronic throat condition. In April 1876 severe pains brought about insomnia that lasted for months. In June Saltykov-Shchedrin arrived from abroad to succeed him as an editor-in-chief of OZ . Still unsure as to the nature of the illness, doctor Sergey Botkin advised Nekrasov to go to the Crimea . In September 1876 he arrived at Yalta where he continued working on Who Is Happy in Russia ' s final part, "The Feast for All
20541-437: The poet's literary friends, but not by Anna Alexeyevna, Nekrasov's sister who found such mésalliance unacceptable. The two women made peace in the mid-1870s, as they were bedsitting in turns for the dying poet. On 7 April 1877, in a symbolic gesture of gratitude and respect, Nekrasov wed Zinaida Nikolayevna at his home. Nekrasov's first collection of poetry, Dreams and Sounds (Мечты и звуки), received some favourable reviews but
20708-414: The poet's portrait. One of the last people Nekrasov met was Ivan Turgenev who came to make peace after years of bitter feud. The surgery performed on 12 April 1877 by Theodor Billroth who was invited from Vienna by Anna Alexeyevna Nekrasova brought some relief, but not for long. "I saw him for the last time just one month before his death. He looked like a corpse... Not only did he speak well, but retained
20875-439: The press. Byron's father had previously been somewhat scandalously married to Amelia Osborne, Marchioness of Carmarthen , with whom he was having an affair – the wedding took place just weeks after her divorce from her husband, and she was around eight months pregnant. The marriage was not a happy one, and their first two children – Sophia Georgina, and an unnamed boy – died in infancy. Amelia herself died in 1784 almost exactly
21042-586: The progenitor of the Romantic vampire genre . The Vampyre was inspired by a fragmentary story of Byron, " A Fragment ". Byron's story fragment was published as a postscript to Mazeppa ; he also wrote the third canto of Childe Harold . Byron wintered in Venice , pausing in his travels when he fell in love with Marianna Segati, in whose Venice house he was lodging, and who was soon replaced by 22-year-old Margarita Cogni; both women were married. Cogni could not read or write, and she left her husband to move in with Byron. Their fighting often caused Byron to spend
21209-483: The recommendations required. "By the age of fifteen the whole notebook [of verses] has taken shape, which was the reason why I was itching to flee to the capital," he remembered. Outraged by his son's refusal to join the Cadet Corps, the father stopped supporting him financially. The three-year period of his "Petersburg tribulations" followed when the young man had to live in extreme conditions and once even found himself in
21376-566: The release of his arrested colleague, Mikhail Mikhaylov , but failed: the latter was deported to Siberia . More successful was his plea for the release of Afanasy Shchapov : the decree ordering the Petersburg historian's demotion to a monastery was retrieved by Alexander II. After his father's death, Nekrasov in May 1862 bought the Karabikha estate, visiting it on a yearly basis until his own death. In April 1866, after Dmitry Karakozov 's attempt on
21543-482: The school of Dr. William Glennie , in Dulwich . Placed under the care of a Dr. Bailey, he was encouraged to exercise in moderation but could not restrain himself from "violent" bouts of activity in an attempt to compensate for his deformed foot. His mother interfered with his studies, often withdrawing him from school, which arguably contributed to his lack of self-discipline and his neglect of his classical studies. Byron
21710-625: The second edition of The Poems came out (now in 2 volumes). In Nekrasov's lifetime this ever-growing collection has been re-issued several times. The academic version of the Complete N.A. Nekrasov, ready by the late 1930s, had to be shelved due to the break out of the World War II ; it was published in 12 volumes by the Soviet Goslitizdat in 1948–1953. 1855–1862 were the years of Nekrasov's greatest literary activity. One important poem, "Musings By
21877-460: The series of arsons in Petersburg for which radical students were blamed, Sovremennik was closed, and a month later Chernyshevsky was arrested. In December Nekrasov managed to get Sovremennik re-opened, and in 1863 published What Is to Be Done? by the incarcerated author. In 1855 Nekrasov started working upon his first poetry collection and on 15 October 1856, The Poems by N. Nekrasov came out to great public and critical acclaim. "The rapture
22044-548: The spread and development of that discipline. His profound lyricism and ideological courage have inspired many Armenian poets, the likes of Ghevond Alishan , Smbat Shahaziz , Hovhannes Tumanyan , Ruben Vorberian, and others. In 1817, he journeyed to Rome . On returning to Venice, he wrote the fourth canto of Childe Harold . About the same time, he sold Newstead Abbey and published Manfred , Cain , and The Deformed Transformed . The first five cantos of Don Juan were written between 1818 and 1820. During this period he met
22211-572: The staff of the old Otechestvennye Zapiski , including Belinsky, abandoned Andrey Krayevsky's magazine, and joined Sovremennik to work with Nekrasov, Panayev and Alexander Nikitenko , a nominal editor-in-chief. In the course of just several months Nekrasov managed to draw to the invigorated magazine the best literary forces of Russia. Among the works published in it in the course of the next several years were Ivan Turgenev's A Sportsman's Sketches , Dmitry Grigorovich's Anton Goremyka , Ivan Goncharov 's A Common Story , Alexander Hertzen ’s Magpie
22378-401: The subject matter of his major poems that portrayed the plight of the Russian peasants and women. Nekrasov's mother loved literature and imparted this passion to her son; it was her love and support that helped the young poet to survive the traumatic experiences of his childhood which were aggravated by images of social injustice, similar to Fyodor Dostoyevsky 's childhood recollections. "His was
22545-432: The time of Nekrasov's arrival their marriage has been in tatters. Avdotya who saw gender inequality as grave social injustice, considered herself free from marital obligations but was still unwilling to sever ties with a good friend. A bizarre romantic/professional team which united colleagues and lovers (she continued 'dating' her husband, sending her jealous lodger into fits of fury) was difficult for both men, doubly so for
22712-547: The tradition of "shining harmonies" set by the classic. Decades earlier Afanasy Fet described Nekrasov's verse as a 'tin-plate prose' next to Pushkin's 'golden poetry'. Korney Chukovsky passionately opposed such views and devoted the whole book, Nekrasov the Master , to highlight the poet's stylistic innovations and trace the "ideological genealogy ", as he put it, from Pushkin through Gogol and Belinsky to Nekrasov. Mirsky, while giving credit to Chukovsky's effort, still saw Nekrasov as
22879-492: The tragicomic story of the two 'basket-men', Tikhonych and Ivan, who travel across Russia selling goods and gathering news. The fragment of the poem's first part evolved into a popular folk song . "The most melodious of Nekrasov's poems is Korobeiniki , the story which, although tragic, is told in the life-affirming, optimistic tone, and yet features another, strong and powerful even if bizarre motif, that of 'The Wanderer's Song'," wrote Mirsky. Among Nekrasov's best known poems of
23046-489: The tribune,' failed to appreciate his 'genius of an innovator'. "His talent was remarkable if not for its greatness, then for the fine way it reflected the state of Russia of his time," wrote soon after Nekrasov's death one of his colleagues and allies Grigory Yeliseyev . "Nekrasov was for the most part a didactic poet and as such... prone to stiltedness, mannerisms and occasional insincerity," opined Maxim Antonovich . Georgy Plekhanov who in his 1902 article glorified 'Nekrasov
23213-463: The worst of all maladies in my opinion. In short, the boy is distractedly in love with Miss Chaworth." In Byron's later memoirs , "Mary Chaworth is portrayed as the first object of his adult sexual feelings." Byron finally returned in January 1804, to a more settled period, which saw the formation of a circle of emotional involvements with other Harrow boys, which he recalled with great vividness: "My school friendships were with me passions (for I
23380-472: The wrong cloth in excess, causing the bill to be 10 times higher than what Byron wanted. Byron wrote about his right-hand man: "Gamba—who is anything but lucky —had something to do with it—and as usual—the moment he had—matters went wrong". To help raise money for the revolution, Byron sold his estate in England, Rochdale Manor, which raised some £11,250. This led Byron to estimate that he now had some £20,000 at his disposal, all of which he planned to spend on
23547-408: Was Nekrasov's 'difficult' character. He was prone to fits of depression, anger, hypochondria and could spend days "sprawling on a couch in his cabinet, greatly irritated, telling people how he hated everybody but mostly himself," according to Zhdanov. "Your laughter, your merry talking could not dispel my morbid thoughts/They only served to drive my heavy, sick and irritated mind insane," he confessed in
23714-466: Was a Polish noblewoman, daughter of a wealthy landlord who belonged to szlachta . The church records tell a different story, and modern Russian scholars have her name as Yelena Andreyevna. "Up until recently the poet's biographers had it that his mother belonged to the Polish family. In fact she was the daughter of Ukrainian state official Alexander Semyonovich Zakrevsky, the owner of Yuzvino, a small village in
23881-421: Was a genius editor, and his gift for procuring the best literature and the best authors at the height of their relevancy, bordered on miraculous," but he was also "first and foremost, a ruthless manipulator, for whom any means justified the end" and he "shamelessly exploited the enthusiasm of his underpaid authors." The conservatives among his contemporaries regarded him a dangerous political provocateur. "Nekrasov
24048-435: Was already a promising writer and a popular hostess of a literary salon. The 20-year-old Nekrasov fell in love but had to wait several years for her emotional response and at least on one occasion was on the verge of suicide, if one of his Panayeva Cycle poems, "Some time ago, rejected by you... " is to be believed. For several years she was "struggling with her feelings" (according to Chernyshevsky), then in 1847 succumbed. "This
24215-474: Was altered at different times in different countries. From 1155 to 1752, the civil or legal year in England began on 25 March ( Lady Day ); so for example, the execution of Charles I was recorded at the time in Parliament as happening on 30 January 164 8 (Old Style). In newer English-language texts, this date is usually shown as "30 January 164 9 " (New Style). The corresponding date in the Gregorian calendar
24382-411: Was always violent)". The most enduring of those was with John FitzGibbon, 2nd Earl of Clare —four years Byron's junior—whom he was to meet again unexpectedly many years later, in 1821, in Italy. His nostalgic poems about his Harrow friendships, Childish Recollections (1806), express a prescient "consciousness of sexual differences that may in the end make England untenable to him." Letters to Byron in
24549-420: Was besieged by agents of the rival Greek factions, all of whom wanted to recruit Byron for their own cause. The Ionian islands, of which Kefalonia is one, were under British rule until 1864. Byron spent £4,000 of his own money to refit the Greek fleet. When Byron travelled to the mainland of Greece on the night of 28 December 1823, Byron's ship was surprised by an Ottoman warship, which did not attack his ship, as
24716-667: Was born in Nemyriv (now in Vinnytsia Oblast , Ukraine ), in the Bratslavsky Uyezd of Podolia Governorate . His father Alexey Sergeyevich Nekrasov (1788–1862) was a descendant from Russian landed gentry , and an officer in the Imperial Russian Army . There is some uncertainty as to his mother's origins. According to Brokhaus & Efron (and this corresponds with Nekrasov's 1887 autobiographical notes), Alexandra Zakrzewska
24883-762: Was born on 22 January 1788, on Holles Street in London; his birthplace is now supposedly occupied by a branch of the department store John Lewis . His family in the English Midlands can be traced back without interruption to Ralph de Buran who arrived in England with William the Conqueror in the 11th century. His land holdings are listed in the Domesday Book . Byron was the only child of Captain John Byron (known as 'Jack') and his second wife, Catherine Gordon , heiress of
25050-469: Was captain of the 32-gun frigate HMS Tartar , but Bettesworth's death at the Battle of Alvøen in May 1808 made that impossible. From 1809 to 1811, Byron went on the Grand Tour , then a customary part of the education of young noblemen. He travelled with Hobhouse for the first year, and his entourage of servants included Byron's trustworthy valet, William Fletcher . Hobhouse and Byron often made Fletcher
25217-587: Was celebrated as the New Year festival from as early as the 13th century, despite the recorded (civil) year not incrementing until 25 March, but the "year starting 25th March was called the Civil or Legal Year, although the phrase Old Style was more commonly used". To reduce misunderstandings about the date, it was normal even in semi-official documents such as parish registers to place a statutory new-year heading after 24 March (for example "1661") and another heading from
25384-415: Was closed for good. In the end of 1866 Nekrasov purchased Otechestvennye Zapiski to become this publication's editor with Grigory Yeliseyev as his deputy (soon joined by Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin ) and previous owner Krayevsky as an administrator. Among the authors attracted to the new OZ were Alexander Ostrovsky and Gleb Uspensky . Dmitry Pisarev , put in charge of the literary criticism section,
25551-406: Was dealing with the real people's life, part two satirised 'the enemies of the people', part three revealed the 'friends of the people, real and false', and part four was a collection of lyric verses on love and friendship. The Part 3's centerpiece was Sasha (Саша, 1855), an ode to the new generation of politically minded Russians, which critics see as closely linked to Turgenev's Rudin . In 1861
25718-538: Was dismissed as 'bland and mediocre' by Vissarion Belinsky . It was Belinsky, though, who first recognized in Nekrasov the talent of a harsh and witty realist. "Do you know that you are indeed a poet, and the true one?" he exclaimed upon reading the poem, "On the Road" (В дороге, 1845), as Ivan Panayev recalled. According to Panayev, the autobiographical "Motherland" (Родина, 1846), banned by censors and published ten years later, "drove Belinsky totally crazy, he learnt it by heart and sent it to his Moscow friends". "When from
25885-615: Was dismissed by Alexey Galakhov and Vissarion Belinsky . Several months later Nekrasov retrieved and destroyed the unsold bulk of his first collection; some copies that survived have become a rarity since. Dreams and Sounds was indeed a patchy collection, but not such a disaster as it was purported to be and featured, albeit in embryonic state, all the major motifs of the later Nekrasov's poetry. Nekrasov's first literary mentor Fyodor Koni who edited theatre magazines ( Repertoire of Russian Theatre , then Pantheon , owned by Nikolai Polevoy ), helped him debut as literary critic. Soon he became
26052-478: Was forced to spend much of his time dealing with unruly Souliotes who demanded that Byron pay them the back-pay owed to them by the Greek government. Byron gave the Souliotes some £6,000. Byron was supposed to lead an attack on the Ottoman fortress of Navpaktos, whose Albanian garrison were unhappy due to arrears in pay, and who offered to put up only token resistance if Byron was willing to bribe them into surrendering. However, Ottoman commander Yussuf Pasha executed
26219-496: Was implemented in Russia on 14 February 1918 by dropping the Julian dates of 1–13 February 1918 , pursuant to a Sovnarkom decree signed 24 January 1918 (Julian) by Vladimir Lenin . The decree required that the Julian date was to be written in parentheses after the Gregorian date, until 1 July 1918. It is common in English-language publications to use the familiar Old Style or New Style terms to discuss events and personalities in other countries, especially with reference to
26386-477: Was later succeeded by Alexander Skabichevsky and Nikolai Mikhaylovsky . In 1869 OZ started publishing what turned out to be Nekrasov's most famous poem, Who Is Happy in Russia? (1863–1876). In 1873 a group of narodniks in Geneva printed the misleadingly titled, unauthorized Collection of New Poems and Songs by Nekrasov , featuring all the protest poems banned in Russia, a clear sign of what an inspiration now
26553-460: Was living in Genoa in 1823, when, growing bored with his life there, he accepted overtures for his support from representatives of the Greek independence movement from the Ottoman Empire . At first, Byron did not wish to leave his 22-year-old mistress, Countess Teresa Guiccioli, who had abandoned her husband to live with him. But ultimately Guiccioli's father, Count Gamba, was allowed to leave his exile in
26720-417: Was now pressing for Byron to break with Mavrokordatos in favour of backing the rival Androutsos. Androutsos, having won over Trelawny to his cause, was now anxious to persuade Byron to put his wealth behind his claim to be the leader of Greece. Byron wrote with disgust about how one of the Greek captains, former Klepht Georgios Karaiskakis , attacked Missolonghi on 3 April 1824 with some 150 men supported by
26887-617: Was orchestrated by Trelawny after Williams and Shelley drowned in a boating accident on 8 July 1822. His last Italian home was in Genoa . While living there he was accompanied by the Countess Guiccioli, and the Blessingtons. Lady Blessington based much of the material in her book, Conversations with Lord Byron , on the time spent together there. This book became an important biographical text about Byron's life just prior to his death. Byron
27054-830: Was posthumously labelled the "wicked" Lord Byron , died on 21 May 1798, the 10-year-old became the sixth Baron Byron of Rochdale and inherited the ancestral home, Newstead Abbey , in Nottinghamshire. His mother took him to England, but the Abbey was in a state of disrepair and, rather than live there, she decided to lease it to Lord Grey de Ruthyn , among others, during Byron's adolescence. Described as "a woman without judgment or self-command", Catherine either spoiled and indulged her son or vexed him with her capricious stubbornness. Her drinking disgusted him and he often mocked her for being short and corpulent, which made it difficult for her to catch him to discipline him. Byron had been born with
27221-525: Was returned for burial in England.) He journeyed through Belgium and continued up the Rhine river. In the summer of 1816 he settled at the Villa Diodati by Lake Geneva , Switzerland, with his personal physician, John William Polidori . There Byron befriended the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley and author Mary Godwin , Shelley's future wife. He was also joined by Mary's stepsister, Claire Clairmont , with whom he'd had an affair in London, which subsequently resulted in
27388-581: Was sent to Harrow School in 1801, and remained there until July 1805. An undistinguished student and an unskilled cricketer, he nevertheless represented the school during the first Eton v Harrow cricket match at Lord's in 1805. His lack of moderation was not restricted to physical exercise. Byron fell in love with Mary Chaworth, whom he met while at school, and she was the reason he refused to return to Harrow in September 1803. His mother wrote, "He has no indisposition that I know of but love, desperate love,
27555-744: Was sought after at every society venue, elected to several exclusive clubs, and frequented the most fashionable London drawing-rooms." During this period in England he produced many works, including The Giaour , The Bride of Abydos (1813), Parisina , and The Siege of Corinth (1815). On the initiative of the composer Isaac Nathan , he produced in 1814–1815 the Hebrew Melodies (including what became some of his best-known lyrics, such as " She Walks in Beauty " and " The Destruction of Sennacherib "). Involved at first in an affair with Lady Caroline Lamb (who called him "mad, bad and dangerous to know") and with other lovers and also pressed by debt, he began to seek
27722-574: Was the lucky day I count as my whole life's beginning," wrote Nekrasov later. The way Nekrasov moved into Panayev's house to complete a much-ridiculed love triangle seen by many as a take on the French-imported idea of the 'unfettered love' which young Russian radicals associated with the Socialist moral values. In reality the picture was more complicated. Ivan Panayev , a gifted writer and journalist, proved to be 'a family man of bachelor habits', and by
27889-422: Was to meet Ali Pasha of Ioannina and to see the country that was, until then, mostly unknown in Britain. In Athens in 1810, Byron wrote " Maid of Athens, ere we part " for a 12-year-old girl, Teresa Makri (1798–1875). Byron and Hobhouse made their way to Smyrna , where they cadged a ride to Constantinople on HMS Salsette . On 3 May 1810, while Salsette was anchored awaiting Ottoman permission to dock at
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