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93-691: Initial reorganization divided the National Cavalry of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth into four brigades (each numbering roughly 737 officers and soldiers and horses), two in the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and two in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . The brigades were further composed of 24 banners altogether. The ancient and ineffective companion – retainer system was preserved and

186-485: A division and roughly equal to or a little larger than a regiment . During the American Civil War infantry brigades contained two to five regiments with the idea being to maintain a unit with a strength of 2,000 soldiers and were usually commanded by a brigadier general or a senior colonel. During World War I the division consisted of two brigades of two regiments each. More recently, the U.S. Army has moved to

279-413: A "battle group", viz., brigada or "brigade" commanded by a senior colonel, or lieutenant colonel, appointed as a brigadier-general . In France, Marshal Turenne (1611–1675) copied the brigade organization; he made it a permanent standing unit, requiring the creation in 1667 of a permanent rank of brigadier des armées du roi (literally translating to "brigadier of the armies of the king"). Unlike

372-547: A 100,000-year-old human-made ochre -based mixture that could have been used like paint. Further excavation in the same cave resulted in the 2011 report of a complete toolkit for grinding pigments and making a primitive paint-like substance. Interior walls at the 5,000-year-old Ness of Brodgar have been found to incorporate individual stones painted in yellows, reds, and oranges, using ochre pigment made of haematite mixed with animal fat, milk or eggs. Ancient colored walls at Dendera , Egypt , which were exposed for years to

465-543: A MEB, available for deployment on expeditionary duty . The MEB is the intermediate MAGTF between the MEF and the marine expeditionary unit (MEU). Along with the marine infantry regiments, the MEU, (while smaller than an army brigade), are the USMC organizational equivalents of army brigades. The MEU consists of three battalion-equivalent-sized units and a command element (a battalion landing team,

558-452: A Polish wooden-treed, leather-covered saddle (similar to the Hungarian hussar one) with high pommel and cantle, and croupier attached, with two leather pistol holsters attached to the saddle. Saddle was covered with a dyed textile 'mitug' (short shabraque ) for a companion and black-dyed sheepskin 'mitug' with cloth double-color edge for a retainer, a 32-inch cloth valise behind the saddle under

651-688: A Tactical Operation Command of either a Light Infantry Division or a Military Operation Command should have 97 Officers (4+31+31+31) and 2478 (4+826+826+826) Other Ranks but this as of recent events, is far from reality Tactical Operation Command Headquarters (နည်းဗျူဟာကွပ်ကဲမှူအဖွဲ့): 4 Officers, 4 Other Ranks Tactical Operation Commander (ဗျူဟာမှူး): Colonel Chief of Staff (rough equivalent of Brigade Major ) (ညှိနှိုင်းကွပ်ကဲရေးမှူး): Major (GSO II) GS (စစ်ဦးစီးအရာရှိ): Captain (GSO III) AQ (စစ်ရေး/စစ်ထောက်အရာရှိ): Captain (GSO III) Sergeant (Clerk) (တပ်ကြပ်ကြီး (စာရေး) (4x) GSO II and GSO III are called G2 and G3 in daily usages. Paint Paint

744-508: A brigade is not part of any division and is under direct command of a corps. There are 7 independent armoured brigades, seven engineering brigades and eight air defense brigades. Independent armoured and infantry brigades are capable of extended operations without necessarily being reliant on a higher HQ for short-term logistic or intimate support. They can be used in counter-attack, exploitation of an advance, or rapid movement to reinforce formations under pressure. Prior to major restructures of

837-601: A brigade may comprise both organic elements and attached elements, including some temporarily attached for a specific task. Brigades may also be specialized and comprise battalions of a single branch, for example cavalry, mechanized, armored, artillery, air defence, aviation, engineers, signals or logistic. Some brigades are classified as independent or separate and operate independently from the traditional division structure. The typical NATO standard brigade consists of approximately 5,000 troops. However, in Switzerland and Austria,

930-413: A brigadier general. The MEB is a mid-level marine air-ground task force (MAGTF) essentially forming a "demi-division". The MEB organizational structure consists of a minimum of three regimental-equivalent-sized units and a command element (a regimental combat team, a composite marine aircraft group, a marine logistics regiment, and a MEB headquarters group). Each marine expeditionary force (MEF) contains

1023-525: A brigadier. In the Second World War, a tank brigade comprised three tank regiments and was equipped with infantry tanks for supporting the infantry divisions. Armoured brigades were equipped with cruiser tanks or (US Lend-Lease ) medium tanks and a motorised infantry battalion. The armoured divisions included one or more armored brigades. In the United States Army , a brigade is smaller than

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1116-434: A captain) reporting directly to the field force or "army" commander. As such a "field army" became larger, the number of subordinate commanders became unmanageable for the officer in general command of said army, usually a major general, to effectively command. In order to streamline command relationships, as well as effect some modicum of tactical control, especially in regard to combined arms operations (i.e., those involving

1209-528: A company called Emerton and Manby was advertising exceptionally low-priced paints that had been ground with labor-saving technology: One Pound of Colour ground in a Horse-Mill will paint twelve Yards of Work, whereas Colour ground any other Way, will not do half that Quantity. By the proper onset of the Industrial Revolution , in the mid-18th century, paint was being ground in steam-powered mills, and an alternative to lead-based pigments had been found in

1302-838: A coordination of infantry with cavalry and/or artillery forces), an intermediate level of command came into existence. The Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus improved the brigade as a tactical unit, introducing it in 1631 during a reorganization of the Swedish Army in the course of the Thirty Years' War . The invention of the brigade overcame the lack of coordination inherent in the traditional army structure consisting of independent regiments of infantry and units of supporting arms (viz., cavalry and artillery) acting separately under their individual commanding officers. Gustavus Adolphus accomplished this battlefield coordination by combining battalions of infantry with cavalry troops and artillery batteries into

1395-437: A cross-linked film. Depending on composition, they may need to dry first by evaporation of solvent. Classic two-package epoxies or polyurethanes would fall into this category. The "drying oils", counter-intuitively, cure by a crosslinking reaction even if they are not put through an oven cycle and seem to dry in air. The film formation mechanism of the simplest examples involves the first evaporation of solvents followed by

1488-524: A few of them ever reached the specified number of men-at-arms. The National Cavalry took part in several battles of the Russo-Polish war of 1792 and the Kościuszko Uprising . Among the most notable were: Following the partitions of Poland the National Cavalry was disbanded. The soldiers of the National Cavalry were dressed in the modernized and synchronized Polish national battle dress reflecting

1581-470: A logistics battalion. Mountain brigades have also a special forces (called "Mountain rangers") company. The brigade is usually commanded by a brigadier general or a senior colonel, who may be promoted to general during his tenure as brigade commander. In the Australian Army , the brigade has always been the smallest tactical formation , since regiments are either administrative groupings of battalions (in

1674-468: A marine medium tilt-rotor squadron (reinforced), a combat logistics battalion, and a MEU headquarters group). The marine infantry regiments, combined with the marine artillery regiments, comprise the bulk of the marine divisions. An example of a MEB is Task Force Tarawa ( 2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade ) during the Operation Iraqi Freedom campaign. In Myanmar, a rough equivalent of a Brigade

1767-489: A new generic brigade combat team (BCT) in which each brigade contains combat elements and their support units. After the 2013 reform , BCT personnel strength typically ranges from 4,400 personnel for infantry BCTs, to 4,500 personnel for Stryker BCTs, to 4,700 personnel for armoured BCTs. This formation is standard across the active U.S. Army, U.S. Army Reserve , and the Army National Guard . The brigade commander

1860-447: A particular brigade (as a "brigade group"). Historically, infantry or cavalry/armoured brigades have usually comprised three or four combat-arm battalions, but currently larger brigades are normal, made larger still when their affiliated artillery and engineer regiments are added. Until 1918, the chief of staff of a brigade was known as a brigade major . Before 1922, British Army brigades were normally commanded by general officers holding

1953-627: A reaction with oxygen from the environment over a period of days, weeks, and even months to create a crosslinked network. Classic alkyd enamels would fall into this category. Oxidative cure coatings are catalyzed by metal complex driers such as cobalt naphthenate though cobalt octoate is more common. Recent environmental requirements restrict the use of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and alternative means of curing have been developed, generally for industrial purposes. UV curing paints, for example, enable formulation with very low amounts of solvent, or even none at all. This can be achieved because of

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2046-476: A self-contained headquarters and staff. The principal staff officer, usually a lieutenant colonel or colonel, may be designated chief of staff. Until the late 20th century British and similar armies called the position 'brigade-major' and most British brigades have a major as the chief of staff. Some brigades may also have a deputy commander. The headquarters has a nucleus of staff officers and support (clerks, assistants and drivers) that can vary in size depending on

2139-498: A single brigade-level command. The PLAGF distinguishes three distinct types of combined arms brigades: light (motorized), medium (mechanized), and heavy (armoured). These distinctive types are more indicative of the role of the organization within its parent unit than the composition and equipment which vary and overlap between types. A light combined arms brigade may be designed as an airborne , mountain , or amphibious combined arms brigade. A combined arms brigade typically comprises

2232-406: A thinner oil is required. These volatile substances impart their properties temporarily—once the solvent has evaporated, the remaining paint is fixed to the surface. This component is optional: some paints have no diluent . Water is the main diluent for water-borne paints, even the co-solvent types. Solvent-borne, also called oil-based, paints can have various combinations of organic solvents as

2325-489: A wall properly and evenly. The previous coats having dried would be white whereas the new wet coat would be distinctly pink. Ashland Inc. introduced foundry refractory coatings with similar principle in 2005 for use in foundries. Electrochromic paints change color in response to an applied electric current. Car manufacturer Nissan has been reportedly working on an electrochromic paint, based on particles of paramagnetic iron oxide . When subjected to an electromagnetic field

2418-473: A white derivative of zinc oxide. Interior house painting increasingly became the norm as the 19th century progressed, both for decorative reasons and because the paint was effective in preventing the walls rotting from damp. Linseed oil was also increasingly used as an inexpensive binder. In 1866, Sherwin-Williams in the United States opened as a large paint-maker and invented a paint that could be used from

2511-560: Is a material or mixture that, when applied to a solid material and allowed to dry, adds a film-like layer. As art, this is used to create an image or images known as a painting . Paint can be made in many colors and types. Most paints are either oil-based or water-based, and each has distinct characteristics. Primitive forms of paint were used tens of thousands of years ago in cave paintings . Clean-up solvents are also different for water-based paint than oil-based paint. Water-based paints and oil-based paints will cure differently based on

2604-477: Is a misnomer because no chemical curing reactions are required to knit the film. On the other hand, thermosetting mechanisms are true curing mechanisms involving chemical reaction(s) among the polymers that make up the binder. Some films are formed by simply cooling the binder. For example, encaustic or wax paints are liquid when warm, and harden upon cooling. In many cases, they re-soften or liquify if reheated. Paints that dry by solvent evaporation and contain

2697-405: Is an opaque variant of watercolor , which is based around varying levels of translucency; both paints use gum arabic as the binder and water as a thinner. Gouache is also known as 'designer color' or 'body color'. Poster paint is a distemper paint that has been used primarily in the creation of student works, or by children. There are varying brands of poster paint and depending on the brand,

2790-432: Is applied or removed, and so they change color. Color-changing paints can also be made by adding halochromic compounds or other organic pigments. One patent cites use of these indicators for wall coating applications for light-colored paints. When the paint is wet it is pink in color but upon drying it regains its original white color. As cited in patent, this property of the paint enabled two or more coats to be applied on

2883-429: Is called a Tactical Operation Command. It's just a rough equivalent as a Tactical Operation Command has 3 Infantry Battalions under its command, there're no such Brigade troops or anything, instead those units such as Military Engineer, Signal, Medical and etc are supposed to be organic to the battalions (sometimes called Regiments). A Tactical Operation Command HQ only consist of 4 Officers and 4 Other Ranks. Theoritically,

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2976-643: Is expressed as the volume solid . The binder is the film-forming component of paint. It is the only component that is always present among all the various types of formulations. Many binders must be thick enough to be applied and thinned. The type of thinner, if present, varies with the binder. The binder imparts properties such as gloss, durability, flexibility, and toughness. Binders include synthetic or natural resins such as alkyds , acrylics , vinyl-acrylics, vinyl acetate/ethylene (VAE), polyurethanes , polyesters , melamine resins , epoxy , silanes or siloxanes or oils . Binders can be categorized according to

3069-474: Is first attested in England in the 17th century as a term for a larger military unit than the squadron or regiment. It was first adopted when armies began to consist of formations larger than a single regiment. Previously each regiment, battalion, cavalry squadron, or artillery battery operated somewhat independently, with its own field officer (i.e., colonel, lieutenant colonel, or major) or battery commander (usually

3162-506: Is not an ingredient. These dispersions are prepared by emulsion polymerization . Such paints cure by a process called coalescence where first the water and then the trace, or coalescing, solvent, evaporate and draw together and soften the binder particles and fuse them together into irreversibly bound networked structures, so that the paint cannot redissolve in the solvent/water that originally carried it. The residual surfactants in paint , as well as hydrolytic effects with some polymers cause

3255-464: Is usually a colonel, although a lieutenant colonel can be selected for brigade command in lieu of an available colonel. A typical tour of duty for this assignment is 24 to 36 months. Separate brigades, viz., brigades not permanently assigned to a division , were commanded by brigadier generals. A brigade commander has a headquarters and staff to assist them in commanding the brigade and its subordinate units. The typical staff includes: In addition,

3348-689: The Canadian Army has three Regular Force brigade groups, designated as Canadian mechanized brigade groups (CMBG): 1 CMBG , 2 CMBG , which contain the regular army's Anglophone units, and 5 CMBG , the regular Francophone formation. These CMBGs each comprise Co-located with each CMBG is a field ambulance , a tactical helicopter squadron, and a military police platoon. Regular Force CMBG's strengths are 5,000 personnel. Canada also has ten Primary Reserve brigades (Canadian brigade group, CBG), 31 CBG through 39 CBG, and 41 CBG. The CBG formations are for administrative purposes. On 1 January 1791, France replaced

3441-490: The Franco-German Brigade . There is also an airmobile brigade subordinated to the army aviation command. In peacetime, brigades serve primarily as force providers. The units deployed (battlegroups and task-forces) are battalion-size units provided by the regiments composing the brigades. In Indian army, a brigade consists of a HQ, three battalions along with supporting troops. It is commanded by an army officer of

3534-641: The People's Liberation Army Ground Force (PLAGF), forces were designed around the division as the basic operational unit in a similar fashion to Soviet divisions, from which much of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is designed. In 2003, the United States Army pivoted from division-centric warfare to combined-arms-centric warfare in response to the U.S. War in Iraq creating the brigade combat team (BCT). The Russian Federation followed suit reorganizing their forces and doctrine to switch from division-centric warfare to

3627-403: The infantry ) or battalion-sized units (in the cavalry ). A typical brigade may consist of approximately 5,500 personnel between two mechanised infantry battalions, an armoured regiment, an armoured artillery regiment, and other logistic and engineering units. The brigade is usually commanded by an officer holding the rank of brigadier, who is referred to as the "Brigade Commander". As of 2024 ,

3720-477: The resin binder. Most pigments used in paint tend to be spherical, but lamellar pigments, such as glass flake and MIO have overlapping plates, which impede the path of water molecules. For optimum performance MIO should have a high content of thin flake-like particles resembling mica . ISO 10601 sets two levels of MIO content. MIO is often derived from a form of hematite . Pigments can be classified as either natural or synthetic. Natural pigments are taken from

3813-531: The Argentinian Army, the typical brigade comprises an HQ company, two or three battalions (called "regiments" for historical reasons) of the brigade's main branch (infantry or armoured cavalry), which give the brigade its denomination (mechanized, armoured, airborne, mountain or jungle), plus one battalion of the other branch, plus one or two artillery groups, an engineers battalion or company, a signals company, and intelligence company, an army aviation section and

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3906-818: The Color Index system, which is commercially significant. Besides the three main categories of ingredients (binder, diluent, pigment), paint can have a wide variety of miscellaneous additives, which are usually added in small amounts, yet provide a significant effect on the product. Some examples include additives to modify surface tension , improve flow properties, improve the finished appearance, increase wet edge, improve pigment stability, impart antifreeze properties, control foaming, control skinning, create acrylic pouring cells, etc. Other types of additives include catalysts , thickeners, stabilizers, emulsifiers , texturizers, adhesion promoters, UV stabilizers, flatteners (de-glossing agents), biocides to fight bacterial growth and

3999-516: The Hussars for the companions and red or black Kolpak for the retainers, changed later into a black " giwer " hat, eight inches tall. On 11 March 1791, the new regulation was passed. Essentially the uniforms remained unchanged, but the number of adornments was lessened in order to make the uniforms less expensive. However, the new uniforms were never fully introduced. For rain and cold weather, they had cavalry coats of white color buttoned with 12 buttons in

4092-491: The JGSDF, with some of them formed from former divisions. A brigade in the JGSDF consists of 3,000–4,000 soldiers and is led by a major general . A brigade is under the command of a brigadier and comprises three or more battalions of different units depending on its functionality. An independent brigade would be one that primarily consists of an artillery unit, an infantry unit, an armour unit and logistics to support its actions. Such

4185-490: The Sejm increased the number of cavalrymen in each brigade and since then the brigades were to be 3600 men strong. The division onto banners was also abolished and replaced with a division into squadrons . Each brigade was since then composed of 24 squadrons. Following this reform, each squadron of National Cavalry was composed of four cug sub-units. The first cug in every squadron consisted of 32 former "towarzysz" Hussars , while

4278-489: The Swedish brigades, French brigades at that time comprised two to five regiments of the same branch ( brigade de cavalerie, brigade d'infanterie etc.). The rank, intermediate between colonel and maréchal de camp , disappeared in 1788 and should not be confused with that of général de brigade , which is equivalent to a brigadier general. (A modern général de brigade is referred to occasionally as brigadier .) In

4371-501: The UK and Latex in the United States is a water-borne dispersion of sub-micrometer polymer particles. These terms in their respective countries cover all paints that use synthetic polymers such as acrylic, vinyl acrylic ( PVA ), styrene acrylic, etc. as binders. The term "latex" in the context of paint in the United States simply means an aqueous dispersion; latex rubber from the rubber tree

4464-566: The appearance of Hussar and Pancerni dress prescribed by the 1746 proclamation of hetman Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł . The 1746 Hussar regiments were dressed in crimson caps and kontuszes , with Navy-blue lapels and collars, while the Pancerni wore Navy-blue caps and kontuszes, with crimson lapels and collars. The only difference between the units formed in the Grand Duchy and those from the Crown were

4557-402: The binder is left on the coated surface. Thus, an important quantity in coatings formulation is the "vehicle solids", sometimes called the "resin solids" of the formula. This is the proportion of the wet coating weight that is binder, i.e., the polymer backbone of the film that will remain after drying or curing is complete. The volume of paint after it has dried, therefore only leaving the solids,

4650-422: The buttons: silver for Polish and golden for Lithuanian units. In 1785 the uniforms were modified and all units of national cavalry since then used Navy-blue Polish kurtka with red (later various colors) coloured pannel (pipping) of the Pancerni, red Polish-style loose fit pants ( szarawary ) with a double-lampas, buttoned with six buttons on the outside below the knee, and crimson Polish (square-top) czapka of

4743-534: The combat ready support contingent is also intended to complement the Heimevernet (translates as "Home Defense") which is a large reserve infantry force, as well as act in a support capacity for an international cooperation force (e.g. NATO) in case of an invasion. Brigades in the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF) are combined arms and are similar to divisions. There are eight brigades in

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4836-403: The country's Podolian and Volhynian studs) of medium stature, crested and with a high neck, strong footed with 'iron hooves,' fast and with much stamina. Trumpeters traditionally rode paint horses for show and contrast. Horse harness was very well defined in the 1791 regulations: bridle with snaffle bit and curb-bit and double reins, breastplate with small 'rose' in the center, horse saddled with

4929-425: The difficulty in acquiring and working the materials meant that they were rarely used (and indeed, the slow drying was seen as a disadvantage ). The paint was made with the yolk of eggs , and therefore, the substance would harden and adhere to the surface it was applied to. The pigment was made from plants, sand, and different soils. Most paints use either oil or water as a base (the diluent , solvent, or vehicle for

5022-540: The diluent, including aliphatics , aromatics , alcohols , ketones and white spirit . Specific examples are organic solvents such as petroleum distillate , esters , glycol ethers, and the like. Sometimes volatile low-molecular weight synthetic resins also serve as diluents. Pigments are solid particles or flakes incorporated in the paint, usually to contribute color to the paint film. Pigments impart color by selective absorption of certain wavelengths of light and/or by scattering or reflecting light. The particle size of

5115-434: The earth or plant sources and include colorants such as metal oxides or carbon black, or various clays , calcium carbonate , mica , silicas , and talcs . Synthetics include a host of colorants created in the lab as well as engineered molecules, calcined clays, blanc fixe , precipitated calcium carbonate, and synthetic pyrogenic silicas. The pigments and dyes that are used as colorants are classified by chemical type using

5208-416: The elements, still possess their brilliant color, as vivid as when they were painted about 2,000 years ago. The Egyptians mixed their colors with a gummy substance and applied them separately from each other without any blending or mixture. They appear to have used six colors: white, black, blue, red, yellow, and green. They first covered the area entirely with white, then traced the design in black, leaving out

5301-483: The following organic units wherein the maneuver battalions vary between motorized , mechanized , or armoured depending on the type of CA-BDE. An NRA Brigade, 旅 ( lǚ ), was a military formation of the Chinese Republic 's National Revolutionary Army . Infantry and cavalry brigades comprised two infantry regiments. After the 1938 reforms, the brigade was dispensed with within the infantry division in favour of

5394-427: The foundation of Rome . After the lapse of so many centuries, he expressed great surprise and admiration at their freshness. In the 13th century, oil was used to detail tempera paintings. In the 14th century, Cennino Cennini described a painting technique utilizing tempera painting covered by light layers of oil. The slow-drying properties of organic oils were commonly known to early European painters. However,

5487-445: The front, and heavier cloth pants, while during the summer the retainers wore loose linen summer pants. They wore black boots were of Polish design, with a one-inch heel and spurs attached. The main offensive weapons for the National Cavalry regiments were: 'kopija' (lances)(companion) with swallow-tail pennon below the point, and cavalry carbines (retainers) and various Polish sabres for all. Horses were of Polish breeding (mostly from

5580-489: The functional pigments. These are typically used to build film thickness and/or reduce the cost of the paint, or they can impart toughness and texture to the film. Fillers are usually cheap and inert materials, such as diatomaceous earth , talc , lime , barytes , clay, etc. Floor paints that must resist abrasion may contain fine quartz sand as a filler. Sometimes, a single pigment can serve both decorative and functional purposes. For example some decorative pigments protect

5673-568: The headquarters includes additional junior staff officers, non-commissioned officers , and enlisted support personnel in the occupational specialities of the staff sections; these personnel are ordinarily assigned to the brigade's headquarters and headquarters company . Functional brigades are those from the combat support or combat service support arms. In the United States Marine Corps , brigades are designated as marine expeditionary brigades (MEB) and are usually commanded by

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5766-402: The heating of the substrate after electrostatic application of the dry powder. So-called "catalyzed" lacquers" or "crosslinking latex" coatings are designed to form films by a combination of methods: classic drying plus a curing reaction that benefits from the catalyst. There are paints called plastisols/organosols, which are made by blending PVC granules with a plasticiser. These are stoved and

5859-408: The lights of the ground color. They used minium for red, generally of a dark tinge. The oldest known oil paintings are Buddhist murals created c.  650 AD . The works are located in cave-like rooms carved from the cliffs of Afghanistan's Bamiyan Valley , "using walnut and poppy seed oils." Pliny mentions some painted ceilings in his day in the town of Ardea , which had been made before

5952-648: The like. Additives normally do not significantly alter the percentages of individual components in a formulation. Various technologies exist for making paints that change color. Thermochromic ink and coatings contain materials that change conformation when heat is applied or removed, and so they change color. Liquid crystals have been used in such paints, such as in the thermometer strips and tapes used in aquaria and novelty/promotional thermal cups and straws. Photochromic materials are used to make eyeglasses and other products. Similar to thermochromic molecules, photochromic molecules change conformation when light energy

6045-419: The market with the development of acrylic and other latex paints. Milk paints (also called casein ), where the medium is derived from the natural emulsion that is milk , were common in the 19th century and are still used. Used by the earliest western artists, Egg tempera (where the medium is an emulsion of raw egg yolk mixed with oil) remains in use as well, as are encaustic wax -based paints. Gouache

6138-413: The mechanisms for film formation. Thermoplastic mechanisms include drying and coalescence. Drying refers to simply evaporating the solvent or thinner to leave a coherent film behind. Coalescence refers to a mechanism that involves drying followed by actual interpenetration and fusion of formerly discrete particles. Thermoplastic film-forming mechanisms are sometimes described as "thermoplastic cure," but that

6231-725: The mitug, with a grain bag underneath this valise. In addition two linen bags attached to the saddle and a small ax for a retainer. Brigade A brigade is a major tactical military formation that typically comprises three to six battalions plus supporting elements. It is roughly equivalent to an enlarged or reinforced regiment . Two or more brigades may constitute a division . Brigades formed into divisions are usually infantry or armored (sometimes referred to as combined arms brigades). In addition to combat units, they may include combat support units or sub-units, such as artillery and engineers, and logistic units. Historically, such brigades have been called brigade-groups. On operations,

6324-463: The mix coalesces. The main purposes of the diluent are to dissolve the polymer and adjust the viscosity of the paint. It is volatile and does not become part of the paint film. It also controls flow and application properties, and in some cases can affect the stability of the paint while in liquid state. Its main function is as the carrier for the non-volatile components. To spread heavier oils (for example, linseed) as in oil-based interior house paint,

6417-420: The monomers and oligomers used in the coating have relatively very low molecular weight, and are therefore low enough in viscosity to enable good fluid flow without the need for additional thinner. If solvent is present in significant amounts, generally it is mostly evaporated first and then crosslinking is initiated by ultraviolet light. Similarly, powder coatings contain no solvent. Flow and cure are produced by

6510-417: The nanoparticle sizes rather than picking/mixing minerals to do so. These paints weighed a tiny fraction of the weight of conventional paints, a particular advantage in air and road vehicles. They reflect heat from sunlight and do not break down outdoors. Preliminary experiments suggest it can reduce temperatures by 20 to 30 degrees Fahrenheit vs conventional paint. Its constituents are also less toxic. Making

6603-421: The number of companions and retainers was to be equal, companions armed with a painted "kopia" or "kopija" ( lance ), sabre and pistols , and retainers armed with a cavalry carbine and sabre. In 1784 Sejm increased the number of men in each brigade to 876, divided into 6 squadrons, they in turn divided into 4 banners, each squadron 144 men and horses, while banner roughly 35 men and horses. On 12 November 1788

6696-400: The numbers could start as high as 10,000 troops. The Soviet Union, its forerunners and successors, mostly uses "regiment" instead of brigade, and this was common in much of Europe until after World War II. A brigade's commander is commonly a major general , brigadier general , brigadier or colonel . In some armies, the commander is rated as a general officer . The brigade commander has

6789-689: The outside ambient temperature of the object being painted (such as a house). Usually, the object being painted must be over 10 °C (50 °F), although some manufacturers of external paints/primers claim they can be applied when temperatures are as low as 2 °C (35 °F). Paint was used in some of the earliest known human artworks. Some cave paintings drawn with red or yellow ochre , hematite , manganese oxide , and charcoal may have been made by early Homo sapiens as long as 40,000 years ago. Paint may be even older. In 2003 and 2004, South African archeologists reported finds in Blombos Cave of

6882-430: The paint starts with a thin double-sided mirror. The researchers deposited metallic nanoparticles on both sides of the sheet. Large sheets were ground to produce small flakes. The vehicle is composed of binder; if it is necessary to thin it with a diluent like solvent or water, it is a combination of binder and diluent. In this case, once the paint has dried or cured very nearly all of the diluent has evaporated and only

6975-408: The paint to remain susceptible to softening and, over time, degradation by water. The general term of latex paint is usually used in the United States, while the term emulsion paint is used for the same products in the UK, and the term latex paint is not used at all. Paints that cure by polymerization are generally one- or two-package coatings that polymerize by way of a chemical reaction and cure into

7068-476: The paramagnetic particles change spacing, modifying their color and reflective properties. The electromagnetic field would be formed using the conductive metal of the car body. Electrochromic paints can be applied to plastic substrates as well, using a different coating chemistry. The technology involves using special dyes that change conformation when an electric current is applied across the film itself. This new technology has been used to achieve glare protection at

7161-476: The pigment and oil mixture would have been ground into a paste with a mortar and pestle. The painters did the process by hand, which exposed them to lead poisoning due to the white-lead powder. In 1718, Marshall Smith invented a "Machine or Engine for the Grinding of Colors" in England. It is not known precisely how it operated, but it was a device that dramatically increased the efficiency of pigment grinding. Soon,

7254-529: The pigment is critical to the light-scattering mechanism. The size of such particles can be measured with a Hegman gauge . Dyes, on the other hand, are dissolve in the paint and impart color only by the selective absorption mechanism. Paints can be formulated with only pigments, only dyes, both, or neither. Pigments can also be used to give the paint special physical or optical properties, as opposed to imparting color, in which case they are called functional pigments. Fillers or extenders are an important class of

7347-467: The pigment). The Flemish-trained or influenced Antonello da Messina , who Vasari wrongly credited with the introduction of oil paint to Italy, does seem to have improved the formula by adding litharge , or lead (II) oxide. A still extant example of 17th-century house oil painting is Ham House in Surrey , England , where a primer was used along with several undercoats and an elaborate decorative overcoat;

7440-455: The quality will differ. More inexpensive brands will often crack or fade over time if they are left on a poster for an extended time. Paint can be applied as a solid, a gas, a gaseous suspension ( aerosol ) or a liquid. Techniques vary depending on the practical or artistic results desired. As a solid (usually used in industrial and automotive applications), the paint is applied as a very fine powder, then baked at high temperature. This melts

7533-585: The rank of Brigadier (Single star commander). The main core of the Norwegian Army is the Brigade Nord , consisting of eight battalions of which four are combat battalions (one infantry, one mechanized infantry, one artillery and one armored) and the rest are various types of support battalions. The brigade is intended to be combat ready at all times. The combat battalions have a significant portion of professional soldiers (specialists). The fairly large size of

7626-531: The rank of brigadier-general (equivalent to a "one-star" rank in the US Army); after that date, the brigade commander was an appointment for officers with the rank of brigadier, which were then classified as field officers not general officers. This is universally the case today. From 1859 to 1938, "brigade" ("brigade-division" 1885–1903) was also the term used for a battalion-sized unit of the Royal Artillery . This

7719-492: The regiment to simplify the command structure. Brigades, with a field not a regional administrative role, have usually been of a named type and numbered since the 19th century (e.g. cavalry brigade or infantry brigade). Since the end of World War II, brigade numbers have been unique and not by type. Brigades in divisions do not usually command their combat support and combat service support units. These remain under divisional command, although they may be permanently affiliated with

7812-471: The remaining four were composed of 32 former Pancerni cavalrymen. This allowed the unit to be fairly flexible, with the first cug used for break-through charges and the remaining three in supporting roles. During the Kościuszko Uprising of 1794 additional units of National Cavalry were raised in various parts of Poland. Altogether, the government formed 12 brigades of national cavalry, 2 regiments of horse guard and 16 regiments of Front Guard. However, only

7905-640: The solid binder dissolved in a solvent are known as lacquers . A solid film forms when the solvent evaporates. Because no chemical crosslinking is involved, the film can re-dissolve in solvent; lacquers are unsuitable for applications where chemical resistance is important. Classic nitrocellulose lacquers fall into this category, as do non-grain raising stains composed of dyes dissolved in solvent. Performance varies by formulation, but lacquers generally tend to have better UV resistance and lower corrosion resistance than comparable systems that cure by polymerization or coalescence. The paint type known as Emulsion in

7998-442: The substrate from the harmful effects of ultraviolet light by making the paint opaque to these wavelengths, i.e. by selectively absorbing them. These hiding pigments include titanium dioxide , phthalo blue , red iron oxide , and many others. Some pigments are toxic, such as the lead pigments that are used in lead paint . Paint manufacturers began replacing white lead pigments with titanium white (titanium dioxide), before lead

8091-539: The tin without preparation. It was only when the stimulus of World War II created a shortage of linseed oil in the supply market that artificial resins, or alkyds, were invented. Cheap and easy to make, they held the color well and lasted for a long time. Through the 20th century, paints used pigments , typically suspended in a liquid. In the 21st century, "paints" that used structural color were created. Aluminum flakes dotted with smaller aluminum nanoparticles could be tuned to produce arbitrary colors by adjusting

8184-554: The touch of a button in passenger airplane windows. Color can also change depending on viewing angle, using iridescence , for example, in ChromaFlair . Since the time of the Renaissance , siccative (drying) oil paints, primarily linseed oil , have been the most commonly used kind of paints in fine art applications; oil paint is still common today. However, in the 20th century, new water-borne paints such acrylic paints , entered

8277-517: The type of brigade. On operations, additional specialist elements may be attached. The headquarters will usually have its own communications unit. In some gendarmerie forces, brigades are the basic-level organizational unit. Borrowed from the French cognate word brigade , the term originates from the Italian noun brigata , itself derived from the Italian verb brigare , to contend or fight. The word

8370-516: The use of battalion tactical groups (BTGs). Finally, the PLAGF, as part of a larger restructuring, underwent the so-called "brigade-ization" making PLAGF divisions a largely administrative echelon and moving forces into combined arms brigades (CA-BDE). Structured very similarly to U.S. Army BCTs, the PLAGF combined arms brigade places maneuver , artillery , air defense , reconnaissance , engineer and protection , and logistics and sustainment under

8463-448: The word "Regiment" that had been associated with the former Royal regime with the term "demi-brigade". France replaced its divisions with brigades in 1999 (so for example the 2nd Armored Division became the 2nd Armored Brigade). It was decided in 2016 to again form two divisions ( 1st and 3rd ) made up of four and three brigades for a total of seven brigades: two armored, two "intermediate", two light brigades (alpine and parachute) and

8556-728: Was banned in paint for residential use in 1978 by the US Consumer Product Safety Commission. The titanium dioxide used in most paints today is often coated with silica/alumina/zirconium for various reasons, such as better exterior durability, or better hiding performance (opacity) promoted by more optimal spacing within the paint film. Micaceous iron oxide (MIO) is another alternative to lead for protection of steel, giving more protection against water and light damage than most paints. When MIO pigments are ground into fine particles, most cleave into shiny layers, which reflect light, thus minimising UV degradation and protecting

8649-504: Was because, unlike infantry battalions and cavalry regiments, which were organic, artillery units consisted of individually numbered batteries that were "brigaded" together. The commanding officer of such a brigade was a lieutenant colonel . In 1938, the Royal Artillery adopted the term "regiment" for this size of unit, and "brigade" became used in its normal sense, particularly for groups of anti-aircraft artillery regiments commanded by

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