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134-538: Narcissism is a self-centered personality style characterized as having an excessive preoccupation with oneself and one's own needs, often at the expense of others. Narcissism, rooted in Greek mythology, has evolved into a psychological concept studied extensively since the early 20th century, highlighting its relevance across various societal domains. Narcissism exists on a continuum that ranges from normal to abnormal personality expression. While many psychologists believe that

268-404: A holistic , humanistic view of the individual psyche which placed much emphasis on cultural and social differences worldwide. Horney was also a pioneer in the discipline of feminine psychiatry. As one of the first female psychiatrists, she was the first known woman to present a paper regarding feminine psychiatry. Fourteen of the papers she wrote between 1922 and 1937 were amalgamated into

402-452: A "path to the grand reunification of psychology and behavior analysis". The preceding behaviorisms of Ivan P. Pavlov , Edward L. Thorndike , John B. Watson , B. F. Skinner , and Clark L. Hull studied the basic principles of conditioning with animals. These behaviorists were animal researchers. Their basic approach was that those basic animal principles were to be applied to the explanation of human behavior. They did not have programs for

536-454: A "secondary narcissism" came as a result of his observation of the peculiar nature of the schizophrenic's relation to themselves and the world. He observed that the two fundamental qualities of such patients were megalomania and withdrawal of interest from the real world of people and things: "the libido that has been withdrawn from the external world has been directed to the ego and thus gives rise to an attitude which may be called narcissism." It

670-492: A central explanation of human behavior, but PB additionally concerns emotion and classical conditioning. This difference between the two behaviorisms can be seen clearly in their theories of language. Staats, extending prior theory indicates that a large number of words elicit either a positive or negative emotional response because of prior classical conditioning. As such they should transfer their emotional response to anything with which they are paired. PB provides evidence this

804-417: A certain kind of early environment. Heritability studies using twins have shown that narcissistic traits, as measured by standardized tests, are often inherited. Narcissism was found to have a high heritability score (0.64) indicating that the concordance of this trait in the identical twins was significantly influenced by genetics as compared to an environmental causation. It has also been shown that there

938-475: A character in Greek mythology best known from the telling in Roman poet Ovid 's Metamorphoses , written in 8 CE. Book III of the poem tells the mythical story of a handsome young man, Narcissus, who spurns the advances of many potential lovers. When Narcissus rejects the nymph Echo , who was cursed to only echo the sounds that others made, the gods punish Narcissus by making him fall in love with his own reflection in

1072-458: A child development measure as they also learned to like the learning situation. Staats published the first study in this series in 1962 and describes his later studies and his more general conception in his 1963 book. This research, that included work with his own children from birth on, was the basis for Staats' books specifying the importance of the parents' early training of the child in language and other cognitive repertoires. He shows they are

1206-500: A combination of the antagonistic core with temperamental boldness—defined by positive emotionality, social dominance, reward-seeking and risk-taking. Grandiosity is defined—in addition to antagonism—by a confident, exhibitionistic and manipulative self-regulatory style: Narcissistic vulnerability is thought to arise from a combination of the antagonistic core with temperamental reactivity—defined by negative emotionality, social avoidance, passivity and marked proneness to rage. Vulnerability

1340-416: A consequence of humans' inevitable learning positive emotion stimuli will serve as positive discriminative stimuli, incentives. Negative emotion stimuli will serve as negative discriminative stimuli, disincentives. Therefore, emotion stimuli also have reinforcing value and discriminative stimulus value. Unlike Skinner's basic principles, emotion and classical conditioning are central causes of behavior. Unlike

1474-598: A continuous process—with neuroses commonly occurring sporadically in a person's lifetime. This was in contrast to the opinions of her contemporaries who believed neurosis was, like more severe mental conditions, a negative malfunction of the mind in response to external stimuli, such as bereavement , divorce or negative experiences during childhood and adolescence. This has been debated widely by contemporary psychologists. Horney believed these stimuli to be less important, except for influences during childhood. Rather, she placed significant emphasis on parental indifference towards

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1608-429: A drive to be ingenious and productive. Women are able to satisfy this need normally and internally—to do this they become pregnant and give birth. Men satisfy this need only through external ways; Horney proposed that the striking accomplishments of men in work or some other field can be viewed as compensation for their inability to give birth to children. Horney developed her ideas to the extent that she released one of

1742-497: A food stimulus to elicit an emotional response and Thorndike used food as a reward (reinforcer) to strengthen a particular motor response, whenever food is used both types of conditioning thus take place. That means that food both elicits a positive emotion and food will serve as a positive reinforcer (reward). It also means that any stimulus that is paired with food will come to have those two functions. Psychological behaviorism and Skinner's behaviorism both consider operant conditioning

1876-511: A generalized lack of empathy and concern for others. On a spectrum, destructive narcissism is more extreme than healthy narcissism but not as extreme as the pathological condition. Extremely high levels of narcissistic behavior are considered pathological . The pathological condition of narcissism is a magnified, extreme manifestation of healthy narcissism. It manifests itself in the inability to love others, lack of empathy, emptiness, boredom, and an unremitting need to search for power, while making

2010-628: A high need for uniqueness. Sigmund Freud (1914) published his theory of narcissism in a lengthy essay titled " On Narcissism: An Introduction ". For Freud, narcissism refers to the individual's direction of libidinal energy toward themselves rather than objects and others. He postulated a universal "primary narcissism", that was a phase of sexual development in early infancy – a necessary intermediate stage between auto-eroticism and object-love, love for others. Portions of this 'self-love' or ego-libido are, at later stages of development, expressed outwardly, or "given off" toward others. Freud's postulation of

2144-528: A journal, the American Journal of Psychoanalysis . She taught at the New York Medical College and continued practising as a psychiatrist until her death in 1952. Horney looked at neurosis in a different light from other psychoanalysts of the time. Her expansive interest in the subject led her to compile a detailed theory of neurosis, with data from her patients. Horney believed neurosis to be

2278-430: A label for the self-serving and for all domestic abusers. Some psychologists suggest that a moderate level of narcissism is supportive of good psychological health. Self-esteem works as a mediator between narcissism and psychological health. Elevated self-esteem, in moderation, supports resilience and ambition, but excessive self-focus can distort social relationships. While narcissism, in and of itself, can be considered

2412-476: A lack of empathy. Narcissism has variously been correlated with both traits, though psychologists such as Delroy Paulhus and Kevin Williams see enough evidence that it is a distinct trait. Collective narcissism is a type of narcissism where an individual has an inflated self-love of their own group. While the classic definition of narcissism focuses on the individual, collective narcissism asserts that one can have

2546-466: A language repertoire as well as having learned tantrums and other abnormal repertoires. PB's theories of various behavior disorders employ the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) descriptions of both abnormal repertoires and the absence of normal repertoires. Psychological behaviorism provides the framework for an approach to clinical treatment of behavior disorders, as shown in

2680-540: A marriage bond should be. Horney explained that the "monogamous demand represents the fulfillment of narcissistic and sadistic impulses far more than it indicates the wishes of genuine love”. Most notably, her work "The Problem of the Monogamous Ideal" was fixed upon marriage, as were six other of Horney's papers. Her essay "Maternal Conflicts" attempted to shed new light on the problems women experience when raising adolescents. Horney believed both men and women have

2814-421: A moderate degree of narcissism is normal and healthy in humans, there are also more extreme forms, observable particularly in people who are excessively self-absorbed, or who have a mental illness like narcissistic personality disorder (NPD), where the narcissistic tendency has become pathological, leading to functional impairment and psychosocial disability. The term narcissism is derived from Narcissus ,

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2948-402: A neurotic. The ten needs, as set out by Horney, (classified according to her so-called coping strategies ) are as follows: Moving Toward People (Compliance) Moving Against People (Aggression) Moving Away from People (Withdrawal) Upon investigating the ten needs further, Horney found she was able to condense them into three broad categories: Horney delves into a detailed explanation of

3082-415: A normal personality trait, high levels of narcissistic behavior can be harmful to both self and others. Destructive narcissism is the constant exhibition of a few of the intense characteristics usually associated with pathological narcissistic personality disorder such as a "pervasive pattern of grandiosity ", which is characterized by feelings of entitlement and superiority, arrogant or haughty behaviors, and

3216-518: A person for a performance will increase the likelihood the person will perform that action later on, and (3) seeing the sign RESTAURANT will elicit a positive emotion in a hungry driver and thus instigate turning into the restaurant's parking lot. Each case depends upon words eliciting an emotional response. PB treats various aspects of language, from its original development in children to its role in intelligence and in abnormal behavior, and backs this up with basic and applied study. His theory paper in

3350-505: A piece of food is provided to a dog shortly after a buzzer is sounded, for a number of times, the buzzer will come to elicit salivation, part of an emotional response. In operant conditioning, if a piece of food is presented to a dog after the dog makes a particular motor response, the dog will come to make that motor response more frequently. For Staats, these two types of conditioning are not separate, they interact. A piece of food elicits an emotional response. A piece of food presented after

3484-468: A pool of water. When Narcissus discovers that the object of his love cannot love him back, he slowly pines away and dies. The concept of excessive selfishness has been recognized throughout history. In ancient Greece, the concept was understood as hubris . Some religious movements such as the Hussites attempted to rectify what they viewed as the shattering and narcissistic cultures of recent centuries. It

3618-416: A psychiatrist, Horney named ten patterns of neurotic needs. These ten needs are based upon things which she thought all humans require to succeed in life. Horney modified these needs somewhat to correspond with what she believed were individuals' neuroses. A neurotic person could theoretically exhibit all of these needs, though in practice fewer than the ten here need to be present for a person to be considered

3752-672: A pulmonary infection. Both events contributed to a worsening of Horney's mental health. She entered into a second period of deep depression; she swam out to sea during a vacation and considered committing suicide. In 1926, Horney and her husband separated; they would divorce in 1937. She and their three daughters moved out of Oskar's house. Oskar had proven to be very similar to Horney's father, with an authoritarian personality. After studying more psychoanalytic theory, Horney regretted not objecting to her husband ruling over their children when they were younger. Despite her increasing deviation from orthodox Freudian doctrine, she practised and taught at

3886-536: A range of potential leadership problems ranging from poor motivational skills to risky decision making, and in extreme cases, white-collar crime. High-profile corporate leaders that place an extreme emphasis on profits may yield positive short-term benefits for their organizations, but ultimately it drags down individual employees as well as entire companies. Subordinates may find everyday offers of support swiftly turn them into enabling sources, unless they are very careful to maintain proper boundaries. Studies examining

4020-399: A relationship bordering on sadomasochism as a morbid dependency . She believed individuals in the neurotic categories of narcissism and resignation were much less susceptible to such relationships of co-dependency with an arrogant-vindictive neurotic. While non-neurotic individuals may strive for these needs, neurotics exhibit a much deeper, more willful and concentrated desire to fulfill

4154-745: A sensory-motor repertoire, each including sub-repertoires of various kinds. The child's behavior, in the various life situations encountered, depend upon the repertoires that have been learned. The child's ability to learn in the variety of situations encountered also depends on the repertoires that have been learned. This conception makes parenting central in the child's development, supported by many studies in behavior analysis, and offers knowledge to parents in raising their children. Staats describes humans great variability in behavior, across different people. Those individual differences are consistent in different life situations and typify people. Those differences also tend to run in families. Such phenomena have led to

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4288-650: A sexual partner is ordinarily treated. Narcissism, in this context, was seen as a perversion that consumed a person's entire sexual life. In 1911 Otto Rank published the first clinical paper about narcissism, linking it to vanity and self-admiration. In an essay in 1913 called "The God complex ", Ernest Jones considered extreme narcissism as a character trait. He described people with the God complex as being aloof, self-important , overconfident, auto-erotic, inaccessible, self-admiring, and exhibitionistic, with fantasies of omnipotence and omniscience. He observed that these people had

4422-430: A significant role in shaping and amplifying narcissistic behaviors in recent years. Platforms such as Instagram and TikTok encourage users to share content that emphasizes their personal achievements and appearance, often rewarding those who gain the most likes and followers. Narcissistic individuals are more likely to use these platforms for self-promotion and validation. The trend of posting selfies and curated images

4556-499: A similar excessively high opinion of a group, and that a group can function as a narcissistic entity. Collective narcissism is related to ethnocentrism ; however, ethnocentrism primarily focuses on self-centeredness at an ethnic or cultural level, while collective narcissism is extended to any type of ingroup beyond just cultures and ethnicities. Some commentators contend that the American populace has become increasingly narcissistic since

4690-478: A single volume titled Feminine Psychology (1967). As a woman, she felt the mapping out of trends in female behaviour was a neglected issue. Women were regarded as objects of charm and beauty—at variance with every human being's ultimate purpose of self-actualization . Women, according to Horney, traditionally gain value only through their children and the wider family. She de-romanticized the Victorian concept of how

4824-667: A training institute for those who were interested in Horney's own organization, the Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis. She founded this organization after becoming dissatisfied with the generally strict, orthodox nature of the prevailing psychoanalytic community. Horney's deviation from Freudian psychology led to her resigning from her post, and she soon took up teaching in the New York Medical College . She also founded

4958-442: A unified theory. The areas are related, their principles consistent, and they are advanced consistently, composing levels from basic to increasingly advanced. Its most basic level calls for a systematic study of the biology of the learning "organs" and their evolutionary development, from species like amoeba that have no learning ability to humans that have the most. The basic learning principles constitute another level of theory, as do

5092-412: A value system, such as a system of beliefs in human freedom, can learn to value different forms of government. An individual who has learned to be a track athlete, can learn to move more quickly as a football player. This introduces a basic principle of psychological behaviorism, that human behavior is learned cumulatively. Learning one repertoire enables the individual to learn other repertoires that enable

5226-739: Is a compulsion of some professionals to constantly assert their competence, even when they are wrong. Professional narcissism can lead otherwise capable, and even exceptional, professionals to fall into narcissistic traps. "Most professionals work on cultivating a self that exudes authority, control, knowledge, competence and respectability. It's the narcissist in us all—we dread appearing stupid or incompetent." Executives are often provided with potential narcissistic triggers. Inanimate triggers include status symbols like company cars, company-issued smartphone , or prestigious offices with window views; animate triggers include flattery and attention from colleagues and subordinates. Narcissism has been linked to

5360-567: Is a continuum or spectrum of narcissistic traits ranging from normal to a pathological personality. Furthermore, evidence suggests that individual elements of narcissism have their own heritability score. For example, intrapersonal grandiosity has a score of 0.23, and interpersonal entitlement has a score of 0.35. While the genetic impact on narcissism levels is significant, it is not the only factor at play. Two primary expressions of narcissism have been identified: grandiose ("thick-skinned") and vulnerable ("thin-skinned"). Recent accounts posit that

5494-419: Is a secondary narcissism because it is not a new creation but a magnification of an already existing condition (primary narcissism). In 1925, Robert Waelder conceptualized narcissism as a personality trait. His definition described individuals who are condescending, feel superior to others, are preoccupied with admiration, and exhibit a lack of empathy. Waelder's work and his case study have been influential in

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5628-434: Is based upon human research and unifies aspects of traditional study with his behaviorism. That includes his study of the basic principles. For example, the original behaviorists treated the two types of conditioning in different ways. The most generally used way by B. F. Skinner constructively considered classical conditioning and operant conditioning to be separate and independent principles. In classical conditioning, if

5762-455: Is behaviorally, what causes intelligence, as well as how intelligence can be increased. It is thus a behaviorism that systematically incorporates and explains, behaviorally, empirical parts of psychology. The different behaviourisms also differ with respect to basic principles. Skinner contributed greatly in separating Pavlov's classical conditioning of emotion responses and operant conditioning of motor behaviors. Staats, however, notes that food

5896-480: Is believed to be more common in men than in women, it occurs in both males and females who compensate for feelings of sexual inadequacy by becoming overly proud or obsessed with their masculinity or femininity. The controversial condition referred to as " sexual addiction " is believed by some experts to be sexual narcissism or sexual compulsivity, rather than an addictive behavior. Narcissistic parents often see their children as extensions of themselves and encourage

6030-422: Is defined—in addition to antagonism—by a shy, vindictive and needy self-regulatory style: Sexual narcissism has been described as an egocentric pattern of sexual behavior that involves an inflated sense of sexual ability or sexual entitlement, sometimes in the form of extramarital affairs. This can be overcompensation for low self-esteem or an inability to sustain true intimacy. While this behavioral pattern

6164-409: Is different from Horney's other major defensive strategies or solutions in that it is not compensatory. Self-idealization is compensatory in her theory, but it differs from narcissism. All the defensive strategies involve self-idealization, but in the narcissistic solution, it tends to be the product of indulgence rather than deprivation. The narcissist's self-esteem is not strong, however, because it

6298-405: Is indistinguishable from narcissistic personality disorder , differing only in its late onset and its environmental support by large numbers of fans. "The lack of social norms, controls, and of people centering them makes these people believe they're invulnerable", so that the person may suffer from unstable relationships, substance abuse or erratic behaviors. Social media Social media has played

6432-426: Is insufficient, because in his view psychology needs to unify traditional knowledge of human behavior with behaviorism. He has called that behaviorizing psychology in a way that enables psychological behaviorism to deal with topics not usually dealt with in behaviorism, such as personality. According to this theory, personality consists of three huge and complex behavioral repertoires : The infant begins life without

6566-418: Is not based on genuine accomplishments. Mosak (1989) states that while there is no direct evidence Alfred Adler and Horney influenced one another, they landed at similar theoretical understandings. While Horney acknowledged and agreed with Freud on many issues, she was also critical of him on several key beliefs. Like others whose views differed from that of Freud, Horney felt sex and aggression were not

6700-436: Is particularly prevalent among individuals who seek external approval to boost their self-esteem. The constant feedback from social media algorithms, which prioritize highly engaging content, further fuels narcissistic tendencies. While this can lead to increased attention and admiration, it can also create emotional instability. Narcissists often experience negative feelings, such as anxiety or depression, when they do not receive

6834-404: Is that children are the young of the human species that has a body that can make an infinity of different behaviors. The human species also has a nervous system and brain of 100 billion neurons that can learn in marvelous complexity. The child's development consists of the learning of repertoires, extraordinarily complex, like a language-cognitive repertoire, an emotional-motivational repertoire, and

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6968-462: Is the case. PB's basic learning theory also states that emotional words have two additional functions. They will serve as rewards and punishments in learning other behaviors, and they also serve to elicit either approach or avoidance behavior. Thus, (1) hearing that people of an ethnic group are dishonest will condition a negative emotion to the name of that group as well as to members of that group, (2) complimenting (saying positive emotional words to)

7102-444: Is the healthy person's aim through life—as opposed to the neurotic's clinging to a set of key needs. According to Horney we can have two views of our self: the " real self " and the "ideal self". The real self is who and what we actually are. The ideal self is the type of person we feel we should be. The real self has the potential for growth, happiness, will power, realization of gifts, etc., but it also has deficiencies. The ideal self

7236-402: Is the individual's perception of his/her behavior, situation, and organism. Personality, situation, and the interaction between them are the three main forces explaining behavior. The world acts upon the person, but the person also acts both on the world, and on him/herself. The methodology of psychological behavioral theory contains techniques of assessment and therapy specially designed for

7370-532: Is triggered and supported by the celebrity-obsessed society. Fans, assistants and tabloid media all play into the idea that the person really is vastly more important than other people, triggering a narcissistic problem that might have been only a tendency, or latent, and helping it to become a full-blown personality disorder. " Robert Millman says that what happens to celebrities is that they get so used to people looking at them that they stop looking back at other people." In its most extreme presentation and symptoms, it

7504-458: Is used as a model to assist the real self in developing its potential and achieving self-actualization. (Engler 125) But it is important to know the differences between our ideal and real self. The neurotic person's self is split between an idealized self and a real self. As a result, neurotic individuals feel they somehow do not live up to the ideal self. They feel there is a flaw somewhere in comparison to what they "should" be. The goals set out by

7638-416: Is why personality tests can predict how people will behave. That means also that tests can be used to identify important human behaviors, and the learning that produces those behaviors can be studied. Gaining that knowledge will make it possible to develop environmental experiences that produce or prevent types of personality from developing. A study has shown, for example, that in learning to write letters of

7772-610: The Charité . Within the space of one year, Karen gave birth to her first child and lost both of her parents. She entered psychoanalysis to help herself cope. Her first analyst was Karl Abraham in 1910, then she moved to Hanns Sachs . Karen and Oskar had three daughters. The first, born in 1911, was Brigitte Horney , who became a famous actress. Horney is often thought of primarily as a neo-Freudian member of "the cultural school," which also includes Erich Fromm , Harry Stack Sullivan , Clara Thompson , and Abram Kardiner . In 1920, Horney

7906-672: The New School for Social Research and the New York Psychoanalytic Institute . It was in Brooklyn Horney developed and advanced her composite theories regarding neurosis and personality , based on experiences gained from working in psychotherapy . In 1937 she published The Neurotic Personality of Our Time , which had wide popular readership. By 1941, Horney was Dean of the American Institute of Psychoanalysis,

8040-529: The University of Göttingen , and would transfer once more to the University of Berlin before graduating with an M.D. in 1913. Attending several universities was common at the time to gain a basic medical education. Through her fellow student Carl Müller-Braunschweig—who later became a psychoanalyst—she met the business student Oskar Horney. They married in 1909. The couple moved to Berlin together, where Oskar worked in industry while Karen continued her studies at

8174-642: The Berlin Psychoanalytic Society until 1932. Freud's increasing coolness toward her and her concern over the rise of Nazism in Germany motivated her to accept an invitation by Franz Alexander to become his assistant at the Chicago Institute of Psychoanalysis, and in 1932, she and her daughters moved to the United States. Two years after moving to Chicago, Horney relocated to Brooklyn . Brooklyn

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8308-483: The above needs (and their corresponding neurotic solutions) in her book Neurosis and Human Growth . Horney saw narcissism quite differently from Freud , Kohut, and other mainstream psychoanalytic theorists in that she did not posit a primary narcissism but saw the narcissistic personality as the product of a certain kind of early environment acting on a certain kind of temperament. For her, narcissistic needs and tendencies are not inherent in human nature. Narcissism

8442-439: The age of nine Karen became ambitious and somewhat rebellious. She felt she could not become pretty, and instead decided to vest her energies into her intellectual qualities — despite the fact she was seen by most as pretty. At this time she developed a crush on her older brother, who became embarrassed by her attentions — soon pushing her away. She suffered the first of several bouts of depression — an issue that would plague her for

8576-606: The age of thirteen. These journals showed Horney's confidence in her path for the future. She considered becoming a doctor, even though, at that time, women were not allowed to attend universities. According to Horney's adolescent diaries her father was "a cruel disciplinary figure," who also held his son Berndt in higher regard than Karen. Instead of being offended or feeling indignation over Karen's perceptions of him, her father brought her gifts from far-away countries. Despite this, Karen always felt deprived of her father's affection and instead became attached to her mother. From roughly

8710-418: The alphabet children learn repertoires that make them more intelligent. Psychological behaviorism's theory of abnormal personality rejects the concept of mental illness. Rather behavior disorders are composed of learned repertoires of abnormal behavior. Behavior disorders also involve not having learned basic repertoires that are needed in adjusting to life's demands. Severe autism can involve not having learned

8844-536: The bases for learning other repertoires. For example, reading ability, opens the possibilities for an individual to do things and learn things that a non-reader cannot. With that theory, and with its empirical methodology, PB applies to education. For example, it has a theory of reading that explains children's differences, from dyslexia to advanced reading ability. PB also suggests how to treat dyslexic children and those with other learning disabilities. Psychological behaviorism's approach has been supported and advanced in

8978-461: The basic behavioral repertoires. They are acquired through complex learning, and as this occurs, the child becomes able to respond appropriately to various situations. Whereas at the beginning learning involves only basic conditioning, as repertories are acquired the child's learning improves, being aided by the repertoires that are already functional. The way a person experiences the world depends on his/her repertoires. The individual's environment to

9112-666: The behaviors of others in the workplace as abusive and threatening than individuals who are low in narcissism. Relationships Narcissism can have a profound impact on both personal and professional relationships, often creating toxic dynamics. In romantic relationships, narcissistic individuals typically demand attention and admiration from their partner while offering little in return. They often fail to show empathy or concern for their partner’s emotional needs, focusing instead on fulfilling their own desires. The narcissist’s behavior can shift dramatically, alternating between idealizing their partner—viewing them as perfect—and devaluing them when

9246-413: The child, believing a child's perception of events, as opposed to the parent's intentions, is the key to understanding a person's neurosis. For instance, a child might feel a lack of warmth and affection should a parent make fun of the child's feelings. The parent may also casually neglect to fulfill promises, which in turn could have a detrimental effect on the child's mental state. From her experiences as

9380-447: The children to act in ways that support the parents' emotional and self-esteem needs. Due to their vulnerability, children may be significantly affected by this behavior. To meet the parents' needs, the child may sacrifice their own wants and feelings. A child subjected to this type of parenting may struggle in adulthood with their intimate relationships. In extreme situations, this parenting style can result in estranged relationships with

9514-412: The children, coupled with feelings of resentment, and in some cases, self-destructive tendencies. Origins of narcissism in children can often come from the social learning theory. The social learning theory proposes that social behavior is learned by observing and imitating others' behavior. This suggests that children are anticipated to grow up to be narcissistic when their parents overvalue them. There

9648-437: The concept of intelligence is inferred, not observed, and thus intelligence and intelligence tests are not considered systematically in behaviorism. However, PB considers IQ tests measure important behaviors that predict later school performance and intelligence is composed of learned repertoires of such behaviors. Joining the knowledge of behaviorism and intelligence testing yields concepts and research concerning what intelligence

9782-530: The concept of personality as some internal trait that is inherited that strongly determines individuals' characteristic ways of behaving. Personality conceived in that way remains an inference, based on how people behave, but with no evidence of what personality is. More successful has been the measurement of personality. There are tests of intelligence for example. No internal organ of intelligence has been found, and no genes either, but intelligence tests have been constructed that predict (helpfully but not perfectly)

9916-431: The consistent increase in brain size over the course of human evolution. That occurred because the members of the evolving hominin species were continually learning new language, emotion-motivation, and sensory-motor repertoires. That meant the new generations had to learn those ever more complex repertoires. It was cumulative learning that consistently created the selection device for the members of those generations that had

10050-554: The contention that American culture has become more narcissistic is an analysis of US popular song lyrics between 1987 and 2007. This found a growth in the use of first-person singular pronouns, such as I, me, my, and mine, reflecting a greater focus on the self, and also of references to antisocial behavior; during the same period, there was a diminution of words reflecting a focus on others, positive emotions, and social interactions. References to narcissism and self-esteem in American popular print media have experienced vast inflation since

10184-406: The core of narcissism is self-centred antagonism (or "entitled self-importance"), namely selfishness, entitlement, lack of empathy, and devaluation of others. Grandiosity and vulnerability are seen as different expressions of this antagonistic core, arising from individual differences in the strength of the approach and avoidance motivational systems. Narcissistic grandiosity is thought to arise from

10318-502: The creation of new neural connections. Organic conditions affect behavior through affecting learning, basic repertoires, and sensory processes. The effect of environment on behavior can be proximal, here-and-now, or distal, through memory and personality. Thus, biology provides the mechanism, learning and environment provide the content of behavior and personality. Creative behavior is explained by novel combinations of behaviors elicited by new, complex environmental situations. The self

10452-478: The distinctiveness and uniqueness of the person; whereas advertising in South Korean stressed the importance of social conformity and harmony. These cultural differences were greater than the effects of individual differences within national cultures. There has been an increased interest in narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) in the last 10 years. There are areas of substantial debate that surround

10586-554: The disunification of the sciences that study human behavior and human nature. Because they are disconnected, they do not build a related, simpler and more understandable conception and scientific endeavor as, for example, the biological sciences do. This philosophy of science of unification is at one with Staats' attempt to construct his unified psychological behaviorism. Psychological behaviorism's works project new basic and applied science at its various theory levels. The basic principles level, as one example, needs to study systematically

10720-544: The dog has made a motor response will have the effect of strengthening that motor response so that it occurs more frequently in the future. Staats sees the piece of food to have two functions: one function is that of eliciting an emotional response, the other function is that of strengthening the motor behavior the precedes the presenting of food. So classical conditioning and operant conditioning are very much related. Positive emotion stimuli will serve as positive reinforcers. Negative emotion stimuli will serve as punishers. As

10854-440: The end of World War II . According to sociologist Charles Derber , people pursue and compete for attention on an unprecedented scale. The profusion of popular literature about "listening" and "managing those who talk constantly about themselves" suggests its pervasiveness in everyday life. The growth of media phenomena such as " reality TV " programs and social media is generating a "new era of public narcissism". Also supporting

10988-469: The field of behavior analysis. Human origin is generally explained by Darwin's natural selection; However, while Darwin gathered imposing evidence showing the evolution of physical characteristics of species his view that behavioral characteristics (such as human intelligence) also evolved was pure assumption with no evidentiary support PB presents a different theory, that the cumulative learning of pre-human hominins drove human evolution. That explains

11122-410: The field of behavior analysis. PB theory also indicates how behavior disorders can be prevented by preventing the abnormal learning conditions that produce them. The PB theory is that child development, besides its physical growth, consists of the learning of repertoires some of which are basic in the sense they provide the behaviors for many life situations and also they determine what and how well

11256-549: The first " self-help " books in 1946, entitled Are You Considering Psychoanalysis? . The book asserted that those, both male and female, with relatively minor neurotic problems could, in effect, be their own psychiatrists. She continually stressed self-awareness was a part of becoming a better, stronger, richer human being. In the mid-1930s, Horney stopped writing on the topic of feminine psychology and never resumed. Her biographer B.J. Paris writes: Horney's apparent loss of interest in feminine psychology has led some to contend she

11390-734: The first of three Arthur Staats YouTube videos. Following that the second Staats YouTube video records him beginning teaching his three-year-old son with the reading learning (and counting) method he developed in 1962 with his daughter. This film also shows a graduate assistant working with a culturally deprived four-year-old learning reading and writing numbers and counting, participating voluntarily. The Staats YouTube video number 3 has additional cases of these usually delayed children voluntarily learning much ahead of time these cognitive repertoires that prepare them for school. This group of 11 children gained an average of 11 points in IQ and advanced significantly on

11524-437: The foundations for being intelligent and doing well on entering school. There are new studies showing that parents who talk to their children more have children with advanced language development, school success, and intelligence measures. These statistical studies should be joined with Staats' work with individual children that shows the specifics of the learning involved and how to best produce it. The two together show powerfully

11658-455: The general workforce. For example, individuals high in narcissism inventories are more likely to engage in counterproductive behavior that harms organizations or other people in the workplace. Aggressive (and counterproductive) behaviors tend to surface when self-esteem is threatened. Individuals high in narcissism have fragile self-esteem and are easily threatened. One study found that employees who are high in narcissism are more likely to perceive

11792-533: The homes of volunteering, remunerated families. This research should also be done to discover how such learning produces both normal and abnormal personality development. As another example, PB also calls for educational research into how school learning could be advanced using its methods and theories. Also, Staats' theory of human evolution is seen to call for research and theory developments. Karen Horney Karen Horney ( / ˈ h ɔːr n aɪ / ; née   Danielsen ; 16 September 1885 – 4 December 1952)

11926-444: The human learning principles that specify cumulative learning. How the principles work—in areas like child development, personality, abnormal personality, clinical treatment, education, and human evolution—compose additional levels of study. Staats sees the overarching theory of PB as basic for additional levels that compose the social sciences of sociology, linguistics, political science, anthrology, and paleoanthropology. He criticizes

12060-431: The importance of early child learning. Staats also applied his approach in fathering his own children and employed his findings in constructing conception of human behavior and human nature. He deals with many aspects of child development, from babbling to walking to discipline and time-out, and he considers parents one of his audiences. In the last of his books he summarizes his theory of child development. His position

12194-403: The individual can learn. That theory states that humans are unique in having a building type of learning, cumulative learning , in which basic repertoires enable the child to learn other repertoires that enable the learning of other repertoires. Learning language, for example, enables the child to learn various other repertoires, like reading, number concepts, and grammar. Those repertoires provide

12328-434: The individual to learn additional repertoires, and on and on. Cumulative learning is a unique human characteristic. It has taken humans from chipping hand axes to flying to the moon, learned repertoires that enable the learning of new repertoires that enable the learning of new repertoires in an endless fashion of achievement. That theory development enables psychological behaviorism to deal with types of human behavior. Out of

12462-415: The journal Behavior Therapy helped introduce cognitive (language) behavior therapy to the behavioral field. Much of the research on which PB is based has concerned children's learning. For example, there is a series of studies of the first learning of reading with preschoolers and also a series studying and training dyslexic adolescent children. The psychological behaviorism (PB) position became that

12596-410: The larger brains and were the better learners. That theory makes learning ability central in human origin, selecting who would survive and reproduce, until the advent of Homo sapiens where all individuals (except if damaged) have full brains and full learning ability. Psychological behaviorism is set forth as an overarching theory, constructed of multiple theories in various areas. Staats considers it

12730-463: The largest circulation Norwegian newspaper found that the use of self-focused and individualistic terms increased in frequency by 69 per cent between 1984 and 2005 while collectivist terms declined by 32 per cent. One study looked at differences in advertising between an individualistic culture, United States, and a collectivist culture, South Korea and found that in the US there was a greater tendency to stress

12864-404: The late 1980s. Between 1987 and 2007 direct mentions of self-esteem in leading US newspapers and magazines increased by 4,540 percent while narcissism, which had been almost non-existent in the press during the 1970s, was referred to over 5,000 times between 2002 and 2007. Similar patterns of change in cultural production are observable in other Western states. For example, a linguistic analysis of

12998-411: The mechanisms for learning and performance of behavior. For example, a severely brain-damaged child will not learn BBRs in a normal manner. According to Staats, the biological organism is the mechanism by which the environment produces learning that results in basic behavioral repertoires which constitute personality. In turn, these repertoires, once acquired, are modifying the brain's biology, through

13132-454: The narcissist no longer feels validated. This inconsistency can cause emotional confusion and distress for the partner, leaving them feeling undervalued and emotionally drained. Celebrity narcissism (sometimes referred to as acquired situational narcissism ) is a form of narcissism that develops in late adolescence or adulthood, brought on by wealth, fame and the other trappings of celebrity . Celebrity narcissism develops after childhood, and

13266-453: The neurotic are not realistic , or indeed possible. The real self then degenerates into a "despised self", and the neurotic person assumes this is the "true" self. Thus, the neurotic is like a clock's pendulum, oscillating between a fallacious "perfection" and a manifestation of self-hate . Horney referred to this phenomenon as the " tyranny of the shoulds " and the neurotic's hopeless "search for glory". She concluded these ingrained traits of

13400-424: The norms of child development—the ages when important behaviors appear—are due to learning, not biological maturation. Staats began studies to analyze cases of important human behaviors in basic and applied ways in 1954. In 1958 he analyzed dyslexia and introduced his token reinforcer system (later called the token economy) along with his teaching method and materials for treating the disorder. When his daughter Jenny

13534-516: The objective observation of the environmental events that cause behavior. Skinner 's radical behaviorism also has not established a systematic relationship to traditional psychology knowledge. Psychological behaviorism—while bolstering Watson's rejection of inferring the existence of internal entities such as mind, personality, maturation stages, and free will—considers important knowledge produced by non-behavioral psychology that can be objectified by analysis in learning-behavioral terms. As one example,

13668-420: The other behaviorisms, Staats' considers human learning principles. He states that humans learn complex repertoires of behavior like language, values, and athletic skills—that is cognitive, emotional, and sensory motor repertoires. When such a repertoire has been learned, they change the individual's learning ability. A child who has learned language, a basic repertoire, can learn to read. A person who has learned

13802-695: The performance of children in school. Children who have the behaviors measured on the tests display better learning behaviors in the classroom. Although such tests have been widely applied radical behaviorism has not invested in the study of personality or personality testing. Psychological behaviorism (e.g. ) however considers it important to study what personality is, how personality determines behavior, what causes personality, as well as what personality tests measure. Tests (including intelligence tests) are considered to measure different repertoires of behavior that individuals have learned. The individual in life situations also displays behaviors that have been learned. That

13936-422: The person unavailable to others. The clinical theorists Kernberg , Kohut , and Theodore Millon all saw pathological narcissism as a possible outcome in response to unempathetic and inconsistent early childhood interactions. They suggested that narcissists try to compensate in adult relationships. German psychoanalyst Karen Horney (1885–1952) also saw the narcissistic personality as a temperament trait molded by

14070-489: The person who led the DSM personality disorders committee for the 4th edition of the manual. Abnormal personality Staats' program takes the animal learning principles, in the form in which he presents them, to be basic. But, also on the basis of his study of human behaviors, adds human learning principles. These principles are unique, not evident in any other species. Holth also critically reviews psychological behaviorism as

14204-430: The practical application of scientific knowledge. Karen Horney (1939) postulated that narcissism was on a spectrum that ranged from healthy self-esteem to a pathological state. The term entered the broader social consciousness following the publication of The Culture of Narcissism by Christopher Lasch in 1979. Since then, social media, bloggers, and self-help authors have indiscriminately applied "narcissism" as

14338-401: The present results in learning a basic behavioral repertoire (BBR). The individual's behavior is function of the life situation and the individual's BBR. The BBRs are both a dependent and an independent variable, as they result from learning and cause behavior, constituting the individual's personality. According to this theory, biological conditions of learning are essential. Biology provides

14472-509: The primary factors that shape personality. Horney, along with Adler, believed there were greater influences on personality, including social relationship factors during childhood, rather than just repressed sexual passions. The two focused more on how the conscious mind plays a role in human personality, not just subconscious repression. Freud's notion of " penis envy " was particularly subject to criticism, as well. She thought Freud had merely stumbled upon women's jealousy of men's generic power in

14606-465: The psyche forever prevent an individual's potential from being actualized unless the cycle of neurosis is somehow broken, through treatment or, in less severe cases, life lesson. The Karen Horney Clinic opened on May 6, 1955 in New York City, in honor of Horney's achievements. The institution seeks to research and train medical professionals, particularly in the psychiatric fields, as well as serving as

14740-517: The psychology of men and women, and like Adler, she traced such differences to society and culture rather than biology. Those in The Cultural School of thought include Horney, Erich Fromm , Harry Stack Sullivan , and Clara Thompson . Horney is often classified as neo-Freudian but may also be seen as neo-Adlerian (Ansbacher, 1979), although it is contended neither Horney nor Adler directly influenced one another (Mosak, 1989). Horney

14874-523: The reach of radical behaviorism, for example, personality. Preceding behaviorists Ivan P. Pavlov Edward L. Thorndike John B. Watson B. F. Skinner Clark L. Hull Author Arthur W. Staats Major works Complex Human Behavior Learning, Language, and Cognition Child learning, intelligence, and personality Behavior and personality Social Behaviorism Psychology's Crisis of Disunity The Marvelous Learning Animal Staats proposes that radical behaviorism

15008-423: The relationship of the classical conditioning of emotional responses and the operant conditioning of motor responses. As another projection, the field of child development should focus on the study of the learning of the basic repertoires. One essential is the systematic detailed study of the learning experiences of children in the home from birth on. He says such research could be accomplished by installing cameras in

15142-420: The relationship of the two types of conditioning. Skinner's basic theory was advanced in recognizing two different types of conditioning, but he didn't recognize their interrelatedness, or the importance of classical conditioning, both very central for explaining human behavior and human nature. Staats' basic theory specifies the two types of conditioning and the principles of their relationship. Since Pavlov used

15276-432: The rest of her life. In 1904, when Karen was 19, her mother left her father (without divorcing him), taking the children with her. Against her parents' wishes, Horney entered medical school in 1906. The University of Freiburg was in fact one of the first institutions in Germany to enroll women in medical courses—with higher education only becoming available to women in Germany in 1900. By 1908, Horney had transferred to

15410-754: The role of personality in the rise to leadership have shown that individuals who rise to leadership positions can be described as inter-personally dominant, extraverted, and socially skilled. When examining the correlation of narcissism in the rise to leadership positions, narcissists who are often inter-personally dominant, extraverted, and socially skilled, were also likely to rise to leadership but were more likely to emerge as leaders in situations where they were not known, such as in outside hires (versus internal promotions). Paradoxically, narcissism can present as characteristics that facilitate an individual's rise to leadership, and ultimately lead that person to underachieve or even to fail. Narcissism can also create problems in

15544-404: The said needs. Horney also shared Abraham Maslow 's view that self-actualization is something that all people strive for. By "self" she understood the core of one's own being and potential. Horney believed that if we have an accurate conception of our own self, then we are free to realize our potential and achieve what we wish, within reasonable boundaries. Thus, she believed self-actualization

15678-639: The stresses of life. The expansive solution became a tripartite combination of narcissistic, perfectionistic and arrogant-vindictive approaches to life. (Horney had previously focused on the psychiatric concept of narcissism in a book published in 1939, New Ways in Psychoanalysis .) Her other two neurotic "solutions" were also a refinement of her previous views: self-effacement, or submission to others, and resignation, or detachment from others. She described case studies of symbiotic relationships between arrogant-vindictive and self-effacing individuals, labeling such

15812-405: The study of human behavior broadly, and deeply. Staats was the first to do his research with human subjects. His study ranged from research on basic principles to research and theory analysis of a wide variety of human behaviors, real life human behaviors. That is why Warren Tryon (2004) suggested that Staats change the name of his approach to psychological behaviorism, because Staats behaviorism

15946-420: The subject including: This extent of the controversy was on public display in 2010–2013 when the committee on personality disorders for the 5th Edition (2013) of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders recommended the removal of Narcissistic Personality from the manual. A contentious three-year debate unfolded in the clinical community with one of the sharpest critics being John G. Gunderson ,

16080-564: The subject of neurosis. Horney's mature theory of neurosis , according to Paris, "makes a major contribution to psychological thought—particularly the study of personality—that deserves to be more widely known and applied than it is." Near the end of her career, Karen Horney summarized her ideas in Neurosis and Human Growth: The Struggle Toward Self-Realization , her major work published in 1950. It's in this book she summarizes her ideas regarding neurosis, clarifying her three neurotic "solutions" to

16214-400: The three behavioral repertoires: Watson named the approach behaviorism as a form of revolution against the then prevalent use of introspection to study the mind. Introspection was subjective and variable, not a source of objective evidence, and the mind consisted of an inferred entity that could never be observed. He insisted psychology had to be based on objective observation of behavior and

16348-416: The validation they expect. This pressure to maintain an idealized online persona can lead to emotional distress, especially when their real-world interactions do not match the image they present online. Narcissism is one of the three traits in the dark triad model. The dark triad of personality traits – narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy – shows how narcissism relates to manipulative behaviors and

16482-474: The way narcissism and the clinical disorder narcissistic personality disorder are defined today. His patient was a successful scientist with an attitude of superiority, an obsession with fostering self-respect, and a lack of normal feelings of guilt. The patient was aloof and independent from others, had an inability to empathize with others, and was selfish sexually. Waelder's patient was also overly logical and analytical and valued abstract intellectual thought over

16616-547: The world. Horney accepted penis envy might occur occasionally in neurotic women, but stated that " womb envy " occurs just as much in men: Horney felt men were envious of a woman's ability to bear children. The degree to which men are driven to success may be merely a substitute for the fact they cannot carry, bear, and nurture children. Horney also thought men were envious of women because they fulfill their position in society by simply "being", whereas men achieve their manhood according to their ability to provide and succeed. Horney

16750-408: Was a German psychoanalyst who practiced in the United States during her later career. Her theories questioned some traditional Freudian views. This was particularly true of her theories of sexuality and of the instinct orientation of psychoanalysis. She is credited with founding feminist psychology in response to Freud's theory of penis envy . She disagreed with Freud about inherent differences in

16884-720: Was a founding member of the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute . She then took up a teaching position within the Institute. She helped design and eventually directed the Society's training program, taught students, and conducted psychoanalytic research. She also saw patients for private psychoanalytic sessions, and continued to work at the hospital. By 1923, Oskar Horney's firm became insolvent , and Oskar developed meningitis soon after. He rapidly became embittered, morose and argumentative. That same year, Horney's brother died of

17018-431: Was also Protestant, of Dutch origin. She was said to be more open-minded than Berndt, and yet she was "depressed, irritable, and domineering toward Karen". Karen's elder brother was also named Berndt, and Karen cared for him deeply. She also had four elder half-siblings from her father's previous marriage. However, there was no contact between the children of her father's two marriages. Horney kept diaries beginning at

17152-503: Was bewildered by psychiatrists' tendency to place so much emphasis on the male sexual organ . Horney also reworked the Freudian Oedipal complex of the sexual elements, claiming the clinging to one parent and jealousy of the other was simply the result of anxiety, caused by a disturbance in the parent-child relationship. Despite these variances with the prevalent Freudian view, Horney strove to reformulate Freudian thought, presenting

17286-520: Was born Karen Danielsen on 16 September 1885 in Blankenese, Germany, near Hamburg . Her father, Berndt Wackels Danielsen (1836–1910), was Norwegian but had German citizenship. He was a ship's captain in the merchant marine, and a Protestant traditionalist (his children nicknamed him "the Bible-thrower", as he did indeed throw Bibles). Her mother, Clotilde, née van Ronzelen (1853–1911), known as "Sonni",

17420-435: Was born in 1960 he began to study and to produce her language, emotional, and sensory-motor development. When she was a year and a half old he began teaching her number concepts, and then reading six months later, using his token reinforcer system, as he recorded on audiotape. Films were made in 1966 of Staats being interviewed about his conception of how variations in children's home learning variously prepared them for school on

17554-450: Was home to a large Jewish community, including a growing number of refugees from Nazi Germany, and psychoanalysis thrived there. It was in Brooklyn Horney became friends with analysts such as Harry Stack Sullivan and Erich Fromm . She had a sexual relationship with Fromm that ended bitterly. While living in Brooklyn, Horney taught and trained psychoanalysts in New York City, working both at

17688-504: Was never really a feminist, despite the fact she was far ahead of her time in her trenchant critique of the patriarchal ideology of her culture and the phallocentricity of psychoanalysis. Janet Sayers argues that although Horney's "rejection of Freud's work in the name of women's self-esteem has certainly inspired many feminists," she herself "was far too much of an individualist ever to engage in collective political struggle—feminist or otherwise." Instead, she became increasingly interested in

17822-403: Was not until the late 1800s that narcissism began to be defined in psychological terms. Since that time, the term has had a significant divergence in meaning in psychology. It has been used to describe: In 1889, psychiatrists Paul Näcke and Havelock Ellis used the term "narcissism", independently of each other, to describe a person who treats their own body in the same way in which the body of

17956-503: Was used by Pavlov to elicit a positive emotional response in his classical conditioning and Thorndike Edward Thorndike used food as the reward (reinforcer) that strengthened a motor response in what came to be called operant conditioning, thus emotion-eliciting stimuli are also reinforcing stimuli. Watson, although the father of behaviorism, did not develop and research a basic theory of the principles of conditioning. The behaviorists whose work centered on that development treated differently

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