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65-497: These ancient statues are said to have existed since the 14th century. The megaliths in the Bada Valley were first discovered in 1908. Despite the discovery occurring over 100 years ago, little is known about these objects, including when the stone statues were created. Some speculate that the stones were carved around 5,000 years ago, while others believe the megaliths were made about 1,000 years ago. Meanwhile, some others suspect that

130-497: A ceremony. The Kulawi tribe of Central Sulawesi still practice the exchange of heirloom bronze objects e.g. the taiganja , whose basic form has been discovered throughout the eastern part of Indonesia. Islam reached the region in the 17th century, shortly after the Islamic avowal of Gowa, the powerful kingdom at the south part of Sulawesi island. Areas along the western coast of Central Sulawesi, from Kaili to Tolitoli, were conquered by

195-464: A government official named Johannes Cornelis Wilhelmus Diedericus Adrianus van der Wyck, managed to visit Lake Poso in 1865 – becoming the first European and Dutch to do so. This step was followed by another government official, Willem Jan Maria Michielsen, in 1869. The proposal to occupy the Poso region was rejected – referring to the anti-expansion policies issued by the colonial government at that time. It

260-561: A joint Indonesian and Australian team, the pictures are known to have been drawn at least 40,000 years ago (about the same age as pictures found in the Caves of Monte Castillo , Spain which are known as the oldest ancient pictures in Europe). Some of the oldest bronze objects are discovered in Central Sulawesi. The Makassar Axe is a 1st-century AD bronze axes probably used as a valuable object in

325-564: A joint police-armed force operation to destroy the group. Many insurgents were killed or captured during the ensuing operation. Santoso was killed on 18 July 2016 by the Indonesian police after two years of hiding in the jungles near Poso , Sulawesi . On 28 September 2018, a shallow, large earthquake struck in the neck of the Minahasa Peninsula , with its epicentre located in the mountainous Donggala Regency . The magnitude 7.5 quake

390-445: A single line representing the eyebrows, cheeks, and chin. Most of the statues appear to stand alone, but some are placed in groups. These megalithic stones are scattered throughout the valley. They include carvings of humans, animals, Kalamba, and many more. Other human statues are about 1.5 meters tall with a diameter of about 50 cm. Besides adult human statues, there is the Oba statue, which

455-456: Is 70 cm tall with a humorous face and unclear gender markers. Locals refer to it as a monkey figure, but it can also be interpreted as representing children. Kalamba are artifacts in the form of large jars with lids, 1.5-2 meters in diameter, used for burial, found in the Bada Valley. These Kalamba are often found with a stone cover. Around Kalamba, smaller stones are often found. It is suspected that these smaller stones served as small Kalamba for

520-503: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article relating to archaeology in Asia is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Central Sulawesi Central Sulawesi ( Indonesian : Sulawesi Tengah ) is a province of Indonesia located at the centre of the island of Sulawesi . The administrative capital and largest city is located in Palu . The province borders

585-728: Is a unique border zone in the Asia Oceania region, where the flora and fauna differ greatly from the Asian flora and fauna that stretches across Asia with the Borneo border, also different from the Oceania flora and fauna in Australia to New Guinea and Timor . The virtual line that limits this zone is called the Wallace Line , while the peculiarities of flora and fauna are called Wallacea , because this theory

650-496: Is also inhabited by transmigrants such as Java , Bali , West Nusa Tenggara and East Nusa Tenggara . The immigrant groups from the southern half of Sulawesi, who also inhabit the area of Central Sulawesi since the early 19th century, are Mandar, Bugis, Makassar, Toraja and other ethnic groups in Indonesia, and have blended in. As in other places in Indonesia, Indonesian is the official language used in Central Sulawesi. Indonesian

715-571: Is different from the Great Sunda which is dominated by areca nut ( Rhododendron species). The variety of flora and fauna is the object of scientific research and study. To protect flora and fauna, national parks and nature reserves have been established such as Lore Lindu National Park , Morowali Nature Reserve, Tanjung Api Nature Reserve and finally the Bangkiriang Wildlife Reserve. From its creation in 1964, Central Sulawesi Province

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780-550: Is situated in a relatively flat area surrounded by hills, which creates dramatic scenery with clouds often trapped at the hilltops around the valley. It is common to see one part of the Bada Valley experiencing rain while another part is bathed in sunlight peeking through the clouds. In the middle of the Bada Valley, the Lariang River flows, merging with the Malei River, making the flow of the Lariang River stronger. For this reason,

845-403: Is that they use banyan skin as body-warmer clothes. The traditional Central Sulawesi house is made of poles and wooden walls that have thatched roofs and only have one large space. Lobo or duhunga is a shared space or hall that is used for festivals or ceremonies, while Tambi is a residence. Apart from the house, there is also a rice barn called Gampiri. Buya or sarong like a European model, up to

910-410: Is thus now divided into twelve regencies and one city ( kota ), which are listed below with their areas and their populations at the 2000, 2010 and 2020 Censuses, together with the official estimates as at mid 2023. Notes: (a) The 2000 Census populations for Parigi Moutong Regency and Sigi Regency are included in the figure for Donggala Regency. (b) the province's BPS figure for Sigi Regency at

975-512: Is used in inter-ethnic communication as well as official documents released by the provincial government as well as road signs. The people of Central Sulawesi have around 22 languages that differ from one ethnic group to another, such as Kaili , Pamona , Banggai , etc. All of these languages fall into the Austronesian peoples subgroup. Religion in Central Sulawesi (2022) Most of the inhabitants of Central Sulawesi practice Islam . Recorded in

1040-562: Is very high and a strong spirit of mutual cooperation is part of people's lives. Central Sulawesi is rich in culture inherited from generation to generation. Traditions concerning aspects of life are preserved in people's daily lives. Old beliefs are cultural heritage that are maintained and carried out in several forms with various modern influences and religious influences. Because many ethnic groups inhabit Central Sulawesi, there are also many differences between these ethnic groups which are harmonious peculiarities in society. Those who live on

1105-620: The Dutch East India Company (VOC) built fortresses in Parigi and Lambunu. Soon afterwards, the region began to fall into the Dutch sphere of influence. In the 18th century, the Dutch forced the kings of Central Sulawesi to come to Manado and Gorontalo to take an oath of loyalty to the VOC. This would mark the beginning of the Dutch colonial rule in the region for the next three centuries. Initially,

1170-634: The Indonesian flag was raised for the first time in Toli-Toli. But this situation did not last long because a week later the Dutch troops staged a counter-attack and recaptured Tolitoli. Japanese forces landed in Luwuk on 15 May 1942. The Japanese succeeded in expelling the Dutch and taking control of Central Sulawesi in just a short time. During the Japanese occupation , people's lives were increasingly depressed and

1235-619: The Sultanaete of Gowa around the middle of the 16th century under the leadership of King Tunipalangga. The area around the Gulf of Palu is an important center and trade route, coconut oil producer, and "entrance" to the interior of Central Sulawesi. On the other hand, the Gulf of Tomini area is largely under the control of the Kingdom of Parigi. With the widespread influence of South Sulawesi , Islam spread to

1300-483: The 12 regencies in the province, together with the city of Palu, and elects 7 members to the People's Representative Council. Average annual population growth between 1990 and 2000 was 2.57% and 1.96% from 2000 to 2010. The indigenous population of Central Sulawesi consists mainly of 19 ethnic or tribal groups, namely: In addition to these nineteen ethnic groups, there are several tribes living in mountainous areas such as

1365-461: The 2015 census, 76.37% of the population practiced Islam, 16.58% practiced Protestantism , 4.45% practiced Hinduism , Roman Catholicism as much as 1.85%, and Buddhism as much as 0.74%. Islam was spread in Central Sulawesi by Datuk Karama and Datuk Mangaji , scholars of West Sumatra ; which was then forwarded by Al Alimul Allamah Al-Habib As Sayyed Idrus bin Salim Al Djufri, a teacher at

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1430-399: The 2020 Census was 257,585 as shown, but the regency's BPS own figure for that Census was only 239,421. (c) The 2000 Census population for Tojo Una-Una Regency is included in the figure for Poso Regency. (d) The 2000 Census population for Banggai Laut Regency is included in the figure for Banggai Kepulauan Regency. (e) The 2000 Census population for Morowali Utara Regency is included in

1495-471: The Alkhairaat school and also proposed as a national hero. One of his grandchildren named Salim Assegaf Al Jufri was a former Indonesian Minister of Social Affairs. Christianity was first spread in the Poso district and the southern part of Donggala by Dutch missionaries such as Albertus Christiaan Kruyt . Although the majority of the people of Central Sulawesi are Muslim, the level of religious tolerance

1560-944: The Da'a tribe in Donggala and Sigi, the Wana tribe in Morowali, the Seasea tribe and the Taa tribe in Banggai and the Daya tribe in Buol and Tolitoli. Although the people of Central Sulawesi have around 22 languages that differ from one ethnic group to another, people can communicate with each other using the Indonesian Language as a national language and the language of instruction every day. Besides its indigenous people, Central Sulawesi

1625-580: The Dutch and the Indonesian. After the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference , the Dutch recognize Indonesia and withdrew from the region. The present Central Sulawesi was initially part of North Sulawesi with the capital in Manado , but was separated on 13 April 1964. Between 1999 and 2001 the region has been plagued by inter-religious violence between Muslims and Christians, where over 1,000 people were killed. The Malino II Accord

1690-500: The Kaili ethnic area around the west coast – Waino – traditional music – is displayed when there is a death ceremony. This art has been developed in a more popular form for young people as a means of finding partners in a crowd. Many dances come from religious beliefs and are displayed during festivals. The famous community dance is Dero from the Pamona people, Poso Regency and then followed by

1755-549: The Kingdom of Banawa, the Kingdom of Tawaeli, the Kingdom of Sigi , the Kingdom of Bangga, and the Kingdom of Banggai . The influence of Islam on the kingdoms in Central Sulawesi began to be felt in the 16th century. The spread of Islam in Central Sulawesi was a result of the expansion of kingdoms in South Sulawesi . The influence that first came was from the Kingdom of Bone and the Kingdom of Wajo . Dutch traders began arriving in

1820-603: The Kulawi people, Donggala Regency . Special dero dances are displayed during the harvest season, guest welcoming ceremonies, thanksgiving and certain holidays. Dero is a dance where men and women hold hands and form a circle. This dance is not an ancestral inheritance but was a habit during the Japanese occupation of Indonesia during World War II. This dance is a traditional dance from Central Sulawesi. The typical Central Sulawesi cuisine has its own characteristics, food in Central Sulawesi

1885-429: The Lariang River was once used for river rafting. In the center of the Bada Valley, the current of the Lariang River is quite calm due to the relatively flat terrain. The exact purpose of the megaliths is still unknown. The local community believes that the stones were used for ancestor worship. Additionally, the residents have stories about the origins of these megaliths. One story mentions a megalith named Tokala'ea, who

1950-564: The Palindo and Meturu statues, male genitalia are carved. On the Langke Bulawa statue, female genitalia are depicted. Gender differences are also depicted in facial features, where the female statues have faces with a fringe covering the forehead. The carvings on these megaliths are also described as minimalist. The figures are usually depicted with large heads, bodies without curves, and without legs. The faces are typically shown with round eyes and

2015-559: The Palindo statue, which means "the entertainer" in the local language, represents their ancestors, the Tosaloge tribe. According to legend, the King of Luwuk ordered 1800 statues from Sepe to Palopo to mark his reign over Bada. These statues were supposed to face south, but the mission failed because the Bada people placed them facing west. When the king requested to change their position, the statues fell on

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2080-595: The area of the Lore Lindu National Park, of which around 30 represent human forms. They vary in size from a few centimetres to approximately 4.5 metres (15 ft). The original purpose of the megaliths is unknown. Other megaliths in the area are large stone pots ( Kalamba ) accompanied by stone lids ( Tutu'na ). Various archaeological studies have dated the carvings from between 3000 BC to 1300 AD. Central Sulawesi Province has many caves, seven of which have ancient pictures and, based on 2011 research by

2145-406: The area was part of North Sulawesi before being formed as a separate province on 13 April 1964. According to UNICEF , Central Sulawesi is a province with a significant number of young people. As many as 1 million people or 35 percent of the total population in this province are children. More than three out of four children live in rural areas. More than 185,000 children (18.2 percent) live below

2210-542: The beginning of the 17th century. The Dutch built several fortifications in present-day Parigi to combat piracy in the region after annexing the region as part of the Dutch East Indies . The province remained part of the Indies for the next three centuries until the Dutch were ousted by the Japanese during World War II . After the Japanese surrendered , the area was incorporated into the new Republic of Indonesia. Initially,

2275-471: The colonial government paid little attention to the region. In 1824, representatives of the Kingdom of Banawa and the Kingdom of Palu signed the Korte Verklaring (Short Agreement) with the colonial government. Dutch ships began to sail frequently in the southern part of the Gulf of Tomini after 1830. By the 19th century, most of the interior part of Central Sulawesi still remained unexplored. In 1860,

2340-461: The disaster and more than 10,000 others injured, of which 4,612 were seriously injured. More than 70,000 houses are reported to be damaged, forcing tens of thousands of people to live in shelters and tents. The northern part of Central Sulawesi borders the Sulawesi Sea and Gorontalo , the eastern part is bordered by Maluku , the southern part is bordered by West Sulawesi and South Sulawesi ,

2405-692: The famous military campaigns was the "pacification" of the Kingdom of Mori in the Wulanderi War that took place in 1907. At the beginning of the 20th century, movements resisting the Dutch colonial rule started appearing. In addition to local movements, movements also based in Java entered. The first organization to establish a branch in Central Sulawesi was the Sarekat Islam (SI), established in Buol Toli-Toli in 1916. Another organization that developed in this area

2470-476: The figure for Morowali Regency. Palu is the provincial capital and the province's largest city by far. Other towns include Ampana , Banggai , Bungku , Buol , Donggala , Kolonodale , Luwuk , Parigi , Poso , and Toli-toli . The province forms one of Indonesia's 84 national electoral districts to elect members to the People's Representative Council . The Central Sulawesi Electoral District consists of all of

2535-673: The formation of the East Indonesia Mujahideen ( Indonesian : Mujahidin Indonesia Timur - MIT ) in the jungles of Poso. He aimed to topple the Indonesian government and create an Islamic State. The group has pledged allegiance to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant . Initially, MIT scores victory against the Indonesian government, killing many police and army personnel. In response, the government launched Operation Tinombala ,

2600-410: The king's troops, killing around 200 people. The Bada people in the past offered sacrifices to these statues before undertaking major tasks, such as opening new farmland. The megalithic statues in the Bada Valley represent human faces that have been stylized, where the eyebrows and nose are depicted as one, while the mouth is omitted. The statues in the Bada Valley generally have clear gender markers. On

2665-629: The lowest rainfall in Indonesia. Temperatures range from 25 to 31 °C for terrain and beaches with a humidity level of 71 to 76%. In mountainous regions temperatures can reach 16 to 22 'Celsius. Central Sulawesi also has several rivers, including the Lariang River as a rafting arena, Gumbasa River and Palu River. There is also two lakes that are tourist attractions, namely Lake Poso and Lake Lindu. Central Sulawesi has several conservation areas such as nature reserves, wildlife reserves and protected forests that have unique flora and fauna which are also objects of research for scientists and naturalists. Sulawesi

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2730-555: The misery of all people's activities was only intended to support Japanese warfare. This situation lasted until Japan surrendered to the Allies and was followed by the proclamation of the independence of the Republic of Indonesia. At the beginning of independence, Central Sulawesi was part of the Sulawesi province. The Dutch attempted to return to the region, resulting in a bloody war between

2795-637: The names given by locals to the ancient statues in the Bada Valley. Each statue has a unique story, one of which is Palindo. The local community once believed that Palindo stood upright. In Lore Lindu National Park, the traditional customs of the Lore tribe are still strong. Besides the stone statues and green rice fields, visitors will also find traditional Lore houses lined up. These wooden houses with ijuk (sugar palm fiber) roofs and bamboo walls are often used as lodging for visitors. Elders in Sepe Village believe that

2860-400: The notes of A.C. Kruyt, the founder of Poso, it is mentioned that before the arrival of the Dutch in Lore in 1908, it was still common for people to make stone tombs. There were still places where Kalamba (stone jars used for burial) were made. Thus, the creation of these objects comes from various periods, with some being as recent as a few hundred years ago or young megaliths. The Bada Valley

2925-494: The province is Indonesian , which is used for official purposes and inter-ethnic communication, while there are several indigenous language spoken by the Indigenous peoples of Central Sulawesi. Islam is the dominant religion in the province, followed by Christianity which is mostly adhered to by the people in the eastern part of the province. In the 13th century, several kingdoms had been established in Central Sulawesi such as

2990-517: The provinces of Gorontalo to the east, Southeast Sulawesi , South Sulawesi , and West Sulawesi to the south, and sharing maritime borders with East Kalimantan to the west, North Maluku to the east, and Malaysia and the Philippines to the north. The 2010 census recorded a population of 2,635,009 for the province, and the 2020 Census recorded 2,985,734, of whom 1,534,706 were male and 1,451,028 were female. The official estimate as at mid 2023

3055-400: The provincial poverty line in 2015 (Rp. 11,127 per person per day). However, more households are in a vulnerable position and live with income that is slightly above the poverty line. In addition, three-quarters of children experience deprivation in two dimensions non-income poverty or more, with that inequality striking between urban and rural areas. There are over 400 granite megaliths in

3120-474: The region Islam first spread to the coastal area of Central Sulawesi. In the middle of the 16th century, two kingdoms, namely Buol and Luwuk , accepted Islamic teachings. Since 1540, Buol has been in the form of a sultanate and led by a sultan named Eato Mohammad Tahir. In the beginning of the 17th century, the Dutch started arriving in Central Sulawesi. Under the pretext of securing his fleet from pirate attacks,

3185-501: The remains of babies or children. Additionally, circular stones resembling small tables or stone mortars are also found around Kalamba. The human statues and Kalamba are suspected to have been created by the same culture. This is based on the presence of small Kalamba and mortar-like stones often found near the human statues. 1°52′48″S 120°15′00″E  /  1.88000°S 120.25000°E  / -1.88000; 120.25000 This Central Sulawesi location article

3250-456: The second-largest population on Sulawesi Island after the province of South Sulawesi. It is bordered by the provinces of Gorontalo to the north, West Sulawesi , South Sulawesi and South East Sulawesi to the south, by Maluku to the east, and by the Makassar Strait to the west. The province is inhabited by many ethnic groups, such as the Kaili, Tolitoli, etc. The official language of

3315-499: The southeastern part is bordered by Southeast Sulawesi , and the western part is bordered by the Makassar Strait . The equator that crosses the northern peninsula in Central Sulawesi makes the climate of this region tropical. However, it is different from Java and Bali and parts of Sumatra , the rainy season in Central Sulawesi between April and September while the dry season between October and March. The average rainfall ranges from 800 to 3,000 millimeters per year which includes

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3380-524: The stones are related to the megalithic culture in Laos, Cambodia, and several regions in Indonesia from 2,000 years ago. According to Ancient Origins , it is still unknown who created the megalithic statues in the Bada Valley. Although there are theories that the stones were made by a culture that created megaliths elsewhere in Southeast Asia, the megaliths in the Bada Valley are considered unique. However, in

3445-573: The strong influence of Islam in Gorontalo would extend to the Central Sulawesi – which at that time the population was mostly are adheres to Animism or other Folk religion . He contacted the Dutch missionary institution, the Nederlandsch Zendeling Genootschap (NZG), and asked them to place a missionary in this area. In 1892, the NZG then sent a missionary named Albert Christian Kruyt , who

3510-693: The waist and keraba, a kind of blouse equipped with gold thread. The rope or crown on the head is thought to be the influence of the European empire. The banjara shirt embroidered with gold thread is a men's shirt that is up to knee length. Silk dressers or sarongs stretching along the chest to shoulders, colorful crowns of heads and machetes slipped around the waist complement traditional clothing. Music and dance in Central Sulawesi varies between regions. Traditional music has instruments such as Gongs , kakula , lalove and jimbe. This musical instrument functions more as entertainment and not as part of religious rituals. In

3575-682: The wedding ceremony decorations. Donggala Regency has a tradition of weaving fabrics inherited from Hindu times. Weaving centers are in Donggala Kodi, Watusampu, Palu, Tawaeli and Banawa. Double tie weaving systems, which are special techniques patterned in Bali , India and Japan, can still be found. While the mountain tribes has its own culture that is much influenced by the Toraja people in South Sulawesi . However, tradition, customs, clothing models and house architecture are different from Toraja, as an example

3640-533: The western coast of Donggala Regency have mixed with Bugis people from South Sulawesi and the people of Gorontalo . In the eastern part of Sulawesi , there are also strong influences from Gorontalo and Manado , seen from the Luwuk regional dialect and from the distribution of the Gorontaloan people in Bualemo Regency, where it is quite dominant. There are also influences from West Sumatra as seen in

3705-425: Was 3,086,750 (comprising 1,583,650 males and 1,503,100 females). According to BPS (Indonesia's Central Statistics Bureau), Central Sulawesi has an area of 61,605.72 km (23,786 sq mi), but the sum of the area figures submitted by the regencies and city is actually 65,863.75 km (25,430 sq mi); in either case, the province has the largest area among all provinces on Sulawesi Island, and has

3770-508: Was a rapist and was cursed to become a stone. Another story tells of a megalith named Tadulako. The community says Tadulako was once known as the village guardian, but after stealing rice, he was cursed to become a stone. Other stories associate the megaliths with human sacrifices. Some people also believe that the stones were intended to ward off evil spirits, while others claim that the objects have supernatural powers and can disappear or move. Palindo, Torompana, Tarae Roe, and Loga are some of

3835-929: Was composed of four regencies ( kabupaten ) - Donggala , Buol Toli-Toli (itself recently split off from the northern part of Donggala Regency on 4 July 1959), Poso and Banggai , but on 22 July 1994 the City of Palu was separated from Donggala Regency to be constituted as a regency-level independent city. On 4 October 1999 three additional regencies were created - Morowali from part of Poso Regency, Buol from part of Buol Toli-Toli, and Banggai Islands from part of Banggai Regency. Five further regencies were later created - Parigi Moutong on 10 April 2002 from part of Donggala Regency, Tojo Una-Una on 18 December 2003 from part of Poso Regency, Sigi on 24 June 2008 from part of Donggala Regency, Banggai Sea on 14 December 2012 from part of Banggai Islands Regency, and North Morowali on 12 April 2013 from part of Morowali Regency. Central Sulawesi

3900-527: Was located 77 km (48 mi) away from the provincial capital Palu and was felt as far away as Samarinda on East Kalimantan and also in Tawau , Malaysia. The 6.1 magnitude foreshock occurred at 15:00 local time while the 7.5 magnitude earthquake on the evening caused severe destruction in Palu city, Donggala Regency and Sigi Regency, destroying hundreds of structures. At least 2,256 people are confirmed dead after

3965-583: Was not until 1888 that locals of the region began to establish relations with the government in Batavia through a short agreement signed by kings and local authorities, as an anticipatory measure against the possibility of the spread of British political and economic influence in the region. During this period, Central Sulawesi was under the jurisdiction of Gorontalo Afdeling, based in Gorontalo . G. W. W. C. Baron van Höevell, Gorontalo Resident Assistant, worried that

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4030-508: Was put forward by Alfred Wallace , a British researcher who helped find the theory of evolution with Charles Darwin . Sulawesi has its own flora and fauna. The island's unique animals are buffalo-like anoa , babirusa which are slightly hairy and have fangs in their mouths, tertiary, Tonkean monkeys , colorful Sulawesi marsupial cuscus which are varieties of marsupials and maleo birds that lay eggs on hot sand. Sulawesi's forest also has its own characteristics, dominated by agatis wood which

4095-401: Was stationed in Poso. This step was continued in 1894, when the government appointed Eduard van Duyvenbode Varkevisser, as Controller or government official who would become a supervisor and regional leader in Poso. In 1905, parts of Poso Regency were involved in guerrilla rebellions against Dutch forces, as part of a coordinated Dutch military campaign to annex entire Sulawesi mainland. One of

4160-478: Was the Indonesian National Party (PNI) whose branch was established in Buol in 1928. Other organizations opened branches in Central Sulawesi are Muhammadiyah and Islamic Association Party of Indonesia . The resistance reached its peak on 25 January 1942. A group of resistance fighters led by I.D. Awuy captured government officials such as Controleur Toli-Toli De Hoof, Bestuur Assistant Resident Matata Daeng Masese, and Controleur Buol de Vries. On 1 February 1942,

4225-424: Was thus made in 2001. However, riots erupted again in September 2006 on the Christian dominated areas of Central Sulawesi, after the execution by firing squad of three Roman Catholics convicted of leading Christian militants during the violence of the early first decade of the 21st century. The riots appeared to be aimed at government authorities, not Muslims. In 2010, Abu Wardah , also known as Santoso, declared

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