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61-552: He was regularly elected to serve as strategos (general) for Athens during the Peloponnesian War . He led several expeditions which achieved little. Nevertheless, he was largely responsible for the successful negotiations which led to the Peace of Nicias in 421 BC. Following the Peace, he objected to the ambitious plans of Alcibiades . Despite this, Nicias was appointed to participate in

122-587: A strategos , based on the various Thracian tribes and subtribes. At the time of the kingdom's annexation into the Roman Empire in 46 AD, there were 50 such districts, which were initially retained in the new Roman province , and only gradually fell out of use. It was not until c. 136 that the last of them were abolished. Under the Roman Republic and later through the Principate , Greek historians often used

183-434: A close eye on their strategoi . Like other magistrates, at the end of their term of office they were subject to euthyna and in addition there was a vote in the ekklesia during every prytany on the question whether they were performing their duties well. If the vote went against anyone, he was deposed and as a rule tried by jury. Pericles himself in 430 was removed from office as strategos and fined, and in 406 six of

244-493: A decade in the Peloponnesian War , both Athens and Sparta were exhausted. The Athenian general, Laches , with the support of Nicias, successfully moved in the Athenian Assembly in 423 BC for an armistice with Sparta to check the progress of Sparta's most effective general, Brasidas . However, the "Truce of Laches" had little impact on Brasidas and collapsed within a year. Brasidas proceeded to take Scione and Mende in

305-600: A few official duties, his legal or constitutional position is not very clear. This position was featured in Orson Scott Card 's novel Ender's Game . In the novel, the position of Strategos was charged with overall command of solar system defense. The Strategos, along with the positions of Polemarch (responsible for the International Fleet of space warships), and the Hegemon (the political leader of Earth, rather like

366-503: A richly dressed chorus walked across the boats. Nicias then provided a 10,000 drachma fund to the Delians so they would continue this event into the future, praying on his behalf. Such instructions were engraved onto a pillar. Nicias was Strategos in both 427 BC and 425 BC. During these years, Nicias was a very cautious general. He avoided engaging in any important military enterprise during his time as commander. According to Plutarch this

427-459: A statue of Athena and a shrine to Dionysus. Nicias' rise to prominence occurred while Pericles was at the head of the Athenian government. After Pericles' death in 429 BC, Nicias became an important Athenian politician with the aristocratic (conservative) party looking to him as their leader. As such, Nicias became the rival of Cleon 's popular or democratic party. Nicias gained popularity through

488-550: A stronger version of the Secretary-General of the United Nations ), was one of the three most powerful people alive. During an earlier war described in the novel, because of a belief in their inherent luck and brilliance—specifically, that no Jewish general had ever lost a war—all three positions were filled with Jewish people: an American Jew as Hegemon, an Israeli Jew as Strategos, and a Russian Jew as Polemarch. The defeat of

549-517: Is a half-Spartan, half-Macedonian Strategos, called Parmenion . The real life Parmenion was indeed a Strategos in Ancient Greece. Sphacteria Sphacteria ( Greek : Σφακτηρία - Sfaktiria ) also known as Sphagia (Σφαγία) is a small island at the entrance to the bay of Pylos in the Peloponnese , Greece . It was the site of three battles: This Peloponnese location article

610-736: Is called taxíarchos , after a táxis (in modern usage taxiarchía ), which means brigade. The ranks of antistrátigos and ypostrátigos are also used by the Hellenic Police (and the Greek Gendarmerie before), the Greek Fire Service and the Cypriot National Guard , which lack the grade of full stratigós . The oldest use of the term strategos in fiction may be found in the Callirhoe of Chariton of Aphrodisias which

671-599: Is dated in the first century A.D. There, Hermocrates is the "strategos" of Syracuse and the father of Callirhoe, living in the 5th century B.C. In fact, he was a historical person, the victor over the Athenians in 413 B.C., an event which stopped Athenian expansion to the West. His role as a character in the novel is rather limited. Although his position in Syracuse gives Callirhoe a background, and he gives consent to her marriage and fulfills

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732-504: Is no Athenian variant of them, as they are exclusively Spartan. They are powerful units found in forts and camps, second in power only to that of the Polemarch . They wield heavy blades and shield. In Xenoblade Chronicles 3 , Strategos is the name of an optional character class, given by the character Isurd. The main protagonist in David Gemmell 's Lion of Macedon and Dark Prince ,

793-662: Is used in Greek to mean military general . In the Hellenistic world and the Eastern Roman Empire the term was also used to describe a military governor. In the modern Hellenic Army , it is the highest officer rank. Strategos is a compound of two Greek words: stratos and agos . Stratos (στρατός) means "army", literally "that which is spread out", coming from the proto-Indo-European root *stere- "to spread". Agos (ἀγός) means "leader", from agein (ἄγειν) "to lead", from

854-447: The polemarchos , who had hitherto been the senior military commander. At the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC (according to Herodotus ) they decided strategy by majority vote, and each held the presidency in daily rotation. At this date the polemarchos had a casting vote , and one view among modern scholars is that he was the commander-in-chief; but from 486 onwards the polemarchos , like

915-639: The Boeotian League and the Thessalian League had different titles, Boeotarch and Tagus respectively. In the Hellenistic empires of the Diadochi , notably Lagid Egypt , for which most details are known, strategos became a gubernatorial office combining civil with military duties. In Egypt, the strategoi were originally responsible for the Greek military colonists ( klerouchoi ) established in

976-578: The Formics by half- Māori Mazer Rackham changed this position. Bean (Julian Delphiki) was given the title of Strategos by Peter Wiggin after he assumed the role of Hegemon. The prequel novel Earth Awakens establishes that the position of Strategos was named after the Strategoi, a group of international military commanders in charge of the Mobile Operations Police, which served as the model for

1037-457: The Roman period , where the epistrategos was subdivided in three to four smaller offices, and the procurator ad epistrategiam was placed in charge of the strategoi . The office largely retained its Ptolemaic functions and continued to be staffed by the Greek population of the country. The Odrysian kingdom of Thrace was also divided into strategiai ('generalships'), each headed by

1098-535: The ecclesia (the Athenian Assembly) and told them that the Assembly was haughty and had great ambitions. He urged them to renounce their diplomatic authority to represent Sparta, and instead allow him to assist them through his influence in Athenian politics. The representatives agreed and, impressed with Alcibiades, they distanced themselves from Nicias, despite him being sincere in wanting to reach an agreement with

1159-453: The monarchy , but has not been retained by the current Third Hellenic Republic . Under the monarchy, the rank of full stratigós in active service was reserved for the King and a few other members of the royal family, with very few retired career officers promoted to the rank as an honorary rank. Since c.  1970 , in accordance with NATO practice for the member nations' chiefs of defence ,

1220-501: The ostracism was never to be used again. In 415 BCE, delegates from the Sicilian city of Segesta ( Greek : Egesta) arrived in Athens to plead for the support of the Athenians in their war against Selinus . During the subsequent debates, Nicias vehemently opposed an Athenian intervention, using the argument that the campaign would be excessively costly if it was to be successful. He attacked

1281-555: The strategos epi tas symmorias ( στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τὰς συμμορίας ), responsible for the equipment of the warships. This was generalized in Hellenistic times, when each strategos was given specific duties. In the Roman Imperial period , the strategos epi ta hopla ( στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τὰ ὅπλα ) became the most prominent magistrate in Athens. The other generals had disappeared by the end of the first century BC. The Athenian people kept

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1342-473: The Athenian invasion of Sicily . He died at the Athenian siege of Syracuse. Nicias inherited from his father, Niceratus, a considerable fortune, which was invested mainly in the silver mines of Laurium . Xenophon wrote that Nicias had over 1,000 slaves working in the mines. Plutarch states that Nicias was generous with his wealth and that he spent his money on charitable activities in Athens and funding many religious festivals. Plutarch wrote that Nicias paid for

1403-503: The Athenians would release the prisoners taken at Sphacteria . Temples throughout Greece would be open to worshippers from all cities, and the oracle at Delphi would regain its autonomy. Athens could continue to collect tribute from the states as it had done so since the time of Aristides , but Athens could not force them to become allies. Athens also agreed to come to Sparta's aid if the Helots revolted. All of Sparta's allies agreed to sign

1464-459: The Athenians, who would condemn him if they were defeated. The Syracusans and Spartans under Hermocrates were able to trap the Athenians in the harbor and the Athenians sustained heavy losses in the second Battle of Syracuse . Demosthenes was ambushed by the Syracusans and was forced to surrender. Nicias was soon captured as well, and both were executed by allied forces despite Gylippus ’ orders to

1525-542: The Spartans. The next day, during the Assembly, Alcibiades asked them what powers Sparta had granted them to negotiate and they replied, as agreed, that they had not come with full and independent powers. This was in direct contradiction to what they had said the day before, and Alcibiades seized on this opportunity to denounce their character, cast suspicion on their aims, and destroy their credibility. This ploy increased Alcibiades' standing while embarrassing Nicias, and Alcibiades

1586-567: The battle, thereby removing the key members of the pro-war factions on both sides. After the battle, Nicias decided to seek peace between all the warring states. Nicias, and Pleistoanax , King of Sparta, negotiated in 421 BC the Peace of Nicias between Athens and Sparta, which brought a temporary end to the Peloponnesian War. The essence of the Peace of Nicias was a return to the pre-war situation: most wartime gains were to be returned. Most notably, Amphipolis would be returned to Athens, and

1647-501: The character and motives of Alcibiades, who was a strong supporter of the expedition. Alcibiades argued that a Sicilian campaign would bring riches to the city and expand the empire, just as the Persian Wars had. It was at Nicias’ suggestion that the size of the fleet was significantly increased from 60 ships to "140 triremes , 5,100 hoplites , and about 1,300 archers, slingers, and light armed men". It would seem that Nicias' intention

1708-406: The civil kritai ("judges"). Senior military leadership also devolved on the hands of a new class of officers titled doukes or katepano , who were placed in control of regional commands combining several themes. By the 13th century, the term strategos had reverted to the generic sense of "general", devoid of any specific technical meaning. The Byzantines also used a number of variations of

1769-423: The civil governance of the theme. The first themes were few and very large, and in the 8th century, the provincial strategoi were in constant antagonism with the emperor at Constantinople , rising often in rebellion against him. In response, the themes were progressively split up and the number of strategoi increased, diluting their power. This process was furthered by the conquests of the 10th century, which saw

1830-410: The civilian rhetores in the later 5th century, the strategoi were limited to their military duties. Originally, the strategoi were appointed ad hoc to various assignments. On campaign, several—usually up to three— strategoi might be placed jointly in command. Unlike other Greek states, where the nauarchos commanded the navy, the Athenian strategoi held command both at sea and on land. From

1891-483: The command of the Athenian generals, Demosthenes and Eurymedon , to assist Nicias and his forces with the siege of Syracuse. The Athenian army moved to capture Syracuse while the larger fleet of Athenian ships blocked the approach to the city from the sea. After some initial success, the Athenian troops became disorganized in the chaotic night operation and were thoroughly routed by Gylippus. The Athenian commanders Lamachus and Eurymedon were killed. Nicias, although ill,

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1952-411: The contrary. Most of the surviving Athenian soldiers were kept in the stone quarries near Syracuse (as there was no other room for them) where many died slowly of disease and starvation. Few survivors returned to Athens. Strategos Strategos , plural strategoi , Latinized strategus , ( Greek : στρατηγός, pl. στρατηγοί ; Doric Greek : στραταγός, stratagos ; meaning "army leader")

2013-491: The country. Quickly, they assumed a role in the administration alongside the nomarches , the governor of each of the country's nomes , and the oikonomos , in charge of fiscal affairs. Already by the time of Ptolemy II Philadelphus ( r.  283–246 BC), the strategos was the head of the provincial administration, while conversely his military role declined, as the klerouchoi were progressively demilitarized. Ptolemy V Epiphanes (r. 204–181 BC) established

2074-463: The eight strategoi who commanded the fleet at the Battle of Arginusae were all removed from office and condemned to death. The title of strategos appears for a number of other Greek states in the Classical period, but it is often unclear whether this refers to an actual office, or is used as a generic term for military commander. The strategos as an office is attested at least for Syracuse from

2135-620: The establishment of several new and smaller frontier themes: while in c. 842 the Taktikon Uspensky lists 18 strategoi , the Escorial Taktikon , written c. 971–975, lists almost 90. Throughout the middle Byzantine period (7th–12th centuries), the strategos of the Anatolic theme enjoyed precedence over the others and constituted one of the highest offices of the state, and one of the few from which eunuchs were specifically barred. At

2196-464: The hope of reaching Athens and freeing Spartan prisoners. Athens sent reinforcements under Nicias, who recaptured Mende. Cleon then effectively ended the truce between Athens and Sparta after he resolved to rescue the town of Amphipolis in Macedonia . However, through skilful generalship by Brasidas, the Spartans routed the Athenians at the Battle of Amphipolis . Both Brasidas and Cleon were killed in

2257-520: The late 5th century BC, Erythrae , and in the koinon of the Arcadians in the 360s BC. The title of strategos autokrator was also used for generals with broad powers, but the extent and nature of these powers was granted on an ad hoc basis. Thus Philip II of Macedon was elected as strategos autokrator (commander-in-chief with full powers) of the League of Corinth . Under Philip II of Macedon ,

2318-565: The loosest resemblance to what they originally meant. The position of 'Strategos' was also featured in the English version of the Sunrise anime The Vision of Escaflowne ; the character Folken occupied the position when he served the Zaibach empire. It is also used in the webcomic Ava's Demon for Strategos Six. The term is also used in the 2018 Ubisoft video game Assassin's Creed Odyssey . There

2379-409: The middle of the 4th century, the strategoi increasingly were given specific assignments, such as the strategos epi ten choran ( στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τὴν χώραν ) for the defence of Attica ; the strategos epi tous hoplitas ( στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τοὺς ὁπλίτας ), in charge of expeditions abroad; the two strategoi epi ton Peiraia ( στρατηγοὶ ἐπὶ τὸν Πειραιᾶ ), responsible for the war harbour of Piraeus ; and

2440-581: The newly created International Fleet. The first Strategos was Lieutenant Colonel Yulian Robinov of the Russian Ministry of Defense, who served as the chair of the Strategoi during the First Invasion. The dystopian slave-empire of the Draka , in the series of books by S. M. Stirling , also uses "Strategos" together with many other military ranks and terms drawn from Classical Antiquity , though often with only

2501-420: The number of the tribes was increased, the number of strategoi remained constant at ten. In the early part of the 5th century, several strategoi combined their military office with a political role, with Themistocles , Aristides , Cimon , or Pericles among the most notable; nevertheless their power derived not from their office, but from their own personal political charisma. As political power passed to

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2562-495: The office of epistrategos ( ἐπιστράτηγος , lit.   ' over-general ' ) to oversee the individual strategoi . The latter had become solely civilian officials, combining the role of the nomarches and the oikonomos , while the epistrategos retained powers of military command. In addition, hypostrategoi (sing. hypostrategos , ὐποστράτηγος , 'under-general') could be appointed as subordinates. The Ptolemaic administrative system survived into

2623-462: The other archontes , was appointed by lot. The annual election of the strategoi was held in the spring, and their term of office coincided with the ordinary Athenian year, from midsummer to midsummer. If a strategos died or was dismissed from office, a by-election might be held to replace him. The strict adherence to the principle of a strategos from each tribe lasted until c.  440 BC , after which two strategoi could be selected from

2684-417: The other. Hyperbolos tried to bring about the ostracism of one of this pair, but Nicias and Alcibiades combined their influence to induce the people to expel Hyperbolos instead. This incident reveals that Nicias and Alcibiades each commanded a personal following, whose votes were determined by the wishes of the leaders. Plutarch was of the view that the Athenians were so angered by this cynical manoeuvring that

2745-476: The peace, except for the Boeotians , Corinth , Elis , and Megara . While the Peace was being negotiated, Alcibiades became more influential in Athens. Alcibiades opposed the Peace and argued strongly for Athens to continue its war against Sparta and its allies. His first move was convincing Argos to form an alliance. Alcibiades first rose to prominence when he began advocating aggressive Athenian action after

2806-497: The pelasgic root *ag- "to drive, draw out or forth, move". In its most famous attestation, in Classical Athens , the office of strategos existed already in the 6th century BC, but it was only with the reforms of Cleisthenes in 501 BC that it assumed its most recognizable form: Cleisthenes instituted a board of ten strategoi who were elected annually, one from each tribe ( phyle ). The ten were of equal status, and replaced

2867-613: The rank is held in active service by the Chief of the General Staff of National Defence , when he is an Army officer, and is granted to the retiring Chief of the Hellenic Army General Staff . All but one of the other Greek general officer ranks are derivations of this word: antistrátigos (Antistrategos) and ypostrátigos (Hypostrategos), for Lieutenant General and Major General , respectively. A Brigadier General however

2928-629: The same time, the Eastern (Anatolian) themes were senior to the Western (European) ones. This distinction was especially marked in the pay of their presiding strategoi : while those of the Eastern themes received their salary directly from the state treasury, their counterparts in the West had to raise their—markedly lower—pay from the proceeds of their provinces. During the 11th century, the strategoi were gradually confined to their military duties, their fiscal and administrative responsibilities being taken over by

2989-410: The same tribe and another tribe be left without its own strategos , perhaps because no suitable candidate might be available. This system continued at least until c.  356/7 BC , but by the time Aristotle wrote his Constitution of the Athenians in c.  330 BC , the appointments were made without any reference to tribal affiliation. Hence, during the Hellenistic period , although

3050-542: The signing of the Peace of Nicias . Historians Arnold W. Gomme and Raphael Sealey believe, and Thucydides reports, that Alcibiades was offended that the Spartans had negotiated that treaty through Nicias and Laches , overlooking him on account of his youth. Disputes over the interpretation of the treaty led the Spartans to dispatch ambassadors to Athens with full powers to arrange all unsettled matters. The Athenians initially received these ambassadors well, but Alcibiades met with them in secret before they were to speak to

3111-669: The term strategos when referring to the Roman political/military office of praetor . Such a use can be found in the New Testament : Acts of the Apostles 16:20 refers to the magistrates of Philippi as strategoi . Correspondingly, antistrategos ( ἀντιστράτηγος , 'vice-general') was used to refer to the office of propraetor . The term continued in use in the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire . Initially,

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3172-510: The term hypostrategos ( ὐποστράτηγος , "under-general") denoted a second-in-command, effectively a lieutenant general . The city of Messina in Sicily also had a Strategos. In 1345 Orlando d'Aragona , illegitimate son of Frederick II of Sicily , held that position. In the modern Hellenic Army , a stratigós (the spelling remains στρατηγός ) is the highest officer rank. The superior rank of stratárchis ( Field Marshal ) existed under

3233-541: The term was used along with stratelates and, less often, stratopedarches , to render the supreme military office of magister militum (the general in command of a field army ), but could also be employed for the regional duces . In the 7th century, with the creation of the Theme system , their role changed: as the field armies were resettled and became the basis for the territorial themes, their generals too assumed new responsibilities, combining their military duties with

3294-481: The title strategos : strategetes (στρατηγέτης, "army leader") was an infrequently used alternative term; the term monostrategos (μονοστράτηγος, "single-general") designated a general placed in command over other strategoi or over the forces of more than one theme; the terms strategos autokrator , archistrategos ( ἀρχιστράτηγος , "chief-general") and protostrategos (πρωτοστράτηγος, "first-general") designated commanders vested with supreme authority; and

3355-513: The title of strategos was used for commanders on detached assignments as the quasi-representatives of the king, often with a title indicating their area of responsibility, e.g. strategos tes Europes ('general of Europe'). In several Greek city leagues the title strategos was reserved for the head of state. In the Aetolian League and the Achaean League , where the strategos

3416-524: The use of his wealth, according to the later historian Plutarch . He funded and organized choruses for Athenian dramas, sporting events, public exhibitions, and new or restored statues and temples. Plutarch specifically refers to an example of Nicias' generosity—his funding of the festival of Delos . Nicias funded the building of a bridge of boats between Delos and the Rhenean islands. The ships were decorated with garlands , gilding , and rich tapestry . Then

3477-642: Was annually elected, he was the eponymous chief of civil government and the supreme military commander at the same time. Two of the most prominent leaders re-elected many times to the office in the Achaean League, were Aratus of Sicyon and Philopoemen of Megalopolis . Strategoi are also reported in the Arcadian League , in the Epirote League and in the Acarnanian League , whereas the leaders of

3538-411: Was left in sole charge of the siege of Syracuse. Following this defeat in battle, Demosthenes suggested that the Athenians immediately give up the siege of Syracuse and return to Athens, where they were needed to defend against an Alcibiades’ inspired Spartan invasion of Attica. Nicias refused. According to Plutarch, Nicias explained that he preferred to be killed by the enemy, rather than being killed by

3599-511: Was subsequently appointed General. He took advantage of his increasing power to orchestrate the creation of an alliance between Argos , Mantinea , Elis , and other states in the Peloponnese, threatening Sparta's dominance in the region. This alliance, however, was ultimately defeated in 418 BC at the Battle of Mantinea . During the years 416 BC and 415 BC, a complex struggle took place between Hyperbolos on one side and Nicias and Alcibiades on

3660-402: Was to his benefit, as Nicias was able to avoid the worst of Athens' misfortunes, both military and political. Plutarch states that "Nicias declined all difficult and lengthy enterprises; if he took a command, he was for doing what was safe." Plutarch also noted that on the battlefield, Nicias was recognized as a fair combatant, fighting as courageously as any other soldier. After fighting for

3721-537: Was to shock the assembly with his high estimate of the forces required, but, instead of dissuading his fellow citizens, his analysis made them all the more eager. Against his wishes Nicias was appointed General along with Alcibiades and Lamachus , all three of whom were given full powers to do whatever was in the best interests (like what?) of Athens while in Sicily. In 414 BCE, Athens responded to appeals from Nicias by sending out 73 vessels and 5,000 soldiers to Sicily under

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