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127-448: Cowell was mostly self-taught and developed a unique musical language, often blending folk melodies , dissonant counterpoint , unconventional orchestration , and themes of Irish paganism . He was an early proponent and innovator of many modernist compositional techniques and sensibilities, many for the piano , including the string piano , prepared piano , tone clusters , and graphic notation . The Tides of Manaunaun , originally

254-515: A book or referenced in a reading list), YouTube , Udemy , Udacity and Khan Academy in particular, have developed as learning centers for many people to actively and freely learn together. Organizations like The Alliance for Self-Directed Education (ASDE) have been formed to publicize and provide guidance for self-directed education. Entrepreneurs like Henry Ford, Steve Jobs, and Bill Gates are considered influential self-teachers. The first philosophical claim supporting an autodidactic program to

381-532: A genius of the first order could speak thus" and, "Although the IQ is satisfactory, it is matched by scores of others. [...] But there is only one Henry." Clarissa's career as a progressive feminist writer did not earn her much money, and by the time they eventually returned to San Francisco, she had become terminally ill with breast cancer . They found their home destroyed from the prior earthquake, and looted by vandals after standing unoccupied for so long. Neighbors housed

508-554: A learning space , where one uses critical thinking to develop study skills within the broader learning environment until they've reached an academic comfort zone . The term has its roots in the Ancient Greek words αὐτός ( autós , lit.   ' self ' ) and διδακτικός ( didaktikos , lit.   ' teaching ' ). The related term didacticism defines an artistic philosophy of education . Various terms are used to describe self-education. One such

635-536: A political state starts to implement restrictions on the profession, there are issues related to the rights of established self-taught architects. In most countries the legislation includes a grandfather clause , authorising established self-taught architects to continue practicing. In the UK, the legislation allowed self-trained architects with two years of experience to register. In France, it allowed self-trained architects with five years of experience to register. In Belgium,

762-457: A subject -of-study's aboutness through self-study. This educative praxis (process) may involve or complement formal education . Formal education itself may have a hidden curriculum that requires self-study for the uninitiated. Generally, autodidacts are individuals who choose the subject they will study, their studying material, and the studying rhythm and time. Autodidacts may or may not have formal education, and their study may be either

889-549: A theosophical community in Southern California. Cowell joined the commune after befriending Irish-American poet and former Menlo Park resident John Osborne Varian . Cowell's connection to Irish folk music from his father meant he was instantly drawn to Varian, Irish nationalism , Celtic legends , and theosophy more broadly. Although the residents at Halcyon embraced a tolerant and communist -leaning lifestyle, their music preferences were considered quite conservative for

1016-629: A French mistress, the Cowells amicably divorced in 1903, by which time Henry was 5. He was thereafter raised in Chinatown by his mother, who imbued him with her strong anarchist and feminist beliefs. It was during this time he exhibited a strong defiance of gender stereotypes — he refused to have his hair cut, often wore women's clothing and adored the color pink while preferring to be called "Mrs. Jones". He also had further music exposures when engaging with his new Asian-American friends and their families in

1143-634: A broader theme in his music, as an unwitting extension of the Celtic Revival movement of the 20th century. Beginning in the early 1920s, Cowell toured widely in North America and Europe as a pianist, with the financial aid of his former tutors — playing his own experimental works, seminal explorations of atonality , polytonality , polyrhythms , and non-Western modes . He gave his debut recital in New York, toured through France and Germany , and became

1270-561: A clause, and many established and competent practitioners were stripped of their professional rights. In the Republic of Ireland, a group named " Architects' Alliance of Ireland " is defending the interests of long-established self-trained architects who were deprived of their rights to practice as per Part 3 of the Irish Building Control Act 2007. Theoretical research such as Architecture of Change, Sustainability and Humanity in

1397-581: A complement or an alternative to formal education. Many notable contributions have been made by autodidacts. The self-learning curriculum is infinite. One may seek out alternative pathways in education and use these to gain competency ; self-study may meet some prerequisite-curricula criteria for experiential education or apprenticeship . Self-education techniques used in self-study can include reading educational textbooks , watching educational videos and listening to educational audio recordings , or by visiting infoshops . One uses some space as

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1524-447: A consultant to Folkways Records for over a decade beginning in the early 1950s, writing liner notes and editing such collections as Music of the World's Peoples (1951–61) (he also hosted a radio program of the same name) and Primitive Music of the World (1962). In 1963 he recorded searching, vivid performances of twenty of his seminal piano pieces for a Folkways album. Perhaps liberated by

1651-452: A fairly high degree of intellect that varies according to each species. The same is true with arthropods . Evidence of a general factor of intelligence has been observed in non-human animals. First described in humans , the g factor has since been identified in a number of non-human species. Cognitive ability and intelligence cannot be measured using the same, largely verbally dependent, scales developed for humans. Instead, intelligence

1778-434: A fundamental quality possessed by every person is the theory of General Intelligence, or g factor . The g factor is a construct that summarizes the correlations observed between an individual's scores on a range of cognitive tests. Today, most psychologists agree that IQ measures at least some aspects of human intelligence, particularly the ability to thrive in an academic context. However, many psychologists question

1905-406: A given area. Furthermore, massive open online courses (MOOCs) make autodidacticism easier and thus more common. A 2016 Stack Overflow poll reported that due to the rise of autodidacticism, 69.1% of software developers appear to be self-taught. Some notable autodidacts can be broadly grouped in the following interdisciplinary areas: Most governments have compulsory education that may deny

2032-638: A given person's intellectual performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are attempts to clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena. Although considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such conceptualization has yet answered all the important questions, and none commands universal assent. Indeed, when two dozen prominent theorists were recently asked to define intelligence, they gave two dozen, somewhat different, definitions. Psychologists and learning researchers also have suggested definitions of intelligence such as

2159-484: A given skill or about a given topic, supporting one another by pooling resources, materials, and knowledge. Secular and modern societies have given foundations for new systems of education and new kinds of autodidacts. As Internet access has become more widespread the World Wide Web (explored using search engines such as Google ) in general, and websites such as Misplaced Pages (including parts of it that were included in

2286-619: A large palette of musical materials can be assembled." It would have a powerful effect on the American musical avant-garde for decades after. John Cage hand-copied the book and later studied Cowell, and Conlon Nancarrow would refer to it years later as having "the most influence of anything I've ever read in music." During his first tour in Europe, Cowell played at the famous Gewandhaus concert hall in Leipzig , Germany on October 15, 1923. He received

2413-453: A letter addressed to his friend on January 10, 1924, Cowell wrote, "I kicked up quite a stir in London and Berlin, and had some very good, and some very bad notices from both places." A new method advanced by Cowell during this period, in pieces such as Aeolian Harp (1923) and Fairy Answer (1929), was what he dubbed " string piano " — rather than using the keys to play, the pianist reaches inside

2540-540: A man in the front rows threaten to physically remove him from the stage if he did not stop. While playing the fourth movement Antinomy from his Five Encores to Dynamic Motion , he later recalled: [...] the audience was yelling and stamping and clapping and hissing until I could hardly hear myself. They stood up during most of the performance and got as near to me and the piano as they could. [...] Some of those who disapproved of my methods were so excited that they almost threatened me with physical violence. Those who liked

2667-611: A more traditional harmonic language. Many of his later works are based on American folk music , such as the series of eighteen Hymn and Fuguing Tune s (1943–64); folk music had certainly played a role in a number of Cowell's prewar compositions, but the provocative transformations that had been his signature were now largely abandoned. And, as Nancarrow observed, there were other consequences to Cowell's imprisonment: "Of course, after that, politically, he kept his mouth completely shut. He had been radical politically, too, before." No longer an artistic radical, Cowell nonetheless retained

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2794-582: A mystical mediation and communion with God. The hero rises from his initial state of tabula rasa to a mystical or direct experience of God after passing through the necessary natural experiences. The focal point of the story is that human reason, unaided by society and its conventions or by religion, can achieve scientific knowledge, preparing the way to the mystical or highest form of human knowledge. Commonly translated as "The Self-Taught Philosopher" or "The Improvement of Human Reason", Ibn-Tufayl's story Hayy Ibn-Yaqzan inspired debates about autodidacticism in

2921-454: A notoriously hostile reception during this concert, with some modern musicologists and historians referring to the event as a turning point in Cowell's performing career. As he progressed further into the concert, deliberately saving the loudest and most provocative pieces for last, the audience's reception became more and more audibly hostile. Gasps and screams were heard, and Cowell recalled hearing

3048-504: A number of Cowell's projects (including, years later, New Music itself). Many of the scores published in Cowell's journal were made even more widely available as performances of them were issued by the record label he established in 1934, New Music Recordings. The ultra-modernist movement had expanded its reach in 1928, when Cowell led a group that included Ruggles, Varèse, his fellow expatriate Carlos Salzedo, American composer Emerson Whithorne, and Mexican composer Carlos Chávez in founding

3175-515: A parole hearing, the Board of Pardons fixed his term of incarceration at the maximum possible sentence, a decade-and-a-half. Cowell ultimately spent four years in San Quentin State Prison , during a tumultuous era of the prison's history. Former warden Clinton Duffy would say it "had a reputation as one of the most primitive penitentiaries in the world." Physical abuse by wardens and officials

3302-432: A process outside conscious control. To interact with the environment, a framework has been identified to determine the components of any learning system: a reward function, incremental action value functions and action selection methods. Rewards work best in motivating learning when they are specifically chosen on an individual student basis. New knowledge must be incorporated into previously existing information as its value

3429-496: A progressive bent and continued to be a leader (along with Harrison and McPhee) in the incorporation of non-Western musical idioms, as in the Japanese-inflected Ongaku (1957), Symphony No. 13, " Madras " (1956–58), and Homage to Iran (1959). His most compelling, poignant songs date from this era, including Music I Heard (to a poem by Conrad Aiken ; 1961) and Firelight and Lamp (to a poem by Gene Baro; 1962). Cowell

3556-479: A prominent folk-music scholar who had been instrumental in winning his freedom. Cowell was granted a pardon from California governor Culbert Olson on December 28, 1942. Despite the pardon — which allowed him to work at the Office of War Information, creating radio programs for broadcast overseas — his arrest, incarceration, and attendant notoriety had a devastating effect on Cowell. Conlon Nancarrow , on meeting him for

3683-612: A range of historical fields from classical Islamic philosophy through Renaissance humanism and the European Enlightenment. In his book Reading Hayy Ibn-Yaqzan: a Cross-Cultural History of Autodidacticism, Avner Ben-Zaken showed how the text traveled from late medieval Andalusia to early modern Europe and demonstrated the intricate ways in which autodidacticism was contested in and adapted to diverse cultural settings. Autodidacticism apparently intertwined with struggles over Sufism in twelfth-century Marrakesh; controversies about

3810-574: A score's realization. One of his major chamber pieces, the Mosaic Quartet (String Quartet No. 3) (1935), is scored as a collection of five movements with no preordained sequence. Cowell was the central figure in a circle of avant-garde composers that included his good friends Carl Ruggles and Dane Rudhyar , as well as Leo Ornstein, John Becker, Colin McPhee , French expatriate Edgard Varèse , Ruth Crawford , whom he convinced Charles Seeger to take on as

3937-456: A second, more supportive group following. The two groups began shouting over and confronting one another, which eventually turned into a large physical confrontation and riot on the stage, after which the Leipzig police were promptly called. Cowell later recalled of the incident, "The police came onto the stage and arrested 20 young fellows, the audience being in an absolute state of hysteria — and I

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4064-423: A self-directed learning experience. Several studies show these programs function most effectively when the "teacher" or facilitator is a full owner of virtual space to encourage a broad range of experiences to come together in an online format. This allows self-directed learning to encompass both a chosen path of information inquiry, self-regulation methods and reflective discussion among experts as well as novices in

4191-461: A series of strokes and succumbing to the disease. In a career that spanned more than half a century, Cowell wrote in a very wide range of styles with his own idiosyncratic twist, including serialism , jazz , romanticism , neoclassicism , avant-garde , noise music , minimalism , etc. He is believed to have written over 940 compositions in whole, the majority for solo piano, although some have since been lost or destroyed. His wide musical catalog

4318-425: A small, crude cottage (later demolished in 1936) Harry had built on the outskirts of the city — where Henry would eventually be born. It was in his first few years that Henry had his first exposures to music. His parents often sang to him the folk songs of their native homelands, and he was soon able to recite them before he learned to speak. During occasional visits to downtown San Francisco, he also recalled hearing

4445-414: A somewhat obscure figure in the history of both American music and experimental music more broadly. In his time, opinions of his music and performances were incredibly mixed. Some reviewers and music critics of the time called him a "creative genius", who played "fantastically well", while others referred to his compositions as "lawless, without a trace of counterpoint ," and the "peak of atonal thought" ⁠—

4572-454: A student (Crawford and Seeger would eventually marry), and Johanna Beyer . Cowell and his circle were sometimes referred to in the press as "ultra-modernists," a label whose definition is flexible and origin unclear (it has also been applied to a few composers outside the immediate circle, such as George Antheil , and to some of its disciples, such as Nancarrow); Virgil Thomson styled them the "rhythmic research fellows." In 1925, Cowell organized

4699-476: A system where working is also learning, where self-education is associated with creativity and productivity within a working environment. While he was primarily interested in naval architecture , William Francis Gibbs learned his profession through his own study of battleships and ocean liners . Through his life he could be seen examining and changing the designs of ships that were already built, that is, until he started his firm Gibbs and Cox . Openness

4826-432: A theatrical prelude, is the best-known and most widely-performed of Cowell's tone cluster pieces for piano. Cowell was born on March 11, 1897, in rural Menlo Park, California , a suburb of San Francisco . His father, Henry Blackwood "Harry" Cowell, was a romantic poet and recent immigrant from County Clare , Ireland . His mother, Clara "Clarissa" Cowell (née Dixon), was a political activist , author , and native of

4953-579: A typical example of a logical absurdity . "Intelligence" has therefore become less common in English language philosophy, but it has later been taken up (with the scholastic theories that it now implies) in more contemporary psychology . There is controversy over how to define intelligence. Scholars describe its constituent abilities in various ways, and differ in the degree to which they conceive of intelligence as quantifiable. A consensus report called Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns , published in 1995 by

5080-463: Is heutagogy , coined in 2000 by Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon of Southern Cross University in Australia; others are self-directed learning and self-determined learning . In the heutagogy paradigm, a learner should be at the centre of their own learning. A truly self-determined learning approach also sees the heutagogic learner exploring different approaches to knowledge in order to learn; there

5207-472: Is an element of experimentation underpinned by a personal curiosity. Andragogy "strive[s] for autonomy and self-direction in learning", while Heutagogy "identif[ies] the potential to learn from novel experiences as a matter of course [...] manage their own learning". Ubuntugogy is a type of cosmopolitanism that has a collectivist ethics of awareness concerning the African diaspora . Autodidacticism

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5334-450: Is different from learning . Learning refers to the act of retaining facts and information or abilities and being able to recall them for future use. Intelligence, on the other hand, is the cognitive ability of someone to perform these and other processes. There have been various attempts to quantify intelligence via psychometric testing. Prominent among these are the various Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests, which were first developed in

5461-409: Is important to our mental health and has ties to social intelligence. Social intelligence is the ability to understand the social cues and motivations of others and oneself in social situations. It is thought to be distinct to other types of intelligence, but has relations to emotional intelligence. Social intelligence has coincided with other studies that focus on how we make judgements of others,

5588-782: Is measured using a variety of interactive and observational tools focusing on innovation , habit reversal, social learning , and responses to novelty . Studies have shown that g is responsible for 47% of the individual variance in cognitive ability measures in primates and between 55% and 60% of the variance in mice (Locurto, Locurto). These values are similar to the accepted variance in IQ explained by g in humans (40–50%). It has been argued that plants should also be classified as intelligent based on their ability to sense and model external and internal environments and adjust their morphology , physiology and phenotype accordingly to ensure self-preservation and reproduction. A counter argument

5715-453: Is sometimes a complement of modern formal education. As a complement to formal education, students would be encouraged to do more independent work. The Industrial Revolution created a new situation for self-directed learners. Before the twentieth century, only a small minority of people received an advanced academic education. As stated by Joseph Whitworth in his influential report on industry dated from 1853, literacy rates were higher in

5842-457: Is sometimes defined as the "capacity to learn how to carry out a huge range of tasks". Mathematician Olle Häggström defines intelligence in terms of "optimization power", an agent's capacity for efficient cross-domain optimization of the world according to the agent's preferences, or more simply the ability to "steer the future into regions of possibility ranked high in a preference ordering". In this optimization framework, Deep Blue has

5969-478: Is still considered a useful resource for composers, ninety years after its publication — having been championed by his colleagues and subsequent students. Autodidact Autodidacticism (also autodidactism ) or self-education (also self-learning , self-study and self-teaching ) is the practice of education without the guidance of schoolmasters (i.e., teachers , professors , institutions ). Autodidacts are self-taught humans who learn

6096-788: Is that intelligence is commonly understood to involve the creation and use of persistent memories as opposed to computation that does not involve learning. If this is accepted as definitive of intelligence, then it includes the artificial intelligence of robots capable of "machine learning", but excludes those purely autonomic sense-reaction responses that can be observed in many plants. Plants are not limited to automated sensory-motor responses, however, they are capable of discriminating positive and negative experiences and of "learning" (registering memories) from their past experiences. They are also capable of communication, accurately computing their circumstances, using sophisticated cost–benefit analysis and taking tightly controlled actions to mitigate and control

6223-656: Is the largest predictor of self-directed learning out of the Big Five personality traits , though, in a study, personality only explained 10% of the variance in self-directed learning. The role of self-directed learning continues to be investigated in learning approaches, along with other important goals of education, such as content knowledge, epistemic practices and collaboration. As colleges and universities offer distance learning degree programs and secondary schools provide cyber school options for K–12 students, technology provides numerous resources that enable individuals to have

6350-450: Is thought to be the ability to convey emotion to others in an understandable way as well as to read the emotions of others accurately. Some theories imply that a heightened emotional intelligence could also lead to faster generating and processing of emotions in addition to the accuracy. In addition, higher emotional intelligence is thought to help us manage emotions, which is beneficial for our problem-solving skills. Emotional intelligence

6477-559: Is to be assessed. Ultimately, these scaffolding techniques, as described by Vygotsky (1978) and problem solving methods are a result of dynamic decision making. In his book Deschooling Society , philosopher Ivan Illich strongly criticized 20th-century educational culture and the institutionalization of knowledge and learning - arguing that institutional schooling as such is an irretrievably flawed model of education - advocating instead ad-hoc co-operative networks through which autodidacts could find others interested in teaching themselves

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6604-424: Is typically divided into three periods – an experimental and wild early period, a more refined and technical middle period, and a neo-romantic late period. Henry Cowell's music covers a wider range in both expression and technique than that of any other living composer. His experiments begun three decades ago in rhythm, in harmony, and in instrumental sonorities were considered then by many to be wild. Today they are

6731-627: The American Plains , who was 46 when she gave birth to Henry in addition to being over ten years older than her husband. Clarissa's ancestry was similarly Scotch and Irish, although her paternal lineage had been in America for centuries, with figures including astronomer Jeremiah Dixon , one of the surveyors behind the American Mason–Dixon line . After meeting for the first time, the two quickly wed and undertook bohemian lifestyles, residing in

6858-531: The Middle Ages , the word intellectus became the scholarly technical term for understanding and a translation for the Greek philosophical term nous . This term, however, was strongly linked to the metaphysical and cosmological theories of teleological scholasticism , including theories of the immortality of the soul, and the concept of the active intellect (also known as the active intelligence). This approach to

6985-950: The New Music period of his life. In November 2009, a two-day event celebrating Cowell's music was held in the San Francisco Bay Area near his birthplace, Menlo Park, by Other Minds . Many of the techniques Cowell either invented or pioneered are still relevant to today's music. Tone clusters in music have since been utilized by prominent classical composers such as Béla Bartók , George Crumb , Olivier Messiaen , Karlheinz Stockhausen , Iannis Xenakis , Einojuhani Rautavaara , and Krzysztof Penderecki , among others. Experimental and progressive rock keyboardists like Keith Emerson , Rick Wright , and John Cale similarly employed string piano techniques and clusters in their performances, as did free jazz pianists Dave Burrell , Cecil Taylor , Sun Ra , etc. His 1930 book New Musical Resources

7112-566: The Paris premiere of Stravinsky's Rite of Spring a decade earlier, and the performances of Italian futurist Luigi Russolo . Cowell's interest in harmonic rhythm , as discussed in New Musical Resources , led him in 1930 to commission Léon Theremin to invent the Rhythmicon , or Polyrhythmophone, a transposable keyboard instrument capable of playing notes in periodic rhythms proportional to

7239-491: The United States . However, even in the U.S., most children were not completing high school . High school education was necessary to become a teacher. In modern times, a larger percentage of those completing high school also attended college, usually to pursue a professional degree, such as law or medicine, or a divinity degree. Collegiate teaching was based on the classics (Latin, philosophy, ancient history, theology) until

7366-672: The canon in the first movement of the Romantic has different note-lengths for each voice." In 1919, Cowell began writing New Musical Resources , which was finally published after extensive revision in 1930. In the book, Cowell discussed the variety of innovative rhythmic and harmonic concepts he used in his compositions (and others that were still entirely speculative). He talks about harmonic series and "the influence [it] has exerted on music throughout its history, how many musical materials of all ages are related to it, and how, by various means of applying its principles in many different manners,

7493-461: The cognition of non-human animals . Some researchers have suggested that plants exhibit forms of intelligence, though this remains controversial. Intelligence in computers or other machines is called artificial intelligence . The word intelligence derives from the Latin nouns intelligentia or intellēctus , which in turn stem from the verb intelligere , to comprehend or perceive. In

7620-402: The overtone series of a chosen fundamental pitch . The world's first electronic rhythm machine , with a photoreceptor-based sound production system proposed by Cowell (not a theremin -like system, as some sources incorrectly state), it could produce up to sixteen different rhythmic patterns simultaneously, complete with optional syncopation . Cowell wrote several original compositions for

7747-504: The right to education on the basis of discrimination ; state school teachers may unwittingly indoctrinate students into the ideology of the oppressive community and government via a hidden curriculum . Intelligence Intelligence has been defined in many ways: the capacity for abstraction , logic , understanding , self-awareness , learning , emotional knowledge , reasoning , planning , creativity , critical thinking , and problem-solving . It can be described as

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7874-414: The validity of IQ tests as a measure of intelligence as a whole. There is debate about the heritability of IQ , that is, what proportion of differences in IQ test performance between individuals are explained by genetic or environmental factors. The scientific consensus is that genetics does not explain average differences in IQ test performance between racial groups. Emotional intelligence

8001-494: The Bible of the young and still, to the conservatives, "advanced."... No other composer of our time has produced a body of works so radical and so normal, so penetrating and so comprehensive. Add to this massive production his long and influential career as a pedagogue, and Henry Cowell's achievement becomes impressive indeed. There is no other quite like it. To be both fecund and right is given to few.— Virgil Thomson , 1953 Cowell remains

8128-487: The Board of Scientific Affairs of the American Psychological Association , states: Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although these individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely consistent:

8255-465: The Built Environment or older studies such as Vers une Architecture from Le Corbusier describe the practice of architecture as an environment changing with new technologies, sciences, and legislation. All architects must be autodidacts to keep up to date with new standards , regulations , or methods . Self-taught architects such as Eileen Gray , Luis Barragán , and many others, created

8382-555: The French-born Cuban Amadeo Roldán . Its next concert, in April 1930, focused on the U.S. ultra-modernists, with works by Cowell, Crawford, Ives, Rudhyar, and others such as Antheil, Henry Brant , and Vivian Fine . Over the next four years, Nicolas Slonimsky conducted concerts sponsored by the association in New York, across Europe, and, in 1933, Cuba. Cowell himself had performed there in 1930 and met with Caturla, whom he

8509-587: The Institute of Musical Art (later the Juilliard School of Music ) in New York City. Cowell only studied there for three months (October 1916 to January 1917) before dropping out, believing the musical atmosphere was too stifling and uninspiring. It was in New York, however, where he met fellow modernist piano composer Leo Ornstein . The two would collaborate in later decades. In February 1917, Cowell enlisted in

8636-511: The New Music Society, one of whose primary activities was staging concerts of their works, along with those of artistic allies such as Wallingford Riegger and Arnold Schoenberg — the latter of whom would later ask Cowell to play for his composition class during one of his European tours. Less than two years later, Cowell founded the periodical New Music Quarterly , which would publish many significant new scores under his editorship, both by

8763-601: The Oriental-toned Pulse (1939) and the memorably sepulchral Return (1939). He also continued his experiments in aleatory music: for all three movements of the Amerind Suite (1939), he wrote five versions, each more difficult than the last. Interpreters of the piece are invited to simultaneously perform two or even three versions of the same movement on multiple pianos. In the Ritournelle (Larghetto and Trio) (1939) for

8890-577: The Pan-American Association of Composers, dedicated to promoting composers from around the Western Hemisphere and creating a community among them that would transcend national lines. Its inaugural concert, held in New York City in March 1929, featured exclusively Latin American music, including works by Chávez, Brazilian composer Heitor Villa-Lobos , Cuban composer Alejandro García Caturla , and

9017-462: The United States began to increase sharply in the early twentieth century. This phenomenon was seemingly related to increasing mechanization displacing child labor . The automated glass bottle-making machine is said to have done more for education than child labor laws because boys were no longer needed to assist. However, the number of boys employed in this particular industry was not that large; it

9144-419: The ability to perceive or infer information ; and to retain it as knowledge to be applied to adaptive behaviors within an environment or context. The term rose to prominence during the early 1900s. Most psychologists believe that intelligence can be divided into various domains or competencies. Intelligence has been long-studied in humans , and across numerous disciplines. It has also been observed in

9271-429: The accuracy with which we do so, and why people would be viewed as having positive or negative social character . There is debate as to whether or not these studies and social intelligence come from the same theories or if there is a distinction between them, and they are generally thought to be of two different schools of thought . Moral intelligence is the capacity to understand right from wrong and to behave based on

9398-424: The age of fifteen, purchased a used upright piano for $ 60 ($ 1,772 in 2022). The piano significantly aided his compositional output — by 1914, he had written over 100 pieces, including his first surviving piece for solo piano, the repetitive Anger Dance (originally Mad Dance ). He would begin experimenting in earnest, often by slamming the keyboard with all his strength, and rolling his mother's darning egg across

9525-466: The area. As a form of discovery learning , students in today's classrooms are being provided with more opportunity to "experience and interact" with knowledge, which has its roots in autodidacticism. Successful self-teaching can require self-discipline and reflective capability. Some research suggests that the ability to regulate one's own learning may need to be modeled to some students so that they become active learners, while others learn dynamically via

9652-660: The army to avoid being drafted in World War I and seeing direct military combat. He served in the ambulance training facility at Camp Crane , Allentown, Pennsylvania , where he had a short stint as the assistant band director for a few months. In October 1918, Cowell was transferred to Fort Ontario in Oswego , New York . He was transferred just before an outbreak of the Spanish flu killed thirteen men at Camp Crane. Cowell soon returned to California, where he had become involved with Halcyon ,

9779-521: The cognitive abilities to learn , form concepts , understand , and reason , including the capacities to recognize patterns , innovate, plan , solve problems , and employ language to communicate . These cognitive abilities can be organized into frameworks like fluid vs. crystallized and the Unified Cattell-Horn-Carroll model, which contains abilities like fluid reasoning, perceptual speed, verbal abilities, and others. Intelligence

9906-580: The dance piece Marriage at the Eiffel Tower , he explored what he called an "elastic" form. The twenty-four measures of the Larghetto and the eight of the Trio are each modular; though Cowell offers some suggestions, any hypothetically may be included or not and played once or repeatedly, allowing the piece to stretch or contract at the performers' will — the practical goal being to give a choreographer freedom to adjust

10033-870: The diverse environmental stressors. Scholars studying artificial intelligence have proposed definitions of intelligence that include the intelligence demonstrated by machines. Some of these definitions are meant to be general enough to encompass human and other animal intelligence as well. An intelligent agent can be defined as a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success. Kaplan and Haenlein define artificial intelligence as "a system's ability to correctly interpret external data, to learn from such data, and to use those learnings to achieve specific goals and tasks through flexible adaptation". Progress in artificial intelligence can be demonstrated in benchmarks ranging from games to practical tasks such as protein folding . Existing AI lags humans in terms of general intelligence, which

10160-400: The early 20th century to screen children for intellectual disability . Over time, IQ tests became more pervasive, being used to screen immigrants, military recruits, and job applicants. As the tests became more popular, belief that IQ tests measure a fundamental and unchanging attribute that all humans possess became widespread. An influential theory that promoted the idea that IQ measures

10287-677: The early nineteenth century. There were few if any institutions of higher learning offering studies in engineering or science before 1800. Institutions such as the Royal Society did much to promote scientific learning, including public lectures. In England, there were also itinerant lecturers offering their service, typically for a fee. Prior to the nineteenth century, there were many important inventors working as millwrights or mechanics who, typically, had received an elementary education and served an apprenticeship. Mechanics, instrument makers and surveyors had various mathematics training. James Watt

10414-542: The event, "[...] such a meaningless strumming and such a repulsive hacking of the keyboard not only with hands, but also even with fists, forearms and elbows, that one must call it a coarse obscenity — to put it mildly — to offer such a cacophony to the public, who in the end took it as a joke." The Leipziger Neuste-Nachrichten additionally referred to his techniques as "musical grotesqueries". Comparisons were later made between this event and other riotous performances by experimental and futurist composers in Europe, including

10541-663: The field of music." A prolific composer of songs (he would write over 180 during his career), Cowell returned in 1930–31 to Aeolian Harp , adapting it as the accompaniment to a vocal setting of a poem by his father, How Old Is Song? He built on his substantial oeuvre of chamber music, with pieces such as the Adagio for Cello and Thunder Stick (1924) that explored unusual instrumentation and others that were even more progressive: Six Casual Developments (1933), for clarinet and piano, sounds like something Jimmy Giuffre would compose thirty years later. His Ostinato Pianissimo (1934) placed him in

10668-628: The first American musician to visit the Soviet Union , with many of these concerts sparking large uproars and protests. It was on one of these tours that in 1923, his friend Richard Buhlig introduced Cowell to young pianist Grete Sultan in Berlin. They worked closely together — an aspect vital to Sultan's personal and artistic development. Cowell later made such an impression with his tone cluster technique that prominent European composers Béla Bartók and Alban Berg requested his permission to adopt it. In

10795-442: The first time in 1947, reported, "The impression I got was that he was a terrified person, with a feeling that 'they're going to get him.'" He was often pestered by reporters to comment on the circumstances of his crimes and arrest, but often refused to do so. The experience took a lasting toll on his music: Cowell's compositional output became strikingly more conservative soon after his release from San Quentin, with simpler rhythms and

10922-617: The following: "Intelligence is a force, F, that acts so as to maximize future freedom of action. It acts to maximize future freedom of action, or keep options open, with some strength T, with the diversity of possible accessible futures, S, up to some future time horizon, τ. In short, intelligence doesn't like to get trapped". Human intelligence is the intellectual power of humans, which is marked by complex cognitive feats and high levels of motivation and self-awareness . Intelligence enables humans to remember descriptions of things and use those descriptions in future behaviors. It gives humans

11049-630: The great mass was never so wholly apparent to me before." Cowell's cause had been taken up by composers and musicians around the country, one of the most vocal of which was his former teacher and collaborator Charles Seeger. However, a few, including Ives, temporarily broke contact with him. Cowell was eventually paroled in 1940; he relocated to Westchester County, New York , while under supervision, and resided with Australian ex-patriate composer and friend Percy Grainger and his wife in White Plains . The following year Cowell married Sidney Hawkins Robertson ,

11176-423: The importance of learning through text in our own personal lives and in our culture, it is perhaps surprising how utterly dismissive we tend to be of it. It is sometimes derided as being merely "book knowledge", and having it is being "book smart". In contrast, knowledge acquired through direct experience and apprenticeship is called "street knowledge", and having it is being "street smart". Although humans have been

11303-501: The instrument and plucks, sweeps, and otherwise manipulates the strings directly. Cowell's endeavors with string piano techniques were the primary inspiration for John Cage's development of the prepared piano . In early chamber music pieces, such as Quartet Romantic (1915–17) and Quartet Euphometric (1916–19 listen ), Cowell pioneered a compositional approach he called "rhythm-harmony": "Both quartets are polyphonic , and each melodic strand has its own rhythm," he explained. "Even

11430-613: The instrument, including an orchestrated concerto, and Theremin built two more models. Soon, however, the Rhythmicon would be virtually forgotten, remaining so until the 1960s, when progressive pop music producer Joe Meek experimented with its rhythmic concept. Cowell pursued a radical compositional approach through the mid-1930s, with solo piano pieces remaining at the heart of his output — important works from this era include The Banshee (1925) , requiring numerous playing methods such as pizzicato and longitudinal sweeping and scraping of

11557-534: The international press was more to emphasize his unconventional and violent performance tendencies, with headlines like those from The Daily Mail : "Piano Played with Elbow. Fingers too Limited for Mr. Cowell. Result Like a Nursery in Rebellion." and The Daily Express : "Elbow Pianist. A Wonderful Test for the Instrument." He was considered a highly respected educator and promoter of classical music in America during

11684-424: The language-using Kanzi ) and other great apes , dolphins , elephants and to some extent parrots , rats and ravens . Cephalopod intelligence provides an important comparative study. Cephalopods appear to exhibit characteristics of significant intelligence, yet their nervous systems differ radically from those of backboned animals. Vertebrates such as mammals , birds , reptiles and fish have shown

11811-430: The latter of which Cowell sarcastically used as a promotion in a following tour. Some of the more matter-of-fact viewpoints were offered by critics such as Evelyn Wells of The San Francisco Call and Post , "Cowell's compositions are like the better order of paintings, one must stand far back, at respectful distances, before order results from chaos, and the colorful motes of sound resolve into one theme." The intent of

11938-468: The law allowed experienced self-trained architects in practice to register. In Italy, it allowed self-trained architects with 10 years of experience to register. In The Netherlands, the " wet op de architectentitel van 7 juli 1987 " along with additional procedures, allowed architects with 10 years of experience and architects aged 40 years old or over, with 5 years of experience, to access the register. However, other sovereign states chose to omit such

12065-505: The length and character of a dance piece without the usual constraints imposed by a prewritten musical composition. Cowell had contributed to the Eiffel Tower project at the behest of Cage, who was not alone in lending support to his friend and former teacher. He and other gay composers such as Aaron Copland and protégé Lou Harrison easily empathized about his persecution. Harrison said in 1937, "[the] prevailing lack of balanced perception in

12192-565: The methods and theory behind his tone clusters, which later became the draft for his book New Musical Resources . Still a teenager, Cowell wrote the piano piece Dynamic Motion (1916), his first important work to explore the possibilities of the tone cluster ( listen ). It requires the performer to use both forearms to play massive secundal chords and calls for keys to be held down without sounding to extend its dissonant cluster overtones via sympathetic resonance . After two years at Berkeley, Seeger recommended that Cowell study at

12319-574: The music of Caturla and Roldán, with their proudly African-based rhythms, and of Chávez, whose work often involved instruments and themes of Mexico's indigenous peoples , was natural for Cowell. Growing up on the West Coast, he had been exposed to a great deal of what is now known as " world music "; along with Irish airs and dances, he encountered music from China, Japan, and Tahiti. These early experiences helped form his unusually eclectic musical outlook, exemplified by his famous statement, "I want to live in

12446-503: The music restrained them. During this excitement, a gentleman jumped up from one of the front rows and shook his fist at Cowell and said, "Halten Sie uns für Idioten in Deutschland?" ("Do you take us for idiots in Germany?"), while others threw the concert's program notes and other paraphernalia at his face. About a minute later, an angry group of audience members clambered onto the stage, with

12573-573: The neighborhood. After the 1906 San Francisco Earthquake , much of the Cowells' possessions and memorabilia were destroyed in the ensuing fire, after which Henry and his mother fled the state of California . With no permanent place to live, Henry resided with his mother's family and friends around the American Plains and Midwest, later in New York City . School teachers of this time often took note of his "musical genius" and eccentric personality that

12700-571: The passage of time and his own seniority, in his final years Cowell again produced a number of individualistic works, such as Thesis (Symphony No. 15; 1960) and 26 Simultaneous Mosaics (1963). In October 1964, Cowell was diagnosed with colorectal cancer after a doctor discovered an abundance of polyps in his system during an exam. It was decided that it could not be operated on, as it went undiagnosed for too long and almost completely engulfed his large intestine . Cowell died on December 10, 1965, in his Shady , Woodstock, New York , home, following

12827-431: The power to "steer a chessboard's future into a subspace of possibility which it labels as 'winning', despite attempts by Garry Kasparov to steer the future elsewhere." Hutter and Legg , after surveying the literature, define intelligence as "an agent's ability to achieve goals in a wide range of environments". While cognitive ability is sometimes measured as a one-dimensional parameter, it could also be represented as

12954-438: The primary focus of intelligence researchers, scientists have also attempted to investigate animal intelligence, or more broadly, animal cognition. These researchers are interested in studying both mental ability in a particular species , and comparing abilities between species. They study various measures of problem solving, as well as numerical and verbal reasoning abilities. Some challenges include defining intelligence so it has

13081-578: The role of philosophy in pedagogy in fourteenth-century Barcelona ; quarrels concerning astrology in Renaissance Florence in which Pico della Mirandola pleads for autodidacticism against the strong authority of intellectual establishment notions of predestination; and debates pertaining to experimentalism in seventeenth-century Oxford. Pleas for autodidacticism echoed not only within close philosophical discussions; they surfaced in struggles for control between individuals and establishments. In

13208-407: The same meaning across species, and operationalizing a measure that accurately compares mental ability across species and contexts. Wolfgang Köhler 's research on the intelligence of apes is an example of research in this area, as is Stanley Coren's book, The Intelligence of Dogs . Non-human animals particularly noted and studied for their intelligence include chimpanzees , bonobos (notably

13335-660: The story of Black American self-education, Heather Andrea Williams presents a historical account to examine Black American's relationship to literacy during slavery , the Civil War and the first decades of freedom. Many of the personal accounts tell of individuals who have had to teach themselves due to racial discrimination in education. Many successful and influential architects , such as Mies van der Rohe , Frank Lloyd Wright , Violet-Le-Duc , Tadao Ando were self-taught. There are very few countries allowing autodidacticism in architecture today. The practice of architecture or

13462-468: The strings ( listen ), and the manic, cluster-filled Tiger (1930), inspired by William Blake 's famous poem . Much of Cowell's public reputation continued to be based on his trademark pianistic technique: a critic for the San Francisco News , writing in 1932, referred to Cowell's "famous 'tone clusters,' probably the most startling and original contribution any American has yet contributed to

13589-458: The strings. In the same year, at the age of 17, Cowell enrolled at the University of California, Berkeley , studying composition with renowned American musicologist and composer Charles Seeger . Seeger later made note of their, "concurrent but entirely separate pursuit[s] of free composition and academic disciplines." After showing Seeger the drafts of his music, he encouraged Cowell to write about

13716-714: The study of nature and God was in the philosophical novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Alive son of the Vigilant), whose titular hero is considered the archetypal autodidact. The story is a medieval autodidactic utopia, a philosophical treatise in a literary form, which was written by the Andalusian philosopher Ibn Tufail in the 1160s in Marrakesh . It is a story about a feral boy, an autodidact prodigy who masters nature through instruments and reason, discovers laws of nature by practical exploration and experiments, and gains summum bonum through

13843-481: The study of nature was strongly rejected by early modern philosophers such as Francis Bacon , Thomas Hobbes , John Locke , and David Hume , all of whom preferred "understanding" (in place of " intellectus " or "intelligence") in their English philosophical works. Hobbes for example, in his Latin De Corpore , used " intellectus intelligit ", translated in the English version as "the understanding understandeth", as

13970-493: The time. Varian described it as "sangtified raggtime [sic]" and, "rehymnified hymn music [sic]." Cowell managed to convince members to embrace his music, and wrote incidental and programmatic music to be performed at Halcyon. In 1917, Cowell wrote the music for Varian's stage production The Building of Banba ; the prelude he composed, The Tides of Manaunaun , with its rich, evocative clusters, would become Cowell's most famous and widely performed work. Irish symbology later became

14097-547: The traditional music of Indonesia , China , Japan , and others. The family was gifted small instruments by friends and neighbors, including a mandolin harp and a quarter-size violin , the latter of which the young Henry took an interest in, making it his instrument of choice for a few years. His mother eventually decided to stop both the private lessons and his public school career after Cowell had severe bouts of Sydenham's chorea and scarlet fever — from which he eventually recovered. Due to an ongoing affair between Harry and

14224-567: The two as the then thirteen-year-old Henry restored it. In order to keep them financially afloat, he took up small jobs such as picking and selling flower bulbs at the Menlo Park Train Station , janitorial work, farming , and cleaning a neighbor's chicken houses. While receiving no formal musical education (and little schooling of any kind beyond his mother's home tutelage ), he began to compose short classical pieces in his mid-teens. Cowell saved what money he could from odd jobs, and at

14351-555: The ultra-modernists and many other composers, including Ernst Bacon, Paul Bowles , Aaron Copland Otto Luening and Gerald Strang . Before the publication of the first issue, he solicited contributions from a then-obscure composer who became one of his closest friends, Charles Ives . Major scores by Ives, including the Comedy from his fourth symphony , Fourth of July , 34 Songs , and 19 Songs , would receive their first publication in New Music ; in turn, Ives provided financial support to

14478-400: The use of the title "architect", are now protected in most countries . Self-taught architects have generally studied and qualified in other fields such as engineering or arts and crafts . Jean Prouvé was first a structural engineer. Le Corbusier had an academic qualification in decorative arts. Tadao Ando started his career as a draftsman, and Eileen Gray studied fine arts . When

14605-617: The value that is believed to be right. It is considered a distinct form of intelligence, independent to both emotional and cognitive intelligence. Concepts of "book smarts" and "street smart" are contrasting views based on the premise that some people have knowledge gained through academic study, but may lack the experience to sensibly apply that knowledge, while others have knowledge gained through practical experience, but may lack accurate information usually gained through study by which to effectively apply that knowledge. Artificial intelligence researcher Hector Levesque has noted that: Given

14732-681: The vanguard of those writing original scores for percussion ensemble. He created forceful large-ensemble pieces during this period as well, such as the Concerto for Piano and Orchestra (1928) — with its three movements, "Polyharmony," "Tone Cluster," and "Counter Rhythm" ( listen ) — and the Sinfonietta (1928), whose scherzo Anton Webern conducted in Vienna. In the early 1930s, Cowell began to delve seriously into aleatoric procedures, creating opportunities for performers to determine primary elements of

14859-799: The whole world of music." He went on to investigate Indian classical music and, in the late 1920s, began teaching a course, "Music of the World's Peoples," at the New School for Social Research in New York and elsewhere — Harrison's tutelage under Cowell would begin when he enrolled in a version of the course in San Francisco . In 1931 a Guggenheim fellowship enabled Cowell to go to Berlin to study comparative musicology (the predecessor to ethnomusicology ) with Erich von Hornbostel . He studied Carnatic theory and gamelan , as well, with leading instructors from South India (P. Sambamoorthy), Java (Raden Mas Jodjhana), and Bali (Ramaleislan). On May 23, 1936, Cowell

14986-417: The young men were typically referred to as "boys" at the time, incorrect assumptions were made by sensationalist newspapers and many in the public, severely damaging what public reputation he had along with the revelation of his homosexual activities. While jailed and awaiting a court hearing, he wrote a full confession accompanied by a request for leniency on the basis that "he was not exclusively homosexual but

15113-567: Was a surveyor and instrument maker and is described as being "largely self-educated". Watt, like some other autodidacts of the time, became a Fellow of the Royal Society and a member of the Lunar Society . In the eighteenth century these societies often gave public lectures and were instrumental in teaching chemistry and other sciences with industrial applications which were neglected by traditional universities. Academies also arose to provide scientific and technical training. Years of schooling in

15240-493: Was arrested in Menlo Park, California on a "morals" charge for allegedly having oral sex with a seventeen-year-old male. After initially denying the allegation, under further questioning he admitted not only to the act but to additional sex acts with the teenager and other young men in the area, including during his time at Halcyon more than a decade earlier. He was never accused by authorities of pedophilia or molestation, but since

15367-528: Was common for so-called "bad behavior", often via whipping and starvation . During his incarceration, several leading psychologists evaluated the composer according to now-disregarded theories of homosexuality, and later expressed faith in the idea of possibly "rehabilitating" the composer. Despite this time, Cowell taught music to fellow inmates, directed the prison band, and continued to write at his customary prolific pace, producing around sixty compositions. These included two major pieces for percussion ensemble:

15494-598: Was elected to the American Institute of Arts and Letters in 1951. Having revived his friendship with Ives, Cowell, in collaboration with his wife, wrote the first major study of Ives's music and provided crucial support to Harrison as his former pupil championed the Ives's rediscovery. Cowell resumed teaching — Burt Bacharach , Dominick Argento , J. H. Kwabena Nketia , and Irwin Swack were among his postwar students — and served as

15621-401: Was hindered by "extreme poverty ". Lewis Terman , an eventual pioneer of the IQ test , met with the young Henry during the family's brief stay in rural Iowa . He would posit that Cowell had, "language almost literary. No college professor of English could have improved upon it. And it was so natural. His conversation breathes intelligence . I had the feeling that no unschooled boy who was not

15748-442: Was in fact in love with a woman he hoped to marry". Suggestive letters and other artifacts were received from both Cowell and the young men who spoke to police, which were later used by the prosecution in his trial. Cowell ultimately decided to overrule his attorneys and plead guilty, for reasons unknown. Probation was denied by Judge Maxwell McNutt, and Cowell received the standard sentence of one to fifteen years. In August 1937, after

15875-541: Was mechanization in several sectors of industry that displaced child labor toward education. For males in the U.S. born 1886–90, years of school averaged 7.86, while for those born in 1926–30, years of school averaged 11.46. One of the most recent trends in education is that the classroom environment should cater towards students' individual needs, goals, and interests. This model adopts the idea of inquiry-based learning where students are presented with scenarios to identify their own research, questions and knowledge regarding

16002-580: Was publishing in New Music . Cowell continued to work on both his behalf and Roldán's, whose Rítmica No. 5 (1930) was the first free-standing piece of Western classical music written specifically for percussion ensemble. During this era, Cowell also spread the ultra-modernists' experimental creed as a highly regarded teacher of composition and theory — among his many students were George Gershwin , Lou Harrison , who said he thought of Cowell as "the mentor of mentors," and John Cage, who proclaimed Cowell "the open sesame for new music in America." Encouragement of

16129-478: Was still playing!" As he had no severe physical injuries, the Leipzig authorities decided not to admit him to the local medical facility. After the concert had concluded and the stage was cleared, he was noticeably shaken and jittery as he took his bow for the remaining audience and then left the hall. In the days following, the local Leipzig press was incredibly harsh regarding Cowell, the performance, and his musical style more broadly. The Leipziger Abendpost called

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