Oak leaves
136-648: The National People's Army ( German : Nationale Volksarmee , pronounced [natsi̯oˈnaːlə ˈfɔlksʔaʁˌmeː] ; NVA [ɛn faʊ ˈʔaː] ) were the armed forces of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) from 1956 to 1990. The NVA was organized into four branches: the Landstreitkräfte (Ground Forces), the Volksmarine (Navy), the Luftstreitkräfte (Air Force) and
272-460: A de facto official language of Namibia after the end of German colonial rule alongside English and Afrikaans , and had de jure co-official status from 1984 until its independence from South Africa in 1990. However, the Namibian government perceived Afrikaans and German as symbols of apartheid and colonialism, and decided English would be the sole official language upon independence, stating that it
408-402: A second language , and 75–100 million as a foreign language . This would imply the existence of approximately 175–220 million German speakers worldwide. German sociolinguist Ulrich Ammon estimated a number of 289 million German foreign language speakers without clarifying the criteria by which he classified a speaker. As of 2012 , about 90 million people, or 16% of
544-587: A "commonly used" language and the Pan South African Language Board is obligated to promote and ensure respect for it. Cameroon was also a colony of the German Empire from the same period (1884 to 1916). However, German was replaced by French and English, the languages of the two successor colonial powers, after its loss in World War I . Nevertheless, since the 21st century, German has become
680-408: A 1973 study, NVA leaders from the late 1950s through the 1960s came predominantly from working-class backgrounds, with few from middle-class or professional families and no representatives of the aristocracy present in the upper echelons. Excepting specialized military or political instruction, most NVA leaders reported primary school as their highest level of formal education. The NVA disbanded with
816-401: A Hemdbluse, worn without a shirt, trousers, and a visored service cap. The winter service uniform featured a tunic with four large buttoned-down patch pockets, a black waist belt, the service cap, breeches, shirt, tie, and pants belt; high boots were reserved for officers and NCOs. A long, heavy, belted greatcoat was also part of the winter uniform. With a few details, the semi-dress uniform was
952-617: A blanket approval of all nominations received by the OKW up until the surrender. The validity of this "Dönitz decree" ( Dönitz-Erlaß ) was contested after the war, and the German military archive agency (WASt) concluded that it violated Nazi legislation that required a case-by-case decision. Analysis of the German Federal Archives revealed evidence for 7,161 officially bestowed recipients. The German Federal Archives substantiate 863 awards of
1088-531: A campaign steeped in patriotic rhetoric to rally their citizens to repulse the French occupation. To finance the army, the king implored wealthy Prussians to turn in their jewels in exchange for a men's cast-iron ring or a ladies' brooch, each bearing the legend "Gold I gave for iron" ( Gold gab ich für Eisen ). The award was reinstituted for the wars in 1870 and 1914. With the outbreak of World War II on 1 September 1939, Adolf Hitler in his role as commander in chief of
1224-399: A ceremonial dagger worn on the left side and fastened to a silver-gray parade belt. Officers in guards of honor, as well as officers of cadet schools when on parade, carried sabers. In winter, a greatcoat , scarf, and gloves were worn. Naval officers wore dark blue uniforms with a peaked cap while ratings wore sailor caps. The summer service uniform for officers was a bloused jacket , called
1360-495: A graduate-student stipend. After the reform of 2005, service in the NVA became known as "served outside of the Bundeswehr ". Many former NVA officers feel bitter about their treatment after unification. While receiving only minimal pensions, few have been able to find jobs except as laborers or security guards. Former NVA officers are not permitted to append their NVA rank to their name as
1496-556: A greater need for regularity in written conventions. While the major changes of the MHG period were socio-cultural, High German was still undergoing significant linguistic changes in syntax, phonetics, and morphology as well (e.g. diphthongization of certain vowel sounds: hus (OHG & MHG "house") → haus (regionally in later MHG)→ Haus (NHG), and weakening of unstressed short vowels to schwa [ə]: taga (OHG "days")→ tage (MHG)). A great wealth of texts survives from
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#17330851214271632-453: A native tongue today, mostly descendants of German colonial settlers . The period of German colonialism in Namibia also led to the evolution of a Standard German-based pidgin language called " Namibian Black German ", which became a second language for parts of the indigenous population. Although it is nearly extinct today, some older Namibians still have some knowledge of it. German remained
1768-717: A nomination could be submitted via teleprinter communication. At first, the recipient of the Knight's Cross, or one of its higher grades, received a brief telegram informing him of the award of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross. Thereafter he received a Vorläufiges Besitzzeugnis (Preliminary Testimonial of Ownership). The award was also noted in the recipient's Soldbuch (Soldier's Pay Book), his Wehrpass (Military Identification) and personnel records. From 1 September 1939 to Adolf Hitler's death on 30 April 1945, all Knight's Cross awards were approved by Hitler, after prior approval by
1904-679: A popular foreign language among pupils and students, with 300,000 people learning or speaking German in Cameroon in 2010 and over 230,000 in 2020. Today Cameroon is one of the African countries outside Namibia with the highest number of people learning German. In the United States, German is the fifth most spoken language in terms of native and second language speakers after English, Spanish , French , and Chinese (with figures for Cantonese and Mandarin combined), with over 1 million total speakers. In
2040-628: A possible Soviet invasion, but the declaration of martial law in Poland (13 December 1981) averted the crisis. The NVA went into a state of heightened combat readiness on several occasions, including the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961, the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia, and, for the last time, in late 1989 as protests swept through the GDR. The NVA operated as
2176-663: A professional title; no such prohibition applies to rank attained in the Wehrmacht or in the Waffen-SS during the Nazi era. One of the few former NVA facilities to remain open was a base in Storkow near Berlin, which housed the NVA's camouflage and deception center. This became the Bundeswehr Unit for Camouflage and Deception . The NVA was, in relation to its equipment and training, one of
2312-548: A professional volunteer army until 1962, when conscription was introduced. The GDR's National Defense Council controlled the armed forces, but the mobile forces came under the Warsaw Pact Unified Command. Political control of the armed forces took place through close integration with the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), which vetted all officers. Military training (provided by the school system) and
2448-588: A quilted stone gray padded suit without a camouflage pattern was worn over the service uniform. Later winter uniforms were also of the same camouflage pattern as the summer variant. The winter uniform also included a fur pile cap or a steel helmet, boots, knitted gray gloves, belt, and suspenders. Seasonal considerations and weather governed the kind of work uniforms worn. Generally, reconditioned articles of service uniforms (field, semi-dress, and padded winter uniforms) were dyed black and issued for all types of fatigue and maintenance details. Coveralls are also used by
2584-475: A result, the surviving texts are written in highly disparate regional dialects and exhibit significant Latin influence, particularly in vocabulary. At this point monasteries, where most written works were produced, were dominated by Latin, and German saw only occasional use in official and ecclesiastical writing. While there is no complete agreement over the dates of the Middle High German (MHG) period, it
2720-484: A set and included the more elaborate A-piece and a second clasp with rhinestones for everyday wear, the B-piece. The Diamonds were awarded 27 times during World War II. However three individuals never received a set of Diamonds. Hans-Joachim Marseille , the fourth recipient, was killed in an aircraft crash prior to its presentation. The deteriorating situation and the end of the war prevented its presentation to Karl Mauss ,
2856-421: A single-engine plane, two points for a twin-engine plane and three for a four-engine plane, with all points being doubled at night). It was issued from 1939 to 1945, with the requirements being gradually raised as the war went on. Nominations for the Knight's Cross could be made at company level or higher. Commanders could not nominate themselves. In this instance the division adjutant made the recommendation. In
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#17330851214272992-514: A soldier had to already hold the 1939 Iron Cross First Class, though the Iron Cross First Class was awarded concurrently with the Knight's Cross in some cases. Unit commanders could also be awarded the medal for the exemplary conduct of the unit as a whole. Also, U-boat commanders could qualify for sinking 100,000 tons of shipping and Luftwaffe pilots could qualify for accumulating 20 "points" (with one point being awarded for shooting down
3128-688: Is a West Germanic language in the Indo-European language family , mainly spoken in Western and Central Europe . It is the most spoken native language within the European Union . It is the most widely spoken and official (or co-official) language in Germany , Austria , Switzerland , Liechtenstein , and the Italian autonomous province of South Tyrol . It is also an official language of Luxembourg , Belgium and
3264-580: Is a recognized minority language in the following countries: In France, the High German varieties of Alsatian and Moselle Franconian are identified as " regional languages ", but the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages of 1998 has not yet been ratified by the government. Namibia also was a colony of the German Empire, from 1884 to 1915. About 30,000 people still speak German as
3400-596: Is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects , with many varieties existing in Europe and other parts of the world. Some of these non-standard varieties have become recognized and protected by regional or national governments. Since 2004, heads of state of the German-speaking countries have met every year, and the Council for German Orthography has been the main international body regulating German orthography . German
3536-546: Is an Indo-European language that belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages . The Germanic languages are traditionally subdivided into three branches: North Germanic , East Germanic , and West Germanic . The first of these branches survives in modern Danish , Swedish , Norwegian , Faroese , and Icelandic , all of which are descended from Old Norse . The East Germanic languages are now extinct, and Gothic
3672-472: Is called the "German Sprachraum ". German is the official language of the following countries: German is a co-official language of the following countries: Although expulsions and (forced) assimilation after the two World wars greatly diminished them, minority communities of mostly bilingual German native speakers exist in areas both adjacent to and detached from the Sprachraum. Within Europe, German
3808-430: Is complicated by the existence of several varieties whose status as separate "languages" or "dialects" is disputed for political and linguistic reasons, including quantitatively strong varieties like certain forms of Alemannic and Low German . With the inclusion or exclusion of certain varieties, it is estimated that approximately 90–95 million people speak German as a first language , 10–25 million speak it as
3944-520: Is generally seen as ending when the 1346–53 Black Death decimated Europe's population. Modern High German begins with the Early New High German (ENHG) period, which Wilhelm Scherer dates 1350–1650, terminating with the end of the Thirty Years' War . This period saw the further displacement of Latin by German as the primary language of courtly proceedings and, increasingly, of literature in
4080-595: Is generally seen as lasting from 1050 to 1350. This was a period of significant expansion of the geographical territory occupied by Germanic tribes, and consequently of the number of German speakers. Whereas during the Old High German period the Germanic tribes extended only as far east as the Elbe and Saale rivers, the MHG period saw a number of these tribes expanding beyond this eastern boundary into Slavic territory (known as
4216-559: Is less closely related to languages based on Low Franconian dialects (e.g., Dutch and Afrikaans), Low German or Low Saxon dialects (spoken in northern Germany and southern Denmark ), neither of which underwent the High German consonant shift. As has been noted, the former of these dialect types is Istvaeonic and the latter Ingvaeonic, whereas the High German dialects are all Irminonic; the differences between these languages and standard German are therefore considerable. Also related to German are
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4352-435: Is one of the major languages of the world . German is the second-most widely spoken Germanic language , after English, both as a first and as a second language . German is also widely taught as a foreign language , especially in continental Europe (where it is the third most taught foreign language after English and French), and in the United States. Overall, German is the fourth most commonly learned second language, and
4488-587: Is one of the three biggest newspapers in Namibia and the only German-language daily in Africa. An estimated 12,000 people speak German or a German variety as a first language in South Africa, mostly originating from different waves of immigration during the 19th and 20th centuries. One of the largest communities consists of the speakers of "Nataler Deutsch", a variety of Low German concentrated in and around Wartburg . The South African constitution identifies German as
4624-401: Is partly derived from Latin and Greek , along with fewer words borrowed from French and Modern English . English, however, is the main source of more recent loanwords . German is a pluricentric language ; the three standardized variants are German , Austrian , and Swiss Standard German . Standard German is sometimes called High German , which refers to its regional origin. German
4760-510: Is the Sachsenspiegel , the first book of laws written in Middle Low German ( c. 1220 ). The abundance and especially the secular character of the literature of the MHG period demonstrate the beginnings of a standardized written form of German, as well as the desire of poets and authors to be understood by individuals on supra-dialectal terms. The Middle High German period
4896-566: Is the only language in this branch which survives in written texts. The West Germanic languages, however, have undergone extensive dialectal subdivision and are now represented in modern languages such as English, German, Dutch , Yiddish , Afrikaans , and others. Within the West Germanic language dialect continuum, the Benrath and Uerdingen lines (running through Düsseldorf - Benrath and Krefeld - Uerdingen , respectively) serve to distinguish
5032-481: Is understood in all areas where German is spoken. Approximate distribution of native German speakers (assuming a rounded total of 95 million) worldwide: As a result of the German diaspora , as well as the popularity of German taught as a foreign language , the geographical distribution of German speakers (or "Germanophones") spans all inhabited continents. However, an exact, global number of native German speakers
5168-673: The Ostsiedlung ). With the increasing wealth and geographic spread of the Germanic groups came greater use of German in the courts of nobles as the standard language of official proceedings and literature. A clear example of this is the mittelhochdeutsche Dichtersprache employed in the Hohenstaufen court in Swabia as a standardized supra-dialectal written language. While these efforts were still regionally bound, German began to be used in place of Latin for certain official purposes, leading to
5304-790: The Grenztruppen (Border Troops). The NVA belonged to the Ministry of National Defence and commanded by the National Defense Council of East Germany , headquartered in Strausberg 30 kilometers (19 mi) east of East Berlin . From 1962, conscription was mandatory for all GDR males aged between 18 and 60 requiring an 18-month service, and it was the only Warsaw Pact military to offer non-combat roles to conscientious objectors , known as " construction soldiers " ( Bausoldat ). The NVA reached 175,300 personnel at its peak in 1987. The NVA
5440-534: The Waffenfarben as worn by the Wehrmacht , but later reverted to white except for generals who wore red. The uniforms of the Border Troops were distinguished from that of the NVA ground force and Air Force/Air Defense Force by a green armband with large silver letters identifying the wearer's affiliation. German language German (German: Deutsch , pronounced [dɔʏtʃ] )
5576-711: The Wehrmacht : the Heer (army), the Kriegsmarine (navy) and the Luftwaffe (air force), as well as the Waffen-SS , the Reich Labour Service and the Volkssturm (German People storm militia ), along with personnel from other Axis powers . The award was instituted on 1 September 1939, at the onset of the German invasion of Poland . The award was created to replace
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5712-411: The Bundeswehr ) and all soldiers over the age of 55 were discharged. Until 1 March 2005, Germany listed time served in the NVA as time "served in a foreign military". Service in the NVA did not count for points towards federal pensions in the unified Germany . Retired NVA soldiers and officers received only minimal pensions after unification: a thirty-year veteran would receive a pension smaller than
5848-479: The Kasernierte Volkspolizei wore the same basic uniform. Several later modifications were introduced, but the style and cut remain fundamentally the same. There were a variety of uniforms worn according to the setting (work or social) and season (summer or winter). Most uniforms (service, semi-dress, and parade) were stone grey, a brownish-grey colour that was conspicuously different from the grey-green of
5984-769: The Wehrmacht . With the exceptions of the People's Navy, whose dark-blue uniforms were consistent with the styles of most navies around the world, and the Combat Groups of the Working Class ( Kampfgruppen der Arbeiterklasse ), who wore their own olive-green fatigue uniforms, all NVA armed services, the Felix Dzerzhinsky Guards Regiment, the Border Troops of the German Democratic Republic , and
6120-640: The Luftwaffe . After 1999, 22 of the 24 aircraft were given to Poland . Before the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961, military service in the GDR was voluntary, though the Free German Youth and public schools mounted intensive recruitment drives, and service in the NVA was often a prerequisite for career advancement. Compulsory military service had been introduced in 1956 in West Germany , one year after
6256-627: The Alamanni , Bavarian, and Thuringian groups, all belonging to the Elbe Germanic group ( Irminones ), which had settled in what is now southern-central Germany and Austria between the second and sixth centuries, during the great migration. In general, the surviving texts of Old High German (OHG) show a wide range of dialectal diversity with very little written uniformity. The early written tradition of OHG survived mostly through monasteries and scriptoria as local translations of Latin originals; as
6392-522: The Early Middle Ages . German is an inflected language , with four cases for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative); three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and two numbers (singular, plural). It has strong and weak verbs . The majority of its vocabulary derives from the ancient Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, while a smaller share
6528-417: The European Union 's population, spoke German as their mother tongue, making it the second most widely spoken language on the continent after Russian and the second biggest language in terms of overall speakers (after English), as well as the most spoken native language. The area in central Europe where the majority of the population speaks German as a first language and has German as a (co-)official language
6664-514: The German states . While these states were still part of the Holy Roman Empire , and far from any form of unification, the desire for a cohesive written language that would be understandable across the many German-speaking principalities and kingdoms was stronger than ever. As a spoken language German remained highly fractured throughout this period, with a vast number of often mutually incomprehensible regional dialects being spoken throughout
6800-724: The Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I , and the other being Meißner Deutsch , used in the Electorate of Saxony in the Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg . Alongside these courtly written standards, the invention of the printing press led to the development of a number of printers' languages ( Druckersprachen ) aimed at making printed material readable and understandable across as many diverse dialects of German as possible. The greater ease of production and increased availability of written texts brought about increased standardisation in
6936-476: The Knight's Cross with Golden Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds grade) the de facto highest award among the decorations of Nazi Germany . The Knight's Cross was awarded for a wide range of reasons and across all ranks, from a senior commander for skilled leadership of his troops in battle to a low-ranking soldier for a single act of military valour. Presentations were made to members of the three military branches of
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#17330851214277072-644: The Old High German language in several Elder Futhark inscriptions from as early as the sixth century AD (such as the Pforzen buckle ), the Old High German period is generally seen as beginning with the Abrogans (written c. 765–775 ), a Latin-German glossary supplying over 3,000 Old High German words with their Latin equivalents. After the Abrogans , the first coherent works written in Old High German appear in
7208-423: The Peaceful Revolution that led to the downfall of the GDR's communist government, some NVA forces were placed on alert but were never deployed against protesters. At the same time, the Soviet government ordered its troops in the GDR to remain in barracks. After the forced retirement of SED and state leader Erich Honecker and other conservatives from the ruling Politburo at the height of the crisis in October 1989,
7344-478: The People's Police . Officers' uniforms differed from those of enlisted personnel by better quality and texture cloth. The field and service uniforms were normal attire for most day-to-day functions. Several basic categories of uniforms were worn: The parade uniform for ground forces officers was the semi-dress/walking-out tunic with all authorized orders, awards and decorations attached, breeches and riding boots , steel helmet, white shirt, dark-gray necktie, and
7480-557: The People's Police . Though the NVA featured a German appearance – including uniforms and ceremonies patterned after older German military traditions – its doctrine and structure showed the strong influence of the Soviet Armed Forces . During its first year, about 27 percent of the NVA's officer corps had formerly served in the Wehrmacht . Of the 82 highest command positions, ex- Wehrmacht officers held 61; however, very few of them had served in high ranks. The military knowledge and combat experience of these veterans were indispensable in
7616-427: The Sprachraum in Europe. German is used in a wide variety of spheres throughout the country, especially in business, tourism, and public signage, as well as in education, churches (most notably the German-speaking Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia (GELK) ), other cultural spheres such as music, and media (such as German language radio programs by the Namibian Broadcasting Corporation ). The Allgemeine Zeitung
7752-422: The Standard German language in its written form, and the Duden Handbook was declared its standard definition. Punctuation and compound spelling (joined or isolated compounds) were not standardized in the process. The Deutsche Bühnensprache ( lit. ' German stage language ' ) by Theodor Siebs had established conventions for German pronunciation in theatres , three years earlier; however, this
7888-400: The Upper German dialects spoken in the southern German-speaking countries , such as Swiss German ( Alemannic dialects ) and the various Germanic dialects spoken in the French region of Grand Est , such as Alsatian (mainly Alemannic, but also Central–and Upper Franconian dialects) and Lorraine Franconian (Central Franconian). After these High German dialects, standard German
8024-456: The Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968, deployed military advisors to communist governments in other countries, and manned the Berlin Wall where they were responsible for numerous deaths . The NVA was dissolved on 2 October 1990 with the GDR before German reunification , and its facilities and equipment were handed over to the Bundeswehr (the armed forces of West Germany ), which also absorbed most of its personnel below
8160-408: The pagan Germanic tradition. Of particular interest to scholars, however, has been the Hildebrandslied , a secular epic poem telling the tale of an estranged father and son unknowingly meeting each other in battle. Linguistically, this text is highly interesting due to the mixed use of Old Saxon and Old High German dialects in its composition. The written works of this period stem mainly from
8296-406: The 26th recipient and Dietrich von Saucken , the 27th and final recipient. The Knight's Cross with Golden Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Goldenem Eichenlaub, Schwertern und Brillanten ) was instituted on 29 December 1944. This medal was the highest level, originally intended for 12 of the most distinguished servicemen in the entire German armed forces after
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#17330851214278432-614: The Empire. Its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Prague (German: Prag ) and Budapest ( Buda , German: Ofen ), to name two examples, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain; others, like Pressburg ( Pozsony , now Bratislava), were originally settled during the Habsburg period and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest, Bratislava, and cities like Zagreb (German: Agram ) or Ljubljana (German: Laibach ), contained significant German minorities. In
8568-414: The Frisian languages— North Frisian (spoken in Nordfriesland ), Saterland Frisian (spoken in Saterland ), and West Frisian (spoken in Friesland )—as well as the Anglic languages of English and Scots. These Anglo-Frisian dialects did not take part in the High German consonant shift, and the Anglic languages also adopted much vocabulary from both Old Norse and the Norman language . The history of
8704-487: The GDR's National Defence Council authorised the formation of Baueinheiten (construction units) for men of draft age who "refuse military service with weapons on the grounds of religious viewpoints or for similar reasons". The construction soldiers wore uniforms and lived in barracks under military discipline, but were not required to bear arms and received no combat training. In theory, they were to be used only for civilian construction projects. The GDR therefore became
8840-513: The German armed forces decreed the renewal of the Iron Cross of 1939. A new grade of the Iron Cross series was introduced, the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross. The Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross, without distinction, was awarded to officers and soldiers alike, conforming with the National Socialist slogan: "One people, one nation, one leader". Analysis of the German Federal Archives revealed evidence for 7,161 officially bestowed recipients. The German Federal Archives substantiate 863 awards of
8976-403: The German constitution and Germany's postwar policies. The German Law of Titles, Orders and Honours ( German : Gesetz über Titel, Orden und Ehrenzeichen ) regulates the wearing of the Knight's Cross in post World War II Germany. German law prohibits wearing a swastika , so on 26 July 1957 the West German government authorized replacement Knight's Crosses with an Oak Leaf Cluster in place of
9112-417: The German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the Migration Period , which separated Old High German dialects from Old Saxon . This sound shift involved a drastic change in the pronunciation of both voiced and voiceless stop consonants ( b , d , g , and p , t , k , respectively). The primary effects of the shift were the following below. While there is written evidence of
9248-399: The German states; the invention of the printing press c. 1440 and the publication of Luther's vernacular translation of the Bible in 1534, however, had an immense effect on standardizing German as a supra-dialectal written language. The ENHG period saw the rise of several important cross-regional forms of chancery German, one being gemeine tiutsch , used in the court of
9384-623: The Germanic dialects that were affected by the High German consonant shift (south of Benrath) from those that were not (north of Uerdingen). The various regional dialects spoken south of these lines are grouped as High German dialects, while those spoken to the north comprise the Low German and Low Franconian dialects. As members of the West Germanic language family, High German, Low German, and Low Franconian have been proposed to be further distinguished historically as Irminonic , Ingvaeonic , and Istvaeonic , respectively. This classification indicates their historical descent from dialects spoken by
9520-446: The Golden Oak Leaves of the Order of the Red Eagle , which was the second highest Prussian order after the Order of the Black Eagle . The king also awarded the Oak Leaves together with the Pour le Mérite since 9. October 1813 for gallantry. The Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) was instituted on 15 July 1941. The Oak Leaves with Swords clasp
9656-547: The Irminones (also known as the Elbe group), Ingvaeones (or North Sea Germanic group), and Istvaeones (or Weser–Rhine group). Standard German is based on a combination of Thuringian - Upper Saxon and Upper Franconian dialects, which are Central German and Upper German dialects belonging to the High German dialect group. German is therefore closely related to the other languages based on High German dialects, such as Luxembourgish (based on Central Franconian dialects ) and Yiddish . Also closely related to Standard German are
9792-614: The Iron Cross for all ranks in the three branches of the Wehrmacht and the Waffen-SS . However, 200 of the OdR-listed cases are lacking an official proof of award. In 1999, German SPD Minister of Defence Rudolf Scharping banned any contacts between the Bundeswehr and the association, stating that it and many of its members shared neo-Nazi and revanchist ideas which were not in conformity with
9928-529: The Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) was instituted on 3. June 1940. Before the introduction of the Oak Leaves only 124 members of the Wehrmacht had received the Knight's Cross. Prior to Case Yellow ( Fall Gelb ), the attack on the Netherlands, Belgium and France, just 52 Knight's Crosses had been awarded. In May 1940 the number of presentations peaked. The timing for
10064-845: The Italian autonomous region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia , as well as a recognized national language in Namibia . There are also notable German-speaking communities in France ( Alsace ), the Czech Republic ( North Bohemia ), Poland ( Upper Silesia ), Slovakia ( Košice Region , Spiš , and Hauerland ), Denmark ( North Schleswig ), Romania and Hungary ( Sopron ). Overseas, sizeable communities of German-speakers are found in Brazil ( Blumenau and Pomerode ), South Africa ( Kroondal ), Namibia , among others, some communities have decidedly Austrian German or Swiss German characters (e.g. Pozuzo , Peru). German
10200-563: The Luftwaffe the lowest level was the Geschwader and in the Kriegsmarine the respective flotilla was authorized to make the nomination. It was also possible to nominate subordinated foreign units. The nomination by the troop had to be submitted in writing and in double copy. The format and the content were predefined. Every nomination contained the personal data, the rank and unit at the time of
10336-507: The MHG period. Significantly, these texts include a number of impressive secular works, such as the Nibelungenlied , an epic poem telling the story of the dragon -slayer Siegfried ( c. thirteenth century ), and the Iwein , an Arthurian verse poem by Hartmann von Aue ( c. 1203 ), lyric poems , and courtly romances such as Parzival and Tristan . Also noteworthy
10472-775: The NVA generals who were awarded the German Cross in the Wehrmacht during the Second World War. In its first six years the NVA operated as an all-volunteer force. ( West Germany , in contrast, re-introduced universal military service in 1956.) The GDR introduced conscription in 1962. According to the Parallel History Project on Cooperative Security: the NVA was incorporated in the Warsaw Pact and consisted of army, air force/air defense (Luftstreitkräfte/Luftverteidigung), and
10608-504: The NVA had advisors in Algeria , Angola , Ethiopia , Guinea , Iraq , Libya , Mozambique , South Yemen , and Syria . When the Soviet Union prepared to occupy Czechoslovakia in 1968, the GDR government committed the 7th Panzer Division and the 11th Motorised Infantry Division to support the intervention (assigned to 20th Guards Army and 1st Guards Tank Army respectively), becoming
10744-589: The NVA was the Ministry for National Defense ( Ministerium für Nationale Verteidigung ) headquartered in Strausberg near East Berlin . NVA administration was divided into the following commands: The National People's Army had a Military Intelligence Agency Whose Purpose was to “prevent surprise by the enemy.” The first military units of the Central Training Administration ( Hauptverwaltung Ausbildung – HVA ) were dressed in police blue. With
10880-427: The NVA's early years, although by the 1960s most of these World War II veterans had retired. (The West German Bundeswehr was even more reliant on Wehrmacht veterans, who initially comprised the majority of its commissioned ranks.) The following list includes the NVA generals who were awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross in the Wehrmacht during the Second World War. The following list includes
11016-609: The NVA's reserves would have nearly doubled its strength. GDR authorities also had at their disposal the internal security troops of the Ministry of the Interior (the Kasernierte Volkspolizei ) and the Ministry for State Security (the Felix Dzerzhinsky Guards Regiment ) along with the 210,000 strong party auxiliary " Combat Groups of the Working Class " ( Kampfgruppen der Arbeiterklasse ), who were available in times of war. The highest level of leadership for
11152-537: The Oak Leaves to the Knight's Cross, along with the 147 Swords and 27 Diamonds awards. Author Veit Scherzer concluded that every presentation of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross, or one of its higher grades, made until 20 April 1945 is verifiable in the German Federal Archives. The first echelon of the Heerespersonalamt Abteilung P 5/Registratur (Army Personnel Office Department P 5/Registry)
11288-471: The Oak Leaves to the Knight's Cross, along with the 147 Swords and 27 Diamonds awards. The Golden Oak Leaves to the Knight's Cross was awarded only once, to Hans-Ulrich Rudel on 29 December 1944. The legal grounds for this decree had been established in 1937 with the German law of Titles, Orders and Honorary Signs ( Gesetz über Titel, Orden und Ehrenzeichen ) that made the Führer and President of Germany
11424-616: The People’s Navy (Volksmarine). At its peak in 1987, the three NVA services had about 156,000 men under arms altogether. Between 1956 and 1990, about 2.5 million male GDR citizens performed army duty. Like the ruling communist parties of other Soviet satellites, the East German Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) assured control by appointing loyal party members to top positions and by organizing intensive political education for all ranks. The proportion of SED members in
11560-734: The Protection of the Workers and Farmers' Power". The NVA never took part in full-scale combat, although it participated in a support role in the suppression of the Prague Spring of 1968, provided medical support during the Soviet–Afghan War , and NVA officers often served as combat advisers in Africa. Some of the first NVA advisors went to the Republic of the Congo in 1973. During the 1980s at various times
11696-621: The West German military was established, but the GDR held back from this step until 1962. The situation changed when the border was sealed in August 1961, and five months later the government announced a mandatory service term of 18 months for men. There was, at first, no alternative service for conscientious objectors . This changed in 1964 when, under pressure from the Protestant Church in Germany ,
11832-405: The act, since when the soldier held this position, the military service entry date, previous military decorations awarded and date of presentation, etc. For enlisted soldiers and noncommissioned officers the résumé had to be submitted as well. The nomination had to be forwarded in writing by a courier up the official command chain. Every intermittent administrative office or commander between
11968-539: The commanders in chief of the Kriegsmarine and the Luftwaffe, and from the autumn of 1944 also by the Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler , made the presentations instead. The Association of Knight's Cross Recipients (AKCR) ( German language : Ordensgemeinschaft der Ritterkreuzträger des Eisernen Kreuzes e.V. ( OdR )) is an association of highly decorated soldiers of both world wars. The association
12104-478: The development of non-local forms of language and exposed all speakers to forms of German from outside their own area. With Luther's rendering of the Bible in the vernacular, German asserted itself against the dominance of Latin as a legitimate language for courtly, literary, and now ecclesiastical subject-matter. His Bible was ubiquitous in the German states: nearly every household possessed a copy. Nevertheless, even with
12240-452: The dialect so as to make the work as natural and accessible to German speakers as possible. Copies of Luther's Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region, translating words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Luther said the following concerning his translation method: One who would talk German does not ask the Latin how he shall do it; he must ask the mother in
12376-555: The dissolution of the East German government in October 1990. Under the process of "Army of Unity" ( Armee der Einheit ), NVA facilities and equipment were handed over to the Bundeswehr , the federal defense force of the unified Germany. Bundeswehr Eastern Command ( Bundeswehrkommando Ost ) was set up for the control of units or facilities in the territory of former East Germany, and
12512-507: The eastern provinces of Banat , Bukovina , and Transylvania (German: Banat, Buchenland, Siebenbürgen ), German was the predominant language not only in the larger towns—like Temeschburg ( Timișoara ), Hermannstadt ( Sibiu ), and Kronstadt ( Brașov )—but also in many smaller localities in the surrounding areas. In 1901, the Second Orthographic Conference ended with a (nearly) complete standardization of
12648-406: The entire German state. As the war progressed four additional years, leaders had to distinguish those who had already won the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross or one of the higher grades and who continued to show merit in combat bravery or military success. The Knight's Cross was eventually awarded in five grades: The Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross instituted on 1. September 1939. Its appearance
12784-555: The first deployment of German troops outside Germany for the first time since the Second World War . But the East German participation raised Czech ire, and the two divisions were "kept out of sight in the Bohemian forests " and allowed to travel only at night. In a few days they were withdrawn. In the early 1970s the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany (GSFG) high command assigned to the NVA
12920-402: The first measures taken after the reunification was a survey and securing of weapons and devices by former members of the NVA. The federally operated Materiel Depot Service Gesellschaft (MDSG) was charged with taking custody of and warehousing this equipment. The MDSG employed 1,820 people who were primarily taken from the Bundeswehr . The MDSG was privatised in 1994. Much of the materiel
13056-628: The growing militarization of East German society bolstered popular support for the military establishment. From a Leninist perspective, the NVA stood as a symbol of Soviet-East German solidarity and became the model communist institution – ideological, hierarchical, and disciplined. The NVA synthesized communist and Prussian symbolism, naming its officers' academy, the Friedrich Engels Military Academy , after Karl Marx 's co-author Friedrich Engels , and its highest medal after Prussian Army General Gerhard von Scharnhorst . During
13192-616: The head of the Heerespersonalamt and the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW). After 30 April 1945, in the context of the rapid disintegration of Germany's government and armed forces, it is unclear who held the authority to approve awards. A teleprinter message dated 3 May authorized the commanders-in-chief of those units still engaged in combat to award the Knight's Cross by themselves. Likely on 7 May, just before Germany's surrender on 8 May, Hitler's successor Karl Dönitz decreed
13328-565: The highest awards in the military and paramilitary forces of Nazi Germany during World War II . While it was lower in precedence than the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross , the Grand Cross was never awarded at-large to Nazi German military and paramilitary forces. The Grand Cross' sole award was made to Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring in September 1939, making the Knight's Cross (specifically,
13464-435: The home, the children on the streets, the common man in the market-place and note carefully how they talk, then translate accordingly. They will then understand what is said to them because it is German. When Christ says ' ex abundantia cordis os loquitur ,' I would translate, if I followed the papists, aus dem Überflusz des Herzens redet der Mund . But tell me is this talking German? What German understands such stuff? No,
13600-474: The influence of Luther's Bible as an unofficial written standard, a widely accepted standard for written German did not appear until the middle of the eighteenth century. German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire , which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe . Until the mid-nineteenth century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of
13736-505: The introduction of the Oak Leaves is closely linked to Case Red ( Fall Rot ), the second and decisive phase of the Battle of France . Like the Knight's Cross to which it was added, the Oak Leaves clasp could be awarded for leadership, distinguished service or personal gallantry. The Oak Leaves, just like the 1813 Iron Cross and Grand Cross of the Iron Cross, was not a National Socialist invention. They originally appeared in conjunction with
13872-772: The invasion of the Soviet Union, the presentations were made at the Führer Headquarters " Wolf's Lair " in East Prussia , in the " Werwolf " near Vinnytsia in Ukraine, and at the Berghof. After the 20 July plot , the presentations were only made sporadically by Hitler himself. The last presentations by Hitler were made early in 1945 in the Führerbunker in Berlin. Senior commanders, like
14008-500: The largest concentrations of German speakers are in the states of Rio Grande do Sul (where Riograndenser Hunsrückisch developed), Santa Catarina , and Espírito Santo . Knight%27s Cross of the Iron Cross Oak leaves and swords Oak leaves, swords and diamonds The Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross ( German : Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ), or simply the Knight's Cross ( Ritterkreuz ), and its variants, were
14144-618: The lower ranks, especially armor and air force personnel. Officers in technical branches supervising fatigue details wore a laboratory-style smock . High-ranking officers occasionally wore white uniforms (or white jackets), and staff officers were issued distinctive staff service uniforms. Women wore uniforms consisting of jackets, skirts or slacks, blouses, caps, boots or pumps, and other appropriate items according to season and occasion. Personnel, such as paratroopers , motorcyclists, and tank troops, wore additional items with their uniforms identifying them as such. NVA personnel initially wore
14280-433: The many older merit and bravery neck awards of the German Empire. A higher grade, the Oak Leaves to the Knight's Cross, was instituted in 1940. In 1941, two higher grades of the Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves were instituted: the Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords and the Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds. At the end of 1944 the final grade, the Knight's Cross with Golden Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds,
14416-402: The mother in the home and the plain man would say, Wesz das Herz voll ist, des gehet der Mund über . Luther's translation of the Bible into High German was also decisive for the German language and its evolution from Early New High German to modern Standard German. The publication of Luther's Bible was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy in early modern Germany , and promoted
14552-400: The new SED leadership ruled out using armed force against the protesters. The manpower of the NVA consisted of some 85,000 soldiers in 1962, climbed to 127,000 by 1967, and remained essentially steady through 1970. In 1987, at the peak of its power, the NVA numbered 175,300 troops. Approximately 50% of this number were career soldiers, while the others were short-term conscripts. According to
14688-630: The ninth century, chief among them being the Muspilli , Merseburg charms , and Hildebrandslied , and other religious texts (the Georgslied , Ludwigslied , Evangelienbuch , and translated hymns and prayers). The Muspilli is a Christian poem written in a Bavarian dialect offering an account of the soul after the Last Judgment , and the Merseburg charms are transcriptions of spells and charms from
14824-521: The nominating unit and the commander-in-chief of the respective Wehrmacht branch (commander-in-chief of the Heer , commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe and commander-in-chief of the Kriegsmarine with their respective staff offices) had to give their approval along with a short comment. In exceptional cases, such as the nominated individual had sustained severe injuries or that the command chain had been interrupted,
14960-416: The officer corps rose steadily after the early 1960s, eventually reaching almost 95 percent. The NVA saw itself as the "instrument of power of the working class" ( Machtinstrument der Arbeiterklasse ). According to its doctrine, the NVA protected peace and secured the achievements of socialism by maintaining a convincing deterrent to imperialist aggression. The NVA's motto, inscribed on its flag, read: "For
15096-483: The only Warsaw Pact country to provide a non-combat alternative for conscientious objectors. However, fearing that other soldiers would be contaminated by pacifist ideas, the government took care to segregate the construction units from regular conscripts. Moreover, conscripts who chose the alternative service option often faced discrimination later in life, including denial of opportunities for higher education . The NVA had four main branches: In wartime, mobilization of
15232-505: The only person who was allowed to award orders or honorary signs. The re-institution of the Iron Cross was therefore a Führer decree, which had political implication since the Treaty of Versailles had explicitly prohibited the creation of a military decoration, order or medal. However, Germany had formally renounced the Treaty by this time. The renewal for the first time had created an honorary sign of
15368-462: The pronunciation of the ending -ig as [ɪk] instead of [ɪç]. In Northern Germany, High German was a foreign language to most inhabitants, whose native dialects were subsets of Low German. It was usually encountered only in writing or formal speech; in fact, most of High German was a written language, not identical to any spoken dialect, throughout the German-speaking area until well into the 19th century. However, wider standardization of pronunciation
15504-618: The rank of non-commissioned officer . The German Democratic Republic (GDR) established the National People's Army on 1 March 1956 (six months after the formation of the West German Bundeswehr ) from the Kasernierte Volkspolizei . This formation culminated years of preparation during which former Wehrmacht officers and communist veterans of the Spanish Civil War helped organize and train paramilitary units of
15640-567: The restructuring of the Barracked Police (CIP) in 1952, khaki uniforms similar in shape and colour to those of the Soviet Army were introduced. The desire for a separate "German" and "socialist" military tradition, and the consequent founding of the NVA in 1956, introduced new uniforms which strongly resembled those of the Wehrmacht . They were of a similar cut and made of a brownish-gray, called stone gray , cloth. The dark high-necked collar
15776-429: The same for all ranks and was worn for walking-out purposes (i.e. off-duty and off-post). It consisted of a single-breasted tunic without belt, a silver-gray shirt with dark-gray tie, the service cap, long trousers, and black low-quarter shoes. Officers also wore the tunic with a white shirt. During periods of warm weather, there was the option of omitting the tunic, and furthermore omitting the tie. A double-breasted jacket
15912-541: The states of North Dakota and South Dakota , German is the most common language spoken at home after English. As a legacy of significant German immigration to the country , German geographical names can be found throughout the Midwest region , such as New Ulm and Bismarck (North Dakota's state capital), plus many other regions. A number of German varieties have developed in the country and are still spoken today, such as Pennsylvania Dutch and Texas German . In Brazil,
16048-427: The strongest armies in the Warsaw Pact. It was equipped with a large number of modern weapons systems, most of Soviet origin, from which a small portion were given back to the Soviet Union in 1990. The remaining equipment and materiel was still substantial, including large quantities of replacement parts, medical supplies, atomic, biological and chemical warfare equipment, training devices and simulators, etc. One of
16184-496: The third most commonly learned second language in the United States in K-12 education. The language has been influential in the fields of philosophy, theology, science, and technology. It is the second most commonly used language in science and the third most widely used language on websites . The German-speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of annual publication of new books, with one-tenth of all books (including e-books) in
16320-458: The war ended. Six sets of Golden Oak Leaves were manufactured, each consisting of an A-piece, made of 18- carat gold with 58 real diamonds, and a B-piece, made of 14-carat gold with 68 real sapphires. One of these sets was presented to Hans-Ulrich Rudel on 1 January 1945; the remaining five sets were taken to Schloss Klessheim , where they were taken by the US forces. To qualify for the Knight's Cross,
16456-538: The wartime mission of capturing West Berlin . The NVA plan for the operation, designated "Operation Centre", called for some 32,000 troops in two divisions, accompanied by the GSFG's Soviet 6th Separate Guards Motor Rifle Brigade . The plan was regularly updated until 1988, when a less ambitious plan that simply aimed at containing Berlin was substituted. In the autumn of 1981 the NVA stood ready to intervene in Poland in support of
16592-543: The world being published in German. German is most closely related to other West Germanic languages, namely Afrikaans , Dutch , English , the Frisian languages , and Scots . It also contains close similarities in vocabulary to some languages in the North Germanic group , such as Danish , Norwegian , and Swedish . Modern German gradually developed from Old High German , which in turn developed from Proto-Germanic during
16728-579: The written form of German. One of the central events in the development of ENHG was the publication of Luther's translation of the Bible into High German (the New Testament was published in 1522; the Old Testament was published in parts and completed in 1534). Luther based his translation primarily on the Meißner Deutsch of Saxony , spending much time among the population of Saxony researching
16864-429: Was a "neutral" language as there were virtually no English native speakers in Namibia at that time. German, Afrikaans, and several indigenous languages thus became "national languages" by law, identifying them as elements of the cultural heritage of the nation and ensuring that the state acknowledged and supported their presence in the country. Today, Namibia is considered to be the only German-speaking country outside of
17000-530: Was an artificial standard that did not correspond to any traditional spoken dialect. Rather, it was based on the pronunciation of German in Northern Germany, although it was subsequently regarded often as a general prescriptive norm, despite differing pronunciation traditions especially in the Upper-German-speaking regions that still characterise the dialect of the area today – especially
17136-513: Was created. Over 7,000 awards were made during the course of the war. The Prussian king Friedrich Wilhelm III established the Iron Cross at the beginning of the German campaign as part of the Napoleonic Wars . The design was a silver-framed cast iron cross on 13 March 1813. Iron was a material which symbolised defiance and reflected the spirit of the age. The Prussian state had mounted
17272-485: Was established on the basis of public speaking in theatres and the media during the 20th century and documented in pronouncing dictionaries. Official revisions of some of the rules from 1901 were not issued until the controversial German orthography reform of 1996 was made the official standard by governments of all German-speaking countries. Media and written works are now almost all produced in Standard German which
17408-569: Was formed on 1 March 1956 to succeed the Kasernierte Volkspolizei (Barracked People's Police) and under the influence of the Soviet Army became one of the Warsaw Pact militaries opposing NATO during the Cold War . The majority of NATO officers rated the NVA the best military in the Warsaw Pact based on discipline , thoroughness of training, and the quality of officer leadership. The NVA did not see significant combat but participated in
17544-652: Was founded in 1955 in Cologne by Alfred Keller , Knight of the Order Pour le Mérite and recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross. Later, the recipients of the Prussian Golden Military Merit Cross , or the Pour le Mérite for enlisted personnel, were included. The AKCR lists the awarding of 7318 Knight's Crosses, as well as 882 Oak Leaves, 159 Swords, 27 Diamonds, 1 Golden Oak Leaves and 1 Grand Cross of
17680-413: Was given free of charge to beneficiaries in the new federal states or other departments, to museums, or to friendly nations in the context of military support for developing countries . The German Federal Intelligence Service secretly sold NVA equipment to several countries, violating international and German laws as well as international treaties. The rest was destroyed. 24 modern MIG-29s became part of
17816-412: Was later removed, except on the coats from 1974 to 1979. Even the NVA's M-56 "gumdrop" army helmet , in spite of its easily noticeable resemblance to well-known Soviet designs, was actually based on a prototype "B / II" helmet that was initially developed for the Wehrmacht by the Institute for Defence Technical Materials Science in Berlin. The helmet had seen trials since 1943, but was not adopted by
17952-426: Was led by Lieutenant General Jörg Schönbohm . Most facilities closed, and equipment was either sold or given to other countries. Most of the NVA's 36,000 officers and NCOs were let go, including all officers above the rank of Oberstleutnant . The Bundeswehr retained only 3,200 – after a demotion of one rank. In addition, all female soldiers (at this point it was still prohibited for women to become soldiers in
18088-425: Was optional for officers and warrant officers. The summer field uniform for both officers and enlisted consisted of a jacket and trousers originally in Flachtarnenmuster and then in Strichtarn , a dark-brown (later a forest green) raindrop camouflage pattern on a stone-gray background; a field cap, service cap, or steel helmet ; high black boots; and a gray webbing belt with y-strap suspenders. In winter,
18224-438: Was relocated from Zossen in Brandenburg to Traunstein in Bavaria on this day and the confusion regarding who can be considered a legitimate Knight's Cross recipient began. Hitler frequently made the presentations of the Oak Leaves and higher grades himself. The first presentations in 1940 and 1941 were made in the Reich Chancellery in Berlin or at the Berghof near Berchtesgaden . Beginning with Operation Barbarossa ,
18360-419: Was similar in appearance to the Oak Leaves clasp with the exception that a pair of crossed swords were soldered to the base of the Oak Leaves. The Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub, Schwertern und Brillanten ) was instituted on 15 July 1941. The first recipients were Werner Mölders and Adolf Galland . Presentation of the Diamonds came as
18496-410: Was very similar to the Iron Cross. Its shape was that of a cross pattée , a cross that has arms which are narrow at the center and broader at the perimeter. The most common Knight's Crosses were produced by the manufacturer Steinhauer & Lück in Lüdenscheid . The Steinhauer & Lück crosses are stamped with the digits "800", indicating 800 grade silver, on the reverse side. The Knight's Cross of
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