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111-563: In neidan , the human body becomes a cauldron (or "ding" ) in which the Three Treasures of Jing ("Essence"), Qi ("Breath") and Shen ("Spirit") are cultivated for the purpose of improving physical, emotional and mental health, and ultimately returning to the primordial unity of the Tao , i.e., attaining Taoist Immortality . It is believed the Xiuzhen Tu is such a cultivation map. In China, it

222-471: A newly developing human is typically referred to as an embryo until the ninth week after conception, and subsequently referred to as a fetus . Catherine Despeux explains how "womb respiration" or "womb breathing" can alternately translate taixi ( 胎息 ), which refers to "a manner of respiration that does not involve the nose or the mouth but rather the pores of the skin." When adepts are said to "breathe like an embryo", this expression may also denote

333-533: A underwater breath-holding anecdote about his granduncle Ge Xuan (164–244), who was prominent in early Daoism and the first recipient of the Lingbao sacred scriptures. Ge Hong seems to have understood taixi as the culmination of long-term daily practice of xingqi "pneuma circulation" (Campany 2002: 365). First, he describes xingqi as a potent panacea and gives a detailed description of timing taixi breath-holding by counting heartbeats. By practising

444-410: A "large" datong ( 大通 ) was 120 [~ 6 minutes]. Joseph Needham imagines that "serious and painful effort was required", and quotes Sun Simiao 's c. 652 Qianjin yaofang ( 千金要方 , "Essential Formulas [Worth] a Thousand Pieces of Gold"): "'At the end of 300 respiratory cycles [~ 15 minutes], the ears have no hearing left, the eyes see no more, the mind can no longer think; then one must stop holding

555-665: A Daoist adept knows "the great age attained by tortoises and cranes, he imitates their calisthenics so as to augment his own life span", and quotes a xianjing ( 仙經 , "Transcendent Classic") poem: "He who swallows Cinnabar [alchemy] and keeps the One / Will only finish in Heaven / He who makes the Essence return and practises Embryonic Respiration / Will have longevity unlimited" (tr. Maspero 1981: 325; cf. Ware 1966: 54). In Chapter 8 ("Resolving Hesitations"), Ge Hong praises embryonic breathing and tells

666-464: A breathing technique but rather a method of swallowing saliva. However, it could be that the swallowing technique described here constitutes only 'embryonic eating,' and that there was an accompanying breathing technique that constituted embryonic breathing but is not described." (2015: 254). Li Xian 's c. 675 commentary to the Book of Later Han notes, "To practice breath holding and gulping it down [ 習閉氣而吞之 ]

777-491: A context about how few people can successfully practice the art of breath circulation, Ge again mentions his granduncle. "My ancestral uncle [Ge Xuan], whenever he was overcome by wine in the heat of the summer would incontinently retire to the bottom of a deep pool and stay there till the evening—this was because he could retain his breath [ biqi 閉炁 ] and respire like a foetus in the womb [ 胎息 ]." (tr. Needham 1983: 142; cf. Ware 1966: 140 "to hoard his breaths and breathe like

888-437: A disease that does not involve an injury, gather up your mind and go to a room where you can be at ease. Take off your clothes and lie down on your back on the bed and hold your fists tight. Tap your teeth (often) and burn incense. After you have swallowed 36 swallowings (and done the corresponding blockings) of the breath, the breath in the elixir field will exceed what is normally there. Use your mind to guide it to where you feel

999-481: A fetus"). The fetal condition "was considered worth reverting to because doing so was thought to constitute a reversal of the aging process and a restoration to the condition that existed when your vital forces had not yet begun to be expended." (Eskildsen 2015: 255). Taixi also occurs in one of the exoteric Baopuzi Waipian ( 外篇 , "Outer Chapters"): "It is like 'embryonic-breathing-in-which-the-Mystery-is-preserved' [ 譬存玄胎息 ]. In deep breathing we throw out

1110-517: A foetus [ 胎息 ] will respire [ xuxi 噓吸 ] as if still in the womb [ 胞胎之中 ], without using nose or mouth; thus will the Tao be achieved. When one first begins to learn how to circulate the [ qi ], one must inhale through the nose and then close up that breath. While it is thus hidden within, one counts up to 120 heart-beats [~ 90 seconds], and then exhales it (gently) through the mouth. Neither during exhalation nor inhalation should one hear with one's ears

1221-570: A healthy body and longevity , which are the main goals of internal alchemy (Ching 1996, 395). Jing "essence" referring to the primordial energies of the physical body. Based upon the idea that death and illness are caused by over straining and stressing of one's mind and body leads to the depletion of one's jing , Daoist internal alchemy claims that preserving jing allows one to have a long, healthy and happy life, known classically as longevity in Chinese thought, if not immortality . Qi or ch'i

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1332-552: A leather bag and piped onto a surface through some kind of very fine tube made of metal or bone. This technique would have been quite intensive, as it was difficult to maintain constant pressure on the bag, which was needed to create even lines; however, because of certain types of décor, such as thunder or quill patterns, this would have been the most likely technique used to create low relief design in this process. Several common themes in decoration span across all types of vessel forms, from hu to pan , and guang to jia . Arguably,

1443-510: A lid and two fancy facing handles. They are one of the most important shapes used in Chinese ritual bronzes . They were made in two shapes: round vessels with three legs and rectangular ones with four, the latter often called fāng dǐng ( Chinese : 方鼎 ; lit. 'square ding'). They were used for cooking , storage, and ritual offerings to the gods or to ancestors . The earliest recovered examples are pre- Shang ceramic ding at

1554-410: A meditative practice, and therefore turning it from an external to an internal art. Internal alchemy focuses upon transforming the bodily sanbao "three treasures", which are the essential energies sustaining human life: According to the 13th-century Book of Balance and Harmony : When the "three treasures" are internally maintained, along with a balance of yin and yang, it is possible to achieve

1665-450: A model and then transferred to the outer mold layer, but that the décor was carved into and built up on the outer, shell layer as the first step. Décor was added in a variety of ways. The first was by simply carving and incising lines into the clay mold layer. The second was to stamp or press an image, inscription, or design into the wet clay. The third was a technique called tube lining. In this technique, soft, liquid clay would be put into

1776-429: A negative of this is made by adding a layer of wet clay to the completed model and allowed to harden to the point where it can still be cut away from it. The model would then be shaved down to form the core, which would eventually become the empty interior of the completed vessel. In the final step, the negative layer was replaced around the core; these were held apart by small bronze and copper pieces called chaplets until

1887-402: A peaceful dwelling in the depths of the mountains, with enough numinous elixirs and medicine to carry out my plans. Thus, by the aids of external elixirs [ waidan ] I shall be able to cultivate the elixir within [ neidan ]. Others believed that neidan first occurred in the biographies of Deng Yuzhi 鄧郁之 (fl. 483–493) and Su Yuanming 蘇元明 (fl. c.  600 ). However, the authenticity of

1998-513: A person "comes from the Cinnabar Field , his breathing is deep; what it nourishes is distant, what it emits is thick. In ordinary people, […] it "rises from the liver and the diaphragm: they breathe like monkeys and puff like rats." (tr. Maspero 1981: 465) The c. 745 Yanling xiansheng ji xinjiu fuqi jing ( 延陵先生集新舊服氣經 , "Scripture on New and Old Methods for the Ingestion of Breath Collected by

2109-434: A specific technique, and by Song Emperor Zhenzong 's reign (997–1022), the term designates a group of techniques, expressed in specific alchemical language. It is sometimes transliterated using the older Wade–Giles system as Neitan in literature on western Alchemy. Neidan is part of the Chinese alchemical meditative tradition that is said to have been separated into internal and external ( Waidan ) at some point during

2220-677: A spiritually perfected doppelganger of oneself. Taixi ( 胎息 ) is a linguistic compound of two common Chinese words: Chinese tāi ( 胎 ) can ambiguously be translated as English embryo , fetus , or womb . The Chinese lexicon differentiates this gestational semantic field with words such as bāo ( 胞 , "womb; placenta"), pēi ( 胚 , "embryo"), pēitāi ( 胚胎 , "embryo; beginning of things"), tāi'ér ( 胎兒 , "fetus; embryo"), and zǐgōng ( 子宮 , literally "child palace", "uterus; womb"). Chinese taixi ( 胎息 ) has various English translations. Although these translations consistently use embryonic rather than fetal ,

2331-475: A womb or exit the body, is contingent upon the purity or turbidity of the qi itself, which the text does not explain. The Daoist Shangqing School patriarch Sima Chengzhen ( 司馬承禎 , 647-735) composed the 730 Fuqi jingyi lun ( 服氣精義論 , "Essay on the Essential Meaning of Breath Ingestion"), which presented integrated outlines of health practices, with both traditional Chinese physical techniques and

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2442-480: Is 11 minutes and 35 seconds ( Stéphane Mifsud , 8 June 2009). According to the French sinologist Henri Maspero , Daoists believed that learning to hold one's breath for a long time extends the opportunity to feed upon it. Commenting on the legend that Liu Gen ( 劉根 ) supposedly held his breath for three days before becoming a transcendent , "But what a long effort it takes to attain such mastery! The practise of 'holding

2553-511: Is an important form of practice for most schools of Taoism . The Chinese compound nèidān combines the common word nèi 內 meaning "inside; inner; internal" with dān 丹 "cinnabar; vermillion; elixir; alchemy". The antonym of nèi is wài 外 "outside; exterior; external", and nèidān "internal elixir / alchemy" was coined from the earlier complementary term wàidān 外丹 "external elixir / alchemy". Traditional Chinese medical alchemical texts and sources ordinarily call neidan

2664-516: Is called taixi , to practice coughing up saliva and swallowing it [ 習嗽舌下泉而咽之 ] is called taishi ." Both "embryonic fluid" ( taijin 胎津 ) and "pure water of the jade lake" ( yuchi qingshui 玉池清水 ) refer to saliva, which is called the "water of life" and is supposed to prolong life. The Han people already practiced the method of swallowing saliva to improve the physique and nurture life (Jia 2015: 15). The Daoist scholar Ge Hong 's 318 CE Baopuzi ("Master Who Embraces Simplicity")

2775-460: Is closely associated with digestion and circulation. An adept who practices Embryonic Respiration "in a perfect fashion has no need for ordinary food" because they have "realized the Taoist ideal of 'Feeding upon Breath'" ( shiqi 食氣 or fuqi 服氣 ). Feeding upon Breath could never have been more than a temporary diet; "for if it had been followed too long, death—or, if one wishes to express it in

2886-468: Is defined as the "natural energy of the universe" and manifests in everyone and everything. By means of internal alchemy, Taoists strive to maintain a positive free flow of qi through the body in paths or meridians moving to each individual organ. as Stagnation of qi is a primary or root cause of many health conditions in traditional Chinese thinking. Healing practices such as acupuncture , Tui na , cupping and herbal medicines are believed to open up

2997-464: Is described as "one of the major sources on breath control practices in pre-Tang China" (Sailey 1978: 341). Taixi is mentioned in three of the esoteric Neipian ( 內篇 , "Inner Chapters"). Chapter 19 ("A Taoist Library") is a bibliography that mentions a Taixi jing ( 胎息經 , Classic of Embryonic Breathing), which is the name of the possibly related received text (discussed below). Chapter 3 ("Rejoinder to Popular Conceptions") remarks that since

3108-495: Is found in the Daozang ( Taoist Canon ), the largest collection of Taoist texts. Neidan shares a significant portion of its notions and methods with classical Chinese medicine, fangshi and with other bodies of practices, such as meditation and the methods for "nourishing life" ( yangsheng ). What distinguishes alchemy from these related traditions is its unique view of the elixir as a material or immaterial entity that represents

3219-471: Is in reverting to the origin [ fanben 反本 ] and regenerating the primary vitalities [ huanyuan 還元 ] that old age can be chased away, and that one can return to the state of the foetus. Truly there is a point in this (exercise). Softly, gently, without holding the breath, that is the way to bring about the germination of the Tao of immortality. (Needham 1983: 145-146; cf. Maspero 1981: 459-460) This all fitted together very reasonably. Understanding that

3330-530: Is not a late development in the breathing exercises, but has always existed under different names" (1993: 242). As Daoist adepts began to practice taixi embryonic breathing, "things got to be horribly varied and complicated", they developed myriad, and sometimes contradictory, techniques such as the "holding of breath, slowing of breathing, swallowing of air, swallowing of saliva, mental guiding of qi , and inner visualization of internal organs, colored qi or deities." (Eskildsen 2015: 256). The origins of

3441-439: Is now increasingly supplemented by the phrase [ yanqi 咽氣 , with yan "swallow; gulp"], a more specific term for swallowing; this was one process and the circulation was another. (Needham 1983: 147-148) In what Joseph Needham called "an important turning-point" in the history of taxi embryonic breathing, Henri Maspero revealed that "a great change which came over respiratory technology (if we might so call it)" towards

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3552-435: Is often associated with power and dominion over the land. Therefore, the ding is often used as an implicit symbolism for power. The term "inquiring of the ding" ( Chinese : 問鼎 ; pinyin : wèn dǐng ) is often used interchangeably with the quest for power. In the early Bronze Age of China, the use of wine and food vessels served a religious purpose. While ding were the most important food vessels, wine vessels were

3663-419: Is reached, an old man will be able to grow younger daily, returning [ huan 還 ] to youth by one day every day. (tr. Needham 1983: 143-144) Compare Ware's translation, "The most important part of it is simply to breathe like a fetus. He who succeeds in doing this will do his breathing as though in the womb, without using nose or mouth, and for him the divine Process has been achieved." (1966: 138). Second, in

3774-437: Is said to have circulated pneumas, abstained from grains, subsisted on his saliva, practiced embryonic breathing and interior vision" [ 專行服氣斷谷, 為吞吐之事, 胎息內視 ] (tr. Campany 2002: 541). The hagiography for Huang Hua ( 皇化 ) or Jiuling zi ( 九靈子 ) says "He obtained Ways of turning back the years, banishing aging, and fetal breathing [ 得還年卻老, 胎息內視之要 ]" (tr. Campany 2002: 365). The c. 4th-5th century CE Taipingjing ("Classic of

3885-409: Is the longest one and of central importance to embryonic breathing. Adepts begin by absorbing the above Taiqing xingqi fu ( 太清行氣符 , Great Clarity Talisman for [Facilitating] Qi Circulation), which enables one to gradually abstain from eating grains. They then ingest qi by visualizing the first rays of the rising sun, guide it through the body and viscera, until they can permanently "retain

3996-652: Is the true road. (tr. Eskildsen 2015: 258; cf. Huang 1990: 41-44) Compare Frederic H. Balfour 's early English translation: "The Embryo is formed by the concretion of concealed Breath; and the Embryo being brought into existence, the Breath begins to move in Respiration. The entrance of Breath into the body is Life; the departure of the Spirit from the external form is Death." (1884: 63). The Tang Taixi jing zhu ( 胎息經注 , "Commentary on

4107-431: The fangshi ("esoteric master") Wang Zhen ( 王真 , fl. c. 200) says that he looked under fifty years old when he was over a hundred. It records that Wang and He Mengjie ( 郝孟節 ) were both from Shangdang (modern-day south and east Shanxi Province). Wang Zhen practiced "embryonic breathing [ 胎息 ], 'embryonic eating [ 胎食 ],' subsistence on his own saliva [ 嗽舌下泉咽之 ], and incessant bedchamber arts"; while He Mengjie had

4218-524: The qi ". Sima Chengzhen points out that when one begins abstaining from foods and survives only by ingesting qi breath (and repeats this warning for taking drugs), the immediate effect will be undergoing a phase of weakening and decay, but eventually strength returns all illnesses vanish. Only after nine years of further practice will an adept rightfully be called a zhenren ("Realized One; Perfected Person"). (Englehardt 1989: 273). The Zhuzhen shengtai shenyong jue ( 諸真聖胎神用訣 , "Instructions of

4329-421: The waiqi ( 外氣 , "external qi of the air'"), Tang adepts would meditatively visualize manipulating and reshaping the neiqi ( 內氣 , "internal qi of one’s organs"), attempting to recreate their yuanqi ( 元氣 , "original breath; primary vitality") received at birth and gradually used up in the course of life, which may be conserved but never replenished. Xue Yannian ( 薛延年 , 1252-1313) quotes

4440-705: The Erlitou site, but they are better known from the Chinese Bronze Age , particularly after the Zhou deemphasized the ritual use of huangjiu alcohol practiced by the Shang kings . Under the Zhou, the ding and the privilege to perform the associated rituals became symbols of authority. The number of permitted ding varied according to one's rank in the Chinese nobility : the Nine Ding of

4551-709: The Tang dynasty . The Cantong qi ( The Kinship of the Three ) is the earliest known book on theoretical alchemy in China; it was written by the alchemist Wei Boyang in 142 AD. This text influenced the formation of n eidan , whose earliest existing texts date from the first half of the 8th century. The authors of several neidan articles refer to their teachings as the Way of the Golden Elixir ( jindan zhi dao ). The majority of Chinese alchemical sources

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4662-583: The Zhou kings were a symbol of their rule over all China but were lost by the first emperor , Shi Huangdi in the late 3rd century BCE. Subsequently, imperial authority was represented by the Heirloom Seal of the Realm , carved out of the sacred Heshibi ; it was lost at some point during the Five Dynasties after the collapse of the Tang . In Chinese history and culture, possession of one or more ancient ding

4773-462: The history of Daoism , Tang dynasty (618-907) Daoist Internal Alchemists fundamentally changed the nature and understanding of embryonic breathing from the ancient theory of waiqi ( 外氣 , "external qi of the air; external breathing") to the new theory of neiqi ( 內氣 , "internal qi of one's organs; internal breathing"). Instead of inhaling and retaining waiqi air, adepts would circulate and remold visceral neiqi energy, which

4884-496: The imperial Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE), having been passed through various royal dynasties and feudal states. Ding vessels were used throughout the Shang and Zhou dynasties and later time periods. Round, tripod ding vessels are emblematic of the Shang and Western and Eastern Zhou periods. Western Zhou ding vessels departed from the Shang aesthetic in terms of their oddly-proportioned legs that were deliberately emphasized through

4995-505: The jīndān dào 金丹道 or Way of the Golden Elixir. In Modern Standard Chinese usage, the term nèidān shù 內丹術 (with 術 "art; skill; technique; method") refers generally to internal alchemical practices for longevity by maintaining good health, and the prevention of pain and suffering. The date for the earliest use of the term neidan is uncertain. 內丹 or neidan had been mentioned in 灵剑子 by Xu Xun 许逊 in Jin dynasty (266–420) , but on

5106-633: The qi meridians throughout the body so that the qi can flow freely. Keeping qi in balance and flowing throughout the body promotes health; imbalance can lead to sickness. Shen is the original spirit of the body. To have good Shen is to look vital and glowing on the surface of the skin and the gloss and spark seen in the eyes. It is the hue on the leaf of a tree. Taoists try to become conscious of shen through contemplative practices, including meditation. Ding (vessel) Ding ( Chinese : 鼎 ; pinyin : dǐng ) are prehistoric and ancient Chinese cauldrons standing upon legs with

5217-570: The "Ritual Revolution." This theory suggests that because there was a change in decor as well as the types and variations of vessels found in tombs, their function shifted from solely religious to a more secular one. Instead of sacrificing food to appease ancestors, the Zhou used ding to show off the status of the deceased to both the living and spirits. Ding symbolized status. For example, emperors were buried with nine ding, feudal lords with seven, ministers with five, and scholar-bureaucrats with three or one. The vessels served as symbols of authority for

5328-402: The "capacity to go without eating and shut up his breath [ 結氣不息 ]." (tr. Campany 2002: 344; cf. Dewoskin 1983: 88, "methods of fetal breathing and fetal eating"; and Despeux 2008: 953, "were able to practice embryonic breathing and feed themselves like an embryo"). From this description of Wang Zhen, Eskildsen says, "it would appear as though the embryonic breathing method was perhaps not actually

5439-505: The Buddhist-inspired practice of guan ( 觀 , "insight meditation"), as preliminaries for attaining and realizing the Dao (Engelhardt 2000: 80). The text is divided into nine sections ( lun 論 , "essays; discourses"), describing the consecutive steps toward attaining purification and longevity. Some editions only have the first two (Baldrian-Hussein 2004d: 374). The second section

5550-673: The Cyclical Elixir ( huandan 還丹 ), the Golden Elixir ( jindan 金丹 ), the Great Elixir ( dadan 大丹 ), the Interior and Exterior Medicines ( nei/waiyao 内外藥 ), the Inner and Outer Counterparts ( nei/waixiang 内外象 ), and the Yin Elixir and Yang Elixir ( yindan 陰丹 and yangdan 陽丹 ). Based upon the textual evidence, Farzeen Baldrian-Hussein concludes that in early texts, neidan refers to

5661-592: The Elder of Yanling", below) defines the technique: "One must carefully pull the breath while inspiring and expiring so that the Original Breath ( yuanqi 元氣 ) does not exit the body. Thus, the outer and inner breaths do not mix and one achieves embryonic breathing." According to the Taixi jing ( 胎息經 , "Scripture of Embryonic Breathing", below) "the embryo is formed within the stored breath, and breathing occurs from within

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5772-488: The Exalted Jade Sovereign's Scripture on Embryonic Breathing), is a brief text of 88 characters that dates from circa 755 (Needham 1983: 385). The Baopuzi above lists a book titled Taixi jing , but it is not mentioned in the bibliographic section of the 636 Book of Sui . The womb is formed from within the subdued qi . The qi breathes from the inside of where there is a womb. When qi enters

5883-521: The Faith, not in order to enjoy worldly happiness. I pray that all the saints and sages will come to my help, so that I may get some good magic mushrooms [ zhi 芝 ], and numinous elixirs [ shendan 神丹 ], enabling me to cure all illnesses and to stop both hunger and thirst. In this way I shall be able to practice continually the way of the Sutras and to engage in the several forms of meditations. I shall hope to find

5994-606: The Great Peace") biography of the Daoist Zhenren Zhou Yishan ( 周義山 ) says: "Every morning after dawn, when the sun was rising, he stood up straight facing due east, and having rinsed out his mouth, swallowed (much) saliva, then he absorbed the qi [ fuqi 服氣 ] more than a hundred times. This being done he turned towards the sun and saluted it twice. And every morning he repeated these procedures." (tr. Needham 1983: 143). The air "must be inhaled slowly through

6105-725: The Perfected Person on the Divine Operation of the Sacred Embryo") text attributes embryonic breathing methods to divinities like Laozi and Lishan Laomu ; to semilegendary characters such as Bodhidharma , Zhang Guolao , Guiguzi , and Liu Haichan ; to historical characters like Ge Hong and Chen Tuan ; and to female adepts like He Xiangu (Despeux 2008: 954). The preface to the Tang-era Taixi koujue ( 胎息口訣 , "Oral Explanation of Embryonic Respiration") abundantly explains

6216-603: The Scripture of Embryonic Breathing") is found in three versions of the Daoist Canon , two of which are accompanied by a commentary, and one attributes the text to Huanzhen Xiansheng ( 幻真先生 , late 9th century?) (Eskildsen 2015: 257). The Taixi jing zhu explains that practicing Embryonic Breathing will enable one to keep the yuanqi Primordial Qi, have shen gods enter the body, and thus to attain immortality (Baldrian-Hussein 2004a: 367). For instance, this commentary explains

6327-593: The Son of Heaven's illustriously fine beneficence, herewith making for my august deceased-father Duke Jiu this offertory caldron; may Captain Wang for ten thousand years have sons' sons and grandsons' grandsons eternally to treasure and use it." One of the many types of bronze vessels, the ding vessel had its origins in standard ceramic vessels with the shape of a tripod. A bronze ding vessel from Panlongcheng, Huangpi, Hubei, for example, inherits its shape from Neolithic pottery. Perhaps

6438-470: The Subtlety of Embryonic Breathing") preceded the similarly titled Fuqi jingyi lun below. The Yanling xiansheng ji xinjiu fuqi jing quotes the Taixi jingwei lun in entirety. It describes the taixi method as equivalent with absorbing the neiqi Inner Breath through holding the breath and swallowing saliva seven times (Baldrian-Hussein 2004c: 373). The Taixi jingwei lun beginning echoes

6549-584: The Taoist way, the Liberation of the Corpse —would have occurred so regularly with the beginning of this practice that it would make the Adepts think again, and cause them to abandon so dangerous a procedure." (Maspero 1981: 343). Daoist technical terms for breath-holding used the word tong ( 通 , " Chinese classifier for actions"); a "small" xiaotong ( 小通 ) was 12 respiratory cycle suppressions [~ 36 seconds], and

6660-471: The Zhou period continued, as Qin cemeteries contained ding vessels that expressed rank. Food vessels such as the fu (簠), gui (簋), and dui (敦) that were popular in the Zhou era disappeared by the Han dynasty , during which the ding , zhong (钟), hu (壶), and fang were the main vessel types used. In Western and Eastern Han, the ding was one of the most common bronze-derived shapes in pottery. Today,

6771-405: The [ qi ] of the internal organs, with the idea that the more this was done the more the [ qi ] of primary vitality would be re-formed. This was a significant conceptual expansion, for the "essences" of all the organs were now emphasized as valuable, not only the saliva (from the lungs) and the semen (from the reins ); and it did embody the truth that all the organs contribute their products to

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6882-403: The [ qi ], and the nourishment for its bodily form. Thus it is that it arrives at its completion. Hence we know that the umbilicus [ qi 臍 ] is the 'gate of destiny' [ mingmen 命門 ]. Most babies, if they are alive at birth, fail for a short time to breathe in (the external air), but when the umbilical cord [ qidai 臍帶 ] near the belly, is dipped into warm water three to five times,

6993-466: The above Hou Hanshu phrase taixi taishi ( 胎息胎食 , "embryonic breathing and embryonic eating"). The Wang Zhen ( 王真 ) hagiography quotes the Hou Hanshu description of his "embryonic breathing, 'embryonic eating', subsistence on his own saliva" (tr. Campany 2002: 344). The Ji Liao ( 薊遼 ) or Ji Zixun ( 薊子訓 ) entry has two consecutive sentences, where Campany compared sources (2002: 412) and omitted

7104-420: The addition of flanged taotie motifs. In terms of their significance throughout history, bronze vessels came to assume a more political role in later dynasties than in the Shang period. Inscriptions cast on Western Zhou ding vessels, for example, commemorate political events and record gifts between monarchs and subjects. The Da Ke ding records a royal award to Ke of royal estate, which is seen as evidence of

7215-427: The ailment. That is the best way. When perspiration appears, it is the sign to stop. Do not do it in excess so you may reap the best benefits. (tr. Huang 1990: 47) This brief text about qi absorption of discusses dietetics, sexual hygiene, and the otherwise-unknown liuqi ( 六氣 , Six Qi) exercises to be practiced in times of illness (Baldrian-Hussein 2004b: 367). The Taixi jingwei lun ( 胎息精微論 , "Essay on

7326-691: The architecture of the Shanghai Museum is intended to resemble a bronze ding. Taixi (embryonic breathing) Taixi ( 胎息 , "embryonic breathing" or "embryonic respiration" ) refers to Daoist meditation and neidan Inner Alchemy methods, the principle of which is to breathe like an embryo or fetus in the womb, without using nose or mouth. Techniques developed for embryonic breathing include xingqi ( 行氣 , "circulating breath"), biqi ( 閉氣 , "breath retention; apnea "), fuqi ( 服氣 , "ingesting breath; aerophagia "), and taishi ( 胎食 , "embryonic eating; swallowing saliva"). In

7437-455: The blood-stream. This inner round, it was thought, corresponded with the respiratory cycle though not part of it; when the external [ qi ] came upwards to be exhaled, the internal [ qi ] also came up from the lowest region of vital heat [ dantian ], and when the air went down into the lungs in inspiration so also the internal [ qi ] pursued a downward path. The expression [ fuqi 服氣 , with fu "ingest; consume (esp. medicine)"]

7548-543: The body, you live because of this. When the spirit leaves the body, you die because of this. If you know the spirit and qi , you can live long. Firmly guard the empty nothingness and thereby nurture your spirit and qi . When the spirit goes, the qi goes. When the spirit stays, the qi stays. If you want to live long, spirit and qi must concentrate on one another. If your mind does not give rise to thoughts, it will not come and go. Not leaving and entering, it naturally constantly stays. To diligently practice this

7659-466: The books but rather in the instructions orally transmitted. The procedures of absorbing the [ qi ] described in the two Manuals of the Yellow Courts , with those called the "five ya ["sprouts"]" [ wuya 五牙 ] and the "six mou" [ liumo 六戊 ] all have to do only with the external [ qi ] (of the air). But the [ qi ] of the external world is hard and powerful; it is not something coming from

7770-411: The bowl or cauldron portion of the body, but they can also appear on the legs of the vessels. Decoration also tends to be used to fill in the background of most vessels, sometimes across the entire body of a vessel, but in other instances only a single band of décor is used. In these backgrounds, a whirl or thunder pattern, a low relief spiral design, is used to fill the space and create a texture across

7881-518: The breaking up of the estates of old families and their distribution to new families in the transition between different time periods. In Late Western Zhou, sets of ding and gui were used to indicate rank; a feudal lord would be entitled to nine ding and six gui, while lesser officials were entitled to a smaller number of vessels. Likewise, late Zhou bronzes were often very large, suggesting corresponding wealth. Early Eastern Zhou bronzes descended directly from those of Western Zhou. In later times, in

7992-518: The breath in' is painful; it brings on all sorts of physiological difficulties, which the Adept has to surmount little by little." (1981: 270). Sometimes when an adept holds their breath for too long, "beads of sweat form and the head and feet become heated: this is because the breath is passing through them", and at other times from the strain of "holding the breath firmly, after some time, the belly aches." (1981: 464). In traditional Chinese beliefs, respiration

8103-403: The breath." (tr. Needham 1983: 144). The historian of Chinese science Joseph Needham describes the many side effects of biqi and hypothesizes why early adepts eventually abandoned it. This breath-holding technique produced considerable hypoxemia (insufficient oxygen in the blood) with its strange effects, "buzzing in the ears, vertigo, perspiration, sensations of heat and formication in

8214-482: The c. 664 Dongyuan jing ( 洞淵經 , "Scripture of Cavern Abyss") about the new Tang theory of two breaths. The waiqi external breath, which when "dispersed, is like a cloud of smoke and, gathered together, is like hair, which is seen on the skin, which has the [[Color in Chinese culture#Theory of the Five Elements (Wuxing 五行 )|five colors]], green, red, yellow, white, and black." The neiqi internal breath of

8325-430: The central role of emulating the fetus, navel, and belly. That which is in the womb is called foetus, that which has been born is called child. As long as the foetus is in the abdomen of the mother, its mouth is filled with a kind of mud [ kouhan nitu 口含泥土 ], and respiration [ chuan xi 喘息 ] does not penetrate there; it is through the navel (and the umbilical cord) that it receives (lit. yan 嚥 "swallows")

8436-414: The circulation of the [ qi ] [ xingqi 行氣 ] one can cure the hundred diseases, one can walk through the midst of plagues and epidemics, one can ward off snakes and tigers, stop bleeding from wounds, stay under water or walk across it, free oneself from hunger and thirst, and protract one's years. The most important thing is simply to (know how to) breathe like an embryo [ 胎息 ]. He who can breathe like

8547-504: The common word hūxī ( 呼吸 , "breath, breathing; inhalation and exhalation"). Generally speaking, the air was to be inhaled through the nose, retained as long as possible with the biqi ( 閉氣 , "breath-holding") technique, and then exhaled through the mouth. This presents an "obvious parallel with the conviction that there was vitality in certain secretions of the body so that all losses of them should be avoided." (Needham 1983: 143). Kristofer Schipper notes that, "embryonic breathing

8658-590: The elite far into the Warring States period . Like other ritual bronze shapes, the ding was originally an ordinary ceramic cooking, serving and storage vessel, dating back to the Chinese Neolithic , and ceramic dings continued to be used during and after the period when ceremonial bronze versions were made. From the time of the Shang dynasty in the 2nd millennium BCE, dings were also cast in bronze as high-status "ritual bronzes" , which were often buried in

8769-454: The embryo." (tr. Despeux 2008: 953). The Daoist and Buddhist literature on embryonic breathing expanded during the Tang and the early Song dynasty (960–1279) periods. The following example texts dealing with taixi are limited to major ones with reliable English translations. The Taixi jing ( 胎息經 , "Scripture of Embryonic Breathing"), a.k.a. Gaoshang yuhuang taixi jing ( 高上玉皇胎息經 ,

8880-442: The extremities, fainting and headache." Furthermore, if Daoist breath-holding was practiced in temples on high mountains, it could result in chronic mountain sickness , with symptoms of "headache, dizziness, tinnitus, breathlessness, palpitations, sleep disturbance, fatigue, confusion, cyanosis , and notably loss of appetite." This could have made the delimited diet of the recluses easier to bear, "contributing as it did in its turn to

8991-420: The first Taixi jing sentence. The sea of breath lies three inches below the navel. It is also (called) the lower [ Dantian ] (the elixir field.) It is also (called) the dark female [ Xuanpin 玄牝 ]. People usually say that [ Xuanpin ] is the mouth and the nose. That is wrong. The mouth and the nose are the entering and exiting doors for [ Xuanpin ]. The word [ Xuan ] means (also) water, and

9102-470: The first "Because he proclaimed methods of embryonic breathing, embryonic eating, stopping aging, and turning white hair black again" [ 因教令胎息胎食住年止白之法 行之二百余年顏色不老 ] and translated the second "In over two hundred years his countenance did not age." (2002: 169). The other two Shenxian zhuan hagiographies mention taixi in the phrase taixi neiguan ( 胎息內視 , "embryonic breathing and inner visualization"). The entry for Huang Jing ( 黃敬 ) records that "he

9213-401: The infant 'resuscitates' (and breathes). So indeed we know that the umbilicus is the 'gate of destiny', no mistake about it. All those who wish to practise the Tao of reversion [ xiudao 修道 ] and to attain embryonic respiration must first know the source and origin of this, then they can do it themselves, breathing like the foetus in the mother's abdomen. Hence the name (of the technique). It

9324-545: The lid off of the vessel when it was hot. A final type of decoration, used in most types of vessels, is the inscription. Inscriptions could be used to identify owner and function; they could be poems or even stories. In one example, the Shi Wang Ding, the inscription is used to tell the story of why the ding was created, as well as make a wish for the lineage of the family who owned it. The Grand Captain's young son Captain Wang says: "Illustriously august deceased-father Duke Jiu

9435-465: The mammalian embryo "breathes" through the placenta and the maternal circulation as well as gaining its nourishment, its food materials, through the same route, was an "excellent piece of early biological observation, as also the awareness of the occlusion of the foetal intestinal tract by the meconium ". Adepts who would recreate in themselves into the youthful perfection of the embryonic tissues must also cease mouth breathing. "The subsequent insistence on

9546-530: The middle Warring States period , the three-legged ding would be one of the most popular ceramic forms imitating bronzes. In western China in an area controlled by Qin, small, shallow tripod ding vessels were produced. For these vessels, groups of ceramic and bronze vessels buried together reveal that Western Zhou vessel types continued to exist over different time periods. Tombs at Baoji and Hu Xian, for example, contain sets of ding among others that are shallow and have cabriole legs . The role of ding vessels in

9657-432: The middle of the Tang dynasty (618-907) (1983: 147). Daoist priests realized that breath circulation was not specifically Daoist, since the practice was common in traditional Chinese medicine and Chinese Buddhism ."They discovered then that the men of old had interpreted the books wrongly, and that Embryonic Respiration was something else" (Maspero 1981: 465). Instead of traditional Daoist adepts inhaling and circulating

9768-399: The molten bronze could be poured into the opening and fill the empty space between the two layers. When the bronze had cooled, the clay would be broken away from the vessel and the process was complete. A newer variation on the piece mold process was put forth as a way to explain asymmetrical faces on vessels which, as a rule, should be symmetrical. It was proposed that décor was not made on

9879-459: The more prominent ritual bronzes of this time, likely due to the belief in Shamanism and spirit worship. Ding were used to make ritual sacrifices, both human and animal, to ancestors. They varied in size, but were generally quite large, indicating that whole animals were likely sacrificed. The sacrifices were meant to appease ancestors due to the Shang belief that spirits had the capability to affect

9990-516: The most famous ancient dings were the legendary Nine Tripod Cauldrons . This set of bronze vessels is said to have been cast by King Yu of the Xia dynasty when he divided his territory into the Jiuzhou or Nine Provinces . Later on, possession of all nine was considered a sign of rightful authority over all . The whereabouts of the nine dings are presently unknown, but they are said to have been lost during

10101-408: The most frequent, though also the most intriguing and mysterious , form of décor is the two eyed motif, often referred to as the taotie . This motif can range from as simple as two protruding half spheres in an otherwise featureless plane to as complex as highly detailed mask-like faces with various animal features such as snouts, fangs and horns. In ding vessels, these taotie faces most often appear on

10212-499: The mysterious embryo. Once the mysterious embryo is conceived, it will produce a body by itself. This is the inner elixir and the way [ Dao ] of nondeath. (tr. Huang 1990: 41). The Tang Taixi biyao gejue ( 胎息秘要歌訣 , "Songs and Instructions on the Secret Essentials of Embryonic Breathing") explains breathing techniques, proper diet, avoiding foods , and self-cultivation. It begins: BLOCKING THE BREATH. If you suddenly have

10323-476: The nose, held for as long as possible, and finally exhaled through the mouth" (Maspero 1981: 462). The Taipingjing also ranks the importance of strict dieting for adepts practicing embryonic respiration, "In the first place feed upon airy breath [ shi fengqi 食風氣 ]; in the second place feed upon drugs; in the third place eat little." The best diets, thus, were those that dispensed with all solid food; either feeding upon saliva, or upon air. The first method

10434-600: The old and take in the new, retaining the vista and looking inwards." (14, tr. Sailey 1978: 65). The translator Sailey interpreted the taixi practice of "breathing as in the embryo, … a kind of very deep breathing with both the nose and the mouth enabling one to achieve a state analogous to that of a foetus in a womb." (1978: 341) In addition to the Baoupzi , Ge Hong wrote the c. 4th-century (with later additions) Shenxian Zhuan (Biographies of Divine Transcendents), which mentions taixi in four hagiographies. Two repeat

10545-433: The opening lines of the Taixi jing zhu . "Generally speaking, the womb is formed from within the qi . The qi is produced from the breathing of the womb. The womb gets completed from within the qi . This is glossed as, "If the qi is pure, it will congeal and bind together. If the qi is turbid, it will scatter and exit". (tr. Eskildsen 2015: 264). Thus, whether the qi will either stay inside to form

10656-405: The original state of being and the attainment of that state. The neidan tradition of internal alchemy is practiced by working with the energies that were already present in the human body as opposed to using natural substances, medicines or elixirs, from outside of the body. The Shangqing School of Taoism played an important role in the emergence of neidan alchemy, after using Waidan mainly as

10767-417: The other hand Arthur Waley proposed that it was first recorded in the 559 vow taken by Tiantai Buddhist patriarch Nanyue Huisi praying to successfully make an elixir that would keep him alive until the coming of Maitreya . Many scholars agreed, including Joseph Needham and Lu Gwei-djen who translated Huisi's vow to live as an ascetic in the mountains: I am seeking for the longevity in order to defend

10878-460: The reduction of cardiac strain and heightened awareness and well-being consequent on loss of all excess body-weight" (1983: 145). Perhaps what happened was that the pre-[T]ang idea of the circulation of the [ qi ] gradually came to be more emphasized at the expense of the breath-holding—which might indeed have led to certain accidents just as the metallic elixirs did—and thus the breathing became secondary to an imaginative voluntary circulation of

10989-459: The relevant passages mentioned above is doubtful. The term neidan was seldom used throughout the late Tang dynasty (618–907) and Five dynasties (907–960) period, and only became widespread around the beginning of the Song dynasty (960–1279) period, when neidan evolved into a highly complex system in both its theoretical and practical aspects. Tang texts described internal alchemical practices with

11100-599: The sensation of "something expanding and contracting, or 'breathing' somewhere inside their bodies". And if the term tai is read as "womb" or "matrix," then taixi takes on the sense of "womb respiration." This introspective sensation of expansion and contraction attributed to a breathing embryo is firmly situated in the lower dantian or lower abdomen, where the womb is located (2016: 163). In Daoist textual terminology, one xī ( 吸 , "inhalation; breathing in") and one hū ( 呼 , "exhalation; breathing out") comprise one xi ( 息 , "respiratory cycle")—compare

11211-399: The sound of the breathing, and one should make sure that more goes in than comes out. A wild goose feather may be placed in front of the nose and mouth, and during exhalation this should not show any movement. After continual practice one may very gradually increase the number of heart-beats (during which the breath is held) to as much as 1000 [~ 12 minutes 30 seconds], and when this proficiency

11322-434: The surface of the vessel. In later centuries, fully formed three-dimensional animal figures, such as cows, goats, birds, dragons, and lions, were occasionally included on bronze vessels. Some of these animals were purely decorative, while others also had a functional purpose. In one example, the lid of a Li Ding has three lions lying in relaxed positions, holding rings in their mouths; these rings could have been used to lift

11433-425: The swallowing of saliva was also reasonable, as it could help to re-create the aquatic environment of the mammalian foetus" (Needham 1983: 146). Li Fengshi's ( 李奉時 ) late 8th-century Songshan Taiwu Xiansheng Qi Jing ( 嵩山太無先生氣經 , "Mr. Grand-Nothingness of Sung Mountain's Manual of Qi [Circulation]") stresses the importance of oral tradition . The most important techniques of Taoism are not to be found in

11544-539: The term embryonic breathing go back at least to the early centuries of the Common Era (Eskildsen 2015: 254). The Book of the Later Han , which was compiled in the 5th-century from late Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE) sources, may be the earliest extant reference to taixi ( 胎息 , "embryonic breathing") and the uncommon cognate taishi ( 胎食 , "embryonic eating; saliva swallowing"). This historical text's biography of

11655-425: The tomb of their owners for use in the afterlife. This is the period to which the oldest examples of bronze dings date. Inscriptions found on dings and zhongs are used to study bronzeware script . The most commonly believed bronze vessel casting process of ancient Chinese vessels is the piece mold process. In this process, a model of the finished vessel, complete with décor, is made of clay and left to harden. Next,

11766-497: The word [ Pin ] means mother. It is known in the world that the Yin and Yang breaths meet and coagulate, (originating) from a (father's) water (sperm) and a mother. It becomes an embryo within three months. The form is completed in ten months and has become a human being. Those who are practicing the nourishing way [ Dao ], store the breath beneath the navel and keep their soul inside their body. Soul and breath combine together and produce

11877-636: The words fúyào 服藥 "take drug/medicine" and chángshēng 長生 "long life, longevity; (Taoism) eternal life". Liu Xiyue's 劉希岳 988 Taixuan langranzi jindao shi 太玄朗然子進道詩 (Master Taixuan Langran's Poems on Advancing in the Tao) has the earliest datable mention of the terms neidan and waidan . The c.  1019 Yunji Qiqian Taoist anthology mentions the term neidan . Early texts that mention neidan define it as synonymous or similar with some qi circulation techniques: Cultivation and Transmutation ( xiulian 修煉 ), Embryonic Breathing ( taixi 胎息 ),

11988-605: The world of the living. If the ancestors were happy, the living would be blessed with good fortune. During the early Western Zhou dynasty , the people underwent a political and cultural change. King Wu of Zhou believed that the Shang people were drunkards. He believed that their over-consumption of wine led their king to lose the Mandate of Heaven , thus leading to the downfall of the Shang dynasty. Because of this belief, food vessels (and ding in particular) replaced wine vessels in importance. Bronze vessels underwent what has been called

12099-529: Was beautifully capable of making accordant his heart and making wise his virtue, with which he served the past kings, and gained purity without flaw. Wang for the first time has gone on to emulate his august deceased-father, respectfully morning and night taking out and bringing in the king's commands, not daring not to follow through or to manage. Because of this, the king has not forgotten the sagely man's descendant, and has greatly praised his accomplishments and awarded him beneficence. Wang dares in response to extol

12210-416: Was believed to recreate the yuanqi ( 元氣 , "prenatal qi ; primary vitality") received at birth and gradually depleted during human life. Taixi ( 胎息 , "embryonic breathing") was associated with the shengtai ( 聖胎 , "sacred embryo; embryo of sainthood"), which was originally a Chinese Buddhist concept that Tang Daoists developed into a complex process of symbolic pregnancy giving birth to

12321-701: Was called "Embryonic Nourishment" ( taishi 胎食 , "swallowing saliva") with a name paralleling "Embryonic Respiration" ( taixi 胎息 ). The second was called "Feeding upon Breath" ( shiqi 食氣 or fuqi 服氣 ) or "Feeding by Respiration" ( fuxi 服息 ) (Maspero 1981: 338). Although the Baopuzi says that Ge Xuan could hold his breath underwater all afternoon, even allowing for typical hagiographic exaggeration, attempting extreme biqi ( 閉氣 , "breath-holding") could be dangerous for taixi embryonic respiration practitioners. The current world record for static apnea (without prior breathing of 100% oxygen)

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